Category: History

Introduction

Telescope is an instrument used to observe minute objects. It has the capability of collecting and analyzing radiations from objects that are at a distance. It has an electromagnetic spectrum that helps to magnify the size of an image when taking a photograph.

Information is also collected/ gathered through image sensor. There are various types of telescopes that are operational but the most common one is called optical telescope (Dupre 2008, p. 250).

This category of telescope has mirrors / lens that are used to magnify objects that are at distance or help to increase the brightness of objects that are faint.

Furthermore, optical telescopes are classified under three categories. One of them is called refractors. This kind of telescopes use lenses to magnify objects also called dioptics.

The second is called reflectors and use mirrors for magnification also called catoptrics. The third category is known as catadioptric. This uses both mirrors and lenses to magnify objects.

Background information

The history of telescope dates back from 1608 when the first refracting optical telescope was invented. The telescope recorded for the first time in Netherlands. The invention is credited to Lippershey Hans and Janseen Zacharias in Middelburg, who used to make spectacles.

Another important contributor who was also a manufacturer of instruments as well as optician was Metius Jacob came from Alkmaar. Later on, Galileo improved these inventions. He was later accredited as the first person to use his telescope in astronomy. In his telescope, he adopted the designs that were used by Hans.

Hans design had used a concave eye lens and convex objective lens, which he adopted. His new telescope therefore was an improvement to that of Hans and it was popularly known as the Galilean telescope. This was not to be end of the journey in terms of improvement of the telescope.

Kepler Johannes came with a proposal that sort to improve on the Galileo telescope. His new design was to be made using convex eyepiece. The telescope was also named after the founder  Keplerian telescope.

The invention of achromatic during 18^th century brought about great development as refractors were used in the telescopes (Consolmagno & Dun 1989).

This kind of telescope solved the problem of chromatic aberration that was witnessed in the Keplerian telescopes. The new telescopes had the potential of functioning in shorter instruments that had large objectives.

However, this was not to be the end of the road as new ideas cropped up among scientists. Important figures such as Giovanin Sagredo, Isaac Newton and James Gregory worked on various studies to improve on the telescopes.

Improvements in reflecting telescopes saw the parabolic mirror improved in 18^th century, and then silver-coated glass mirrors were adopted in 19^th century. The invention reached its peak in 20^th century when the mirrors were coated with aluminum that could last long.

By the middle of 20^th century, cataddioptric telescopes were invented, which provided satisfactory services. One of the popular models of this kind of telescope is Schmidt camera. This camera used both mirrors and lens to magnify objects that are at distance and to make faint objects appear brighter (Mark, Maureen & Ahmed 2001).

It could also be used in imaging without using spherical aberration. By late 20^th century, more sophisticated/advanced telescopes such as space telescope and adaptive optics had been invented to be used by an astronologist in viewing distance objects and carrying out their researches.

Currently, more sophisticated and advanced telescopes are being invented that provide fine imaging. The history of telescope is therefore very long. Development of these instruments has faced a lot of challenges but scientists are succeeding in their inventions.

Development of telescope to the largest

The advancement /development of the telescope has kept on improving as the years went on. From the Catadioptric telescopes, which operated at between 300nm-1100nm, came infrared, radio and millimeter wave, x-rays, ultraviolet and gamma rays that were used in larger areas due to their advanced capability.

Infrared telescopes operate at a wider range. They are used in examining emissions that come from the gas clouds. When they are used, they are usually located in areas of high altitude because water vapor in the atmosphere absorbs some of the radiations that are transmitted.

This kind of telescope was used by the NASA in 1983. It was able to survey the sky opening new avenues for the astronomers on various issues in the sky leading to discoveries.

The infrared telescopes were further improved leading to invention of other new kinds of infrared telescopes like infrared optimized telescope. This telescope has a diameter of 8m facility and was used at Mauna Kea in the city of Hawaii (Coward 2001, p. 1922).

Radio astronomy is yet another kind of telescope that was invented during the World War II. This telescope has the capability of examining radio emissions that are coming from the sky.

Radio telescopes, which were developed in early 20^th century, were simple compared to the current ones. Their antenna was made from wires. The dish was introduced in 1950 and gained popularity as most astronomers used it in their studies.

Large telescope were built in the mid-20^th century during the Second World War. Their development can be summarized into six major categories since the Second World War.

The latest largest telescope was called the Hale telescopes. Its core founder was Geoffrey Hale who succumbed to death in 1938. The telescope was completed under the management and direction of Max Mason, who was the president of Rockefeller foundation and died in 1961(Antoni 2011, P. 34).

Under the diminishing returns/ new tools, was oschin Schmidt telescope. This was also large and during that time, the telescope could not be made larger any more because of some limitations: thermal stability required thinner and small mirrors, the atmospheric pressure had some problems and fabricating big mirror was a challenge.

The third category was the MMT and Keck telescopes. These telescopes solved/addressed the problems that were experienced in the diminishing returns era. An example of such telescope was Mount Hopkins multiple mirror telescope (Gehrz 2010, P. 1004).

The fourth generation was adaptive optics and modern optical interfrometry, which were very thin with a size of around 20 centimeters in thickness. The fifth generation was called very large telescope/ large binocular telescope. They had four telescopes that could function separately.

They have a unitary mirror measuring 8.2 meters in its diameter (Ali, Eftekhar, Adibi & Farid 2012, p. 46). Other new telescopes include US overwhelmingly large telescope OWL. They were extra larger and were found not to function properly.

The telescopes have revolutionized and the modern telescopes are known as computer revolution. These kinds of telescopes are installed with electrical systems that help in production of digital data instead of the usual photographic images. The adaptive mirror and the alt azimuth mountings function as control system.

Examples of these telescopes include Telescope, Technologies Ltd, vista telescope and Sloan digital sky survey SDSS. These telescopes have a wider diameter compared to other versions (Huiyun, Zhenhai & Jinbao 2012, p. 25).

Since the early 20^th century, many more innovations and developments have been invented. Advanced telescopes that were applicable to different situations became a reality. They also could be used to view very wide distances into the sky compared to the earlier ones.

Plans for the future

As time goes by and technology advances, various institutions dealing with research are also working hard to ensure that they develop telescopes that will be used in future to assist in their studies. As time elapses, the environmental changes require change of telescopes that will be able to provide sufficient information or discovery for planning.

Therefore, to ensure that the future is well guaranteed, various research organizations have teamed up to develop advanced telescopes for the same purpose (Tucker & Tucker 1986).

For instance, Aryabhatta Research Institute of Observational Science [ARIES], a research institute functioning under the department of science and technology together with the India government have teamed up to develop an optical telescope 1.3 m and 3.6 m at the Devasthal in Nainital.

Other institutes that are also contributing to the development of a 3.6 m telescope include Bangalore, Tata institute of fundamental to research and India institute of Astrophysics (Sagar 2011, p. 1020). They are working from Mumbai.

Belgium and Russia are also participating in the project under the bilateral arrangements that require cooperation in issues to do with science and technology in India.

Plans are also underway to set up two more survey telescope that are meant for specific purposes. One of the telescopes is 0.5-m wide field, which is equivalent to 25 square degrees. This telescope is called Schmidt and is being carried out at the Manora peak.

The telescope is being designed behind the scenes. A baker Numm satellite, which is a tracking camera, is the telescope that is being changed or converted to the Schmidt telescope. The second telescope is called liquid mirror telescope and has 4-m. it is planed to be set at Devasthal (Sagar 2011, p. 1020).

The new and modern telescope 3.6 m that is expected to be set is designed to provide high spectral resolution. Therefore, this telescope will have the capability of seeing limited images that are not visible and those that are near infrared.

Furthermore, the telescope is expected to be used in follow up studies of some of the issues/sources that were identified in the sky using radio region such as UV/X ray (Sagar 2011, p. 1020).

New technologies used to meet the need of large increasing telescopes

The larger telescopes are very heavy and therefore require invention of new technologies that are able to support them. For instance, some of the telescopes are made using trusses as opposed to tubes. The idea behind this is to ensure that the telescopes are well supported even during windy climate.

Tubes cannot support the weight of the telescopes because they are weak and vulnerable to wind. Therefore, many of the large professional telescopes are trusses. Some of the larger telescopes are made using carbon tubes. These are athermalized compared to truss telescopes.

This therefore makes them have high stability because they are not 100 percent made out of aluminum. They are further protected from the strays of light, which are useful in imaging during the way.

Extra larger telescopes are designed with special infrastructure that supports them. Most of the big telescopes are placed on a special designed surface for their support.

Others are built in-house and afterwards taken to strategic positions that are well prepared to support them while they are being used by the researchers to carry out their investigations.

Therefore, as the telescopes development has advanced, appropriate technologies are improvised to ensure that they are well taken care of to ensure that the purpose for which they were invented is achieved.

Conclusion

It is apparent from the discussion that the history of telescope has come from far. The journey was cozy and full of challenges. However, with the determination and dedication of researchers, they have managed to develop and come up with innovations that have proved successful.

Even though more large and sophisticated telescopes have been invented, the quest is still on and researchers are carrying their studies on how they can improve these instruments.

The future is unknown but scientists are putting in more efforts to come up with more advanced telescopes that can be counted on in terms of discovering new things in the sky.

List of References

Ali, H, Eftekhar, A, Adibi, A, & Farid, A. 2011. A Kalman filter based synchronization scheme for telescope array receivers in deep-space optical communication links, In Optics Communications, vol. 4 no. 4, pp. 5-62.

Antoni, R 2011, Review: Progress in focal plane array technologies, In Progress in Quantum Electronics, vol. 5 no. 3, pp. 34-50.

Consolmagno, G & Dun, M 1989, Turn Left at Orion, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

Coward, D 2011, The Zadko telescope: A resource for science education enrichment, In Advances in Space Research, vol. 47 no. 11, pp. 1922-1930.

Dupre, S 2008, Renaissance Vision from Spectacles to Telescopes, Renaissance Quarterly, vol. 61 no. 1, pp. 250-252.

Gehrz, R 2010, Status of the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA), In Advances in Space Research, vol. 48 no. 6, pp. 1004-1016.

Huiyun, W, Zhenhai, S, & Jinbao, C. 2012. Optimizations, In Optics and Laser Technology, vol. 2 no. 2, pp. 25-30.

Mark, H, Maureen, S, & Ahmed, Y. 2001. Encyclopedia of Space Science & Technology, John Wiley & Sons, New York.

Sagar, R 2011, The new 130-cm optical telescope at Devasthal, Nainital, Current Science (00113891), vol. 101 no. 8, pp. 1020-1023.

Tucker, W & Tucker, K 1986, The Cosmic Inquirers, Harvard University Press, Cambridge.

Introduction

Any object that exists in this world is composed of atoms. Timber, water, air, metals and anything else that exists in this world is thus made up of atoms. Atoms are the basic or the fundamental building blocks of all items. Scientifically, all objects existing in this world are referred to as matter. Therefore, atoms are defined as the basic building blocks of matter (Wong 1). From the definition, it is apparent that atoms cannot be divided into smaller particles since they are the basic particles. This property of atoms was the motivation behind their name because the word atom is a Greek word meaning indivisible. At this point, it is important to note that breaking of an atom will result in a change in the chemical composition of the atom. A number of atomic applications use this idea to make use of atoms. This paper explains what atoms are, investigates the history of atoms, looks into the intricate details about the structure of the atom, and it also gives the areas that atomic knowledge has been applied.

History of atoms

The history of atomic study gives an insight of how philosophers come up with useful ideal. The model of the atom does not give an absolute atomic understanding, but it gives an abstract methodology that has been used to make useful scientific predictions and explanations (Walker 1). The father of atomic knowledge is a Greek philosopher named Democritus who developed the atom from the idea that breaking of a piece of matter to form two pieces and repeating the same severally must end at a point when the matter cannot break any further. He explained that at this point, one would have the basic particle of matter, which he named the atom. However, his ideas were dismissed by influential philosophers like Aristotle and thus they were not advanced for many years. This happened around 460 years BC. During the 1800s John Dalton from England showed that matter was indeed made up of lumpy fundamental particles (Fowler 1). J.J. Thompson was the first scholar to come up with a model of the atom after discovering the electron. He discovered that the electron was negatively charged and thus he suggested that the atom has a positive charge. Thompsons atomic model was conceived in the year 1897. Three years later, another physicist, a German professor named Planck, showed that atomic vibrations produced measurable energy. In the year 1905, a physicist named Albert Einstein showed that absorption of light by atoms is able to release electrons from atoms, by a process known as photoelectric effect. His photoelectric invention earned him a Nobel Prize for physics in 1921 (Walker 1). In the year 1911, Earnest Rutherford discovered the proton, the particles that make up the nucleus and most of the mass of an atom. In the year 1912, Bohr, a Danish physicist came up with the atomic theory that explains some of the unclear issues surrounding the Rutherford atomic model. One of those issues is why the electrons do not collapse into the nucleus, which Bohr explained by saying that electrons orbit the nucleus of the atom in energy levels.

As you can see, the history of the atom is long. A number of other scholars made great contributions to the idea of the atom. The names mentioned in the above paragraph were the earliest scholars and philosophers who made contributions towards the idea of the atom. Other people who made commendable contributions to the idea of the atom in the later years are Arnold Sommerfeld, Wolfgang Pauli, Louis de Broglie, Erwin Schrodinger, Max Born, Werner Heisenberg, Paul Dirac, Carl Anderson, Hideki Yukawa, Cecil Powell, Richard Feynman, Julian Shwinger, Sin-Itiro, Murray Gell-Mann, Yuval Neman (Fowler 1).

Structure of atoms

Atoms are composed of three particles with different properties. These are the protons, the electrons, and the protons. As mentioned earlier, electrons are negatively charged particles that are very light and contribute the least to the atomic mass. Protons are heavy and contribute to a large proportion of atomic mass. Unlike the electrons, the protons have a positive charge. The third type of particles; the neutrons are heavy and contribute a large proportion of atomic weight. As their name suggests, the neutrons have no electric charge and thus they are neutral. Each atom is composed of these particles, which are arranged in a given combination (Gagnon 1). For instance, a hydrogen atom, perhaps the lightest atom, is composed of two particles: one electron and one proton. The structure of the aforementioned atom is thus as shown below:

It is important to note that atoms are very small. A hydrogen atom, illustrated above, has an approximate diameter of 5 x 10 ^-8 millimeters (Carpi 1). Protons and neutrons are similar in most of their properties. They both behave like miniature billiard balls. On the other hand, electrons have the characteristics of waves. The atomic structure can therefore, be depicted as a nucleus, which is positively charged and surrounded by a negatively charged wave. The diagram above would, therefore, be more accurate if the electron is shown as a cloud surrounding the protons. It is also important to note that the atoms of other elements (substances) may have many protons, neutrons and electrons, although the configuration of the particles in the atom is similar for all atoms. With this fact, one may wonder why the nuclei of atoms with multiple protons do not disintegrate. The reason the nucleus does not disintegrate is that every nucleus with more than one proton has an equal number of neutrons that hold the neutrons together (Carpi 1). The latter serve this purpose because the protons are supposed to repel by the laws of electromagnetism. Additionally, electronically neutral atoms have the same number of electrons and protons, which have opposite electromagnetic charges.

Atoms that have a large number of sub-atomic particles (neutrons, electrons, and protons) are larger than their counterparts that have fewer sub-atomic particles. This is the reason why the hydrogen atom was earlier on introduced as the lightest atom.

This discussion has so far highlighted the atomic structure of neutral atoms. It is however, possible to have atoms that have electrical charges. Since the positive charge of an atom cannot be changed, the acquisition of an electrical charge in an atom is only possible through the loss of acquisition of electrons. An atom that has gained an electron will have more electrons than protons and thus it will bear a negative charge. Similarly, an atom that has lost an electron will have more protons than electrons and thus it will have a positive electric charge. An atom that bears a charge is known as an ion (Carpi 1). The following diagrams illustrate two hydrogen ions:

H⁺: This hydrogen ion bears a positive charge.

H^: This hydrogen ion bears a negative charge.

Unlike the protons, the number of neutrons in the nucleus of a given atom can be changed. Two atoms that have different numbers of neutrons are known as isotopes. It is thus apparent that isotopes have different atomic masses. A hydrogen isotope known as deuterium is shown below.

Applications of the atom

Among the main applications of the invention of atoms is the generation of electricity that was possible due to atomic knowledge. Atomic knowledge has also been used by states to get military power through production of atomic bombs. Atom-related inventions like the photoelectric effect have had a variety of applications like their use in image sensors, photomultipliers, and spectroscopy (Freudenrich 1). Other physical properties like electromagnetism have been used in a number of applications and they have their root in the invention of the atom. The invention of the atom made scientists understand the properties of different elements. This has made scientists use different elements in different applications. For instance, radioactive materials, which were better understood because of the prior inventions about the properties of the atoms, are used to generate electricity. Other elements like gold, silver, and copper were better understood and their properties like being shiny and being non-reactive utilized well. Other inventions like the Cathode Ray Tube, which has been used to make various electronics like television sets, computer monitors, etc., have been possible due to the invention of the atom. From this discussion of the applications of the atom, it is apparent that the applications are as many as the various atom-related inventions that followed the invention of the atom.

Conclusion

The atom is among the scientific ideas that have attracted the most scientific research in the 19^th and 20^th century. Most of the inventions related to the atom were characterized with so much criticism that some of the inventors did not believe in them. For instance, the first inventor of the positron, an electron with a positive charge did not believe that his invention was true. Additionally, after the invention of the atom, a great and influential Greek philosopher  Aristotle  dismissed the invention, making the invention of the atom stay without advancement for centuries. The atom is also among the greatest scientific ideas ever invented in terms of its application. The invention of the atom led to other innumerable inventions that have greatly been applied to make life easier for human beings. The atom is, perhaps, the greatest invention of all times.

From the discussion above, it is apparent that the atom is composed of three sub-atomic particles: the neutrons, the electrons, and the protons. The hydrogen atom is the lightest and the most basic atom consisting of one proton and one electron. This property has made hydrogen to be popular among scholars who use it in their experiments. It is especially used in experiments that investigate atomic properties.

One atomic property that has made the atom to be of great use to scientists and humans as a whole is the ability to change the structure of atoms by creating ions and isotopes. An ion has been defined in this discussion as an atom with a positive charge while an isotope is negatively charged.

Works Cited

Carpi, Anthony. Atomic Structure. 1999. Web.

Fowler, Michael. Evolution of the Atomic Concept and the Beginnings of Modern Chemistry. 2008. Web.

Freudenrich, Craig. How Atoms Work. 2011. Web.

Gagnon, Steve. What are atoms. 2011. Web.

Walker, Jim. Atoms (A short history of the knowledge of the atom). 2004. Web.

Wong, Ling. Structure of the atom. 2010. Web.

Introduction

The origins of modern astronomy go back to ancient times, to the 3rd and 2nd millennia before Christ. This period of history was connected with complex cultures that developed in Egypt and Babylon. The main problem is that this knowledge is fragmentary because only a few writings survive from this period. The next period was connected with discoveries and world order developed by Plato and Aristotle. Aristotle (384322 BC) rightly points out that the shadow of the Earth cast on the Moon during an eclipse is invariably circular, and that only if the Earth is a sphere can this be the case. Not only did the Greeks know the shape of the Earth, but Eratosthenes arrived at an excellent estimate of the Earths actual size.

Ever since then, everyone has known that the Earth is spherical. So, it was the sky. The classic Greek model of the universe: was a spherical Earth at the center of a spherical cosmos. At the very center was the sphere of Earth; around it, the shell of water, then the shell of air, and finally the shell of fire. Bodies were made of these elements in varying proportions. Plato described his ideas in Timaeus stating that humans lived in a cosmos governed by the law.

Main Body

The next step was made by Eudoxus who formulated for each planet a concept of either three or four concentric spheres, which he used in a mathematical demonstration that the planets movements were law-like after all. He supposed that each planet is set on the equator of the innermost sphere, which rotated with uniform speed, carrying the planet with it. The poles of this sphere were thought of as embedded in the next sphere and carried round by it as it too uniformly rotated, and so on for the third and the fourth. The angle of the axis of each sphere was carefully chosen, as was its speed of rotation, with the outermost sphere in each case generating the daily path of the planet around the Earth.

For each of the five lesser planets, two of the spheres rotated with equal and opposite speeds about axes that differed only slightly. Aristotle has exercised a quite different limitation: the spheres of the models were constructions in the minds of mathematicians and did not explain in physical terms how the planets come to move as we observe them do. His solution was to convert the mathematical spheres into physical reality and to combine them to make one composite nest for the entire system.

The great contribution was made by Apollonius of Perge and Hipparchus of Nicea. They created complex models of the universe based on eccentric circles. Apollonius of Perga developed two geometrical tools that supplied this flexibility. In one, the planet moved uniformly on a circle, but the circle was now eccentric to the Earth. As a result, the planet would appear to move faster when its path brought it nearer the Earth, and slower when it was away on the far side of its orbit.

In the other, the planet was located on a little circle, or epicycle, whose center was carried around the Earth on a different circle. It was through Hipparchus that the geometrical astronomy of the Greeks began to incorporate precise parameters derived from the long centuries during which the Babylonians had kept their observational records. Hipparchus compiled a list of lunar eclipses observed at Babylon from the 8th century BC, and these records were crucial to his study of the motions of the Sun and Moon, for it is during an eclipse that these two bodies are exactly in line with the Earth.

Hipparchuss single most important discovery was that of the precession of the equinoxes, the slow movement among the stars of the two opposite places where the Sun crosses the celestial equator. Also, great discoveries were made by Aristarchus of Samos proposed a heliocentric model of the universe, and Eratosthenes who estimated the Earths actual size.

The period between Hipparchus and Ptolemy is considered a dark age for astronomy. The greatest world by Ptolemy, the Almagest, provided geometrical models and related tables by which the movements of the Sun, Moon and the five lesser planets could be calculated for the indefinite future. Its catalog contains over 1,000 fixed stars arranged in 48 constellations, giving the longitude, latitude, and apparent brightness of each. In a planetary model, the equant was the point symmetrically opposite the eccentric Earth, and the planet was required to move on its circle so that from the equant point it would appear to be moving uniformly across the sky.

In the 13th century, an anonymous author made good some of the defects of the Sphere with his Theory of the Planets. This gave a simple account of the Ptolemaic models of the various planets, with clear definitions.

Meanwhile, at the court of King Alfonso X of Castile, the old Toledan Tables were replaced by the Alfonsine Tables; modern computer analysis has shown that these tables, which would be standard for the next 300 years, were calculated on Ptolemaic models with only the occasional updating of parameters. Oresme saw a significant implication of the concept of impetus. If the Earth were indeed rotating, the archer as he stood on its surface would be moving with it. As a result, as he prepared to fire the arrow, he would unknowingly confer on the arrow a sideways impetus. Endowed with this impetus, the arrow in flight would travel horizontally as well as vertically, keeping pace with the Earth, and so would fall to the ground at the very place from which it had been fired.

The next stage of scientific development was connected with Nicolaus Copernicus (14731543) and new scientific discoveries. Critics admit that many years passed, during which Copernicus developed his mathematical astronomy, remote from the intellectual centers of Europe. Copernicuss book, De Revolutionibus, was concerned with geometrical models of the planetary orbits. The Prutenic Tables of Erasmus Reinhold (151153) proved that the heliocentric approach could pass the practical test. Copernicus outlined the consequences that follow from the basic assumption that the Earth is an ordinary planet orbiting the Sun.

The heliocentric universe was a true cosmos: In the center of all resides the Sun. For in this most beautiful temple, who would place this lamp in another or better place than that from which it can illuminate the whole at one and the same time? As a matter of fact, not inappropriately do some call it the lantern of the universe; others, its mind; and others still, its ruler. These discoveries were made and proved by other scientists including Galileo Galilei.

Conclusion

It is possible to say that it was difficult to overturn the geocentric model because scientists had not had a possibility to prove their observations and investigate outer space. Most of their discoveries were hypothetically proved by mathematical and geometric formulas and estimates. The development of a telescope of 8 magnification opened new possibilities for scientists to discover the universe. Until the invention of the telescope, each generation of astronomers had looked at much the same sky as their predecessors. If they knew more, it was chiefly because they had more books to read, more records to mine.

In contrast, Galileo saw with his telescope wonders vouchsafed to no one before him: stars that had remained hidden from sight, four moons that orbited the planet Jupiter, strange appendages to Saturn that would be recognized as rings only half a century later, moon-like phases of Venus, mountains on the Moon not very different from those on Earth, even spots on the supposedly perfect Sun. He was able to confirm the suggestion of Aristotle that the Milky Way is composed of myriads of tiny stars. So, scientific revolution opened new possibilities for scientists to resolve the physical objections.

Bibliography

Couper, H., N. Henbest, Clarke, A.C. The History of Astronomy. Firefly Books, 2007.

Heilbrin, J. L. The Oxford Guide to the History of Physics and Astronomy. Oxford University Press, USA, 2005.

Evans, J. The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy. Oxford University Press, USA, 1998.

Pannekoek, A. A History of Astronomy. Dover Publications; New Ed edition, 1989.

People have always needed guidance and spiritual support. This is especially true during the periods of significant changes in the society. It is also important to note that different societies may respond differently to different types of preaching. Revival preaching best addresses Americans needs. This type or preaching appeared within the Protestant doctrine in the middle of the 18^th century (Dixon 224).

Prior to this period, preaching was quite different from the one used in the contemporary USA. Preachers tried to emphasize the hierarchy that existed in the society and among the clergy. Clearly, people responded in a specific way to such preaching. Revivalists changed the paradigm, which also affected the way the nation developed (Carrigan 590). Before looking into the way revival preaching influences the society, it is necessary to identify its major peculiarities.

Revival preaching is characterized by the promotion of such values as equality, empathy, and commitment. One of the major peculiarities of the revivalist approach was the focus on equality. The preacher was speaking the language of his people and tried to remove any barriers that could appear between them (Stout 93). The preacher managed to make all those who listen to hear and understand the message. Preachers were not seen as intellectuals who focused on particular groups of people when preaching. They were regarded as equals who inspired. Revivalists tried to appeal to the masses, not individuals or groups.

Another peculiarity is the creation of the sense of unity. The roots of revival preaching can be found in Peters sermon in the New Testament as portrayed in 1 Corinthians 14 peoples assemblies also display a sense of the immediacy of the Spirits speech (Wright 22). Thus, the preacher and the congregation were united by the Spirit that spoke to and from each participants heart. Revivalists tried to make each listener involved.

Martin Luther King can be regarded as one of the brightest examples of a revivalist preacher. He used the language Americans, irrespective of the color of their skin, understood. It is noteworthy that he used his heritage to make his sermons stronger (Spillers 468). Martin Luther King used the language rich in metaphors and allegories that were clear to his listener (Watson 5). He encouraged them to think, feel and empathize. He inspired the masses.

It is necessary to note that revival type of preaching became popular in the USA due to the values promulgated. Revival preaching promoted democratic values. Revivalists made people feel that they were all equal in all respects. They felt they were free and capable of many beautiful and important things. Revivalist preachers managed to develop the spirit of liberty that could be regarded as the backbone of democracy (qtd. in Stout 102). As has been mentioned above, preachers created the sense of unity and people felt they pertained to the community of empowered individuals.

These characteristic features enabled the revival types of preaching to have a considerable effect on the development of the USA. It is noteworthy that the new preaching type appeared when the nation was about to change immensely. The revolutionary ideas were in the air and Americans needed the change. However, the people were not united due to their different cultural, ethnic and political backgrounds. The people living in the 18^th century America were very different from the nation famous for its significant integrity and unity. Revival preachers managed to unite Americans and help them create a strong nation of empowered individuals.

The revival preaching was the force that helped people understand what they really needed. As has been mentioned above, the second part of the 18^th century was filled with revolutionary ideas, but many failed to articulate them (Dixon 224).

Revivalist preachers explained major concerns that became tangible. In other words, people clearly acknowledged what had to be changed. Besides, revivalists managed to bring people together and show that they were united through the Spirit. Preachers managed to make people feel the need for change and the capacity to change. The clarity brought in preaching contributed to the development of the necessary ideas that resulted in the American Revolution and the creation of the nation. The democratic society was based on the revival principles.

The revival type of preaching also partially accounted for the slavery abolishment. Revivalists drew peoples attention to the central Christian values. More importantly, they addressed to the masses and developed the sense of unity and integrity. Slaves, former slaves, and free Americans felt a part of the community where people were equal. More and more Americans saw the hypocrisy of their democracy.

Revivalist preachers managed to articulate the need for true equality in the society that promulgated democratic values. They found words and symbols that were clear to all the Americans. Again, people started feeling empowered to change the norms accepted in the society. Thus, it is possible to note that revival preaching prepared the necessary ground for the development and promulgation of abolitionist ideas.

Another milestone in the history of the United States is also associated with the revival type of preaching. The Civil Rights Movement was inspired by revivalist principles articulated by preachers. Martin Luther King was one of the leading preachers who showed the way and millions of people followed. The preacher, as well as other leaders, called for true equality once again. They addressed the masses and found the right words to make people see the things to change and the paths to choose (Watson 5). Americans acknowledged that segregation was not in line with the democratic values established by their forefathers.

Again, one of the major aspects of influence was the development of the sense of integrity and empowerment. Americans (once again) felt they were capable of changing the society for better, and, eventually, the changes took place, and the nation continued its development.

In conclusion, it is possible to note that revival type of preaching is characterized by the focus on equality, integrity, and commitment. Revivalists address to masses using the language everyone will understand. Revival preaching has contributed greatly to the development of the American society. This type of preaching accounted for such major shifts in the history of the USA as the American Revolution, the slavery abolishment, and the Civil Rights movement.

It is necessary to add that it did not lose its weight in the contemporary society. Americans are facing various challenges that may even jeopardize the development of the country. However, revivalists are still able to bring Americans together even if people may have different views and backgrounds. The appeal to basic revival principles can help the USA continue its evolvement.

Works Cited

Carrigan, William. Religion. Readers Guide to American History. Ed. Peter J. Parish. Chicago: Routledge, 2013. 589-591. Print.

Dixon, C. Scott. Protestants: A History from Wittenberg to Pennsylvania 1517-1740. Malden: John Wiley & Sons, 2010. Print.

Spillers, Hortense J. Martin Luther King and the Secular Power of Religious Rhetoric. Religion in American History: A Reader. Ed. Jon Butler. New York: OUP USA, 1997. 468-486. Print.

Stout, Harry S. Religion, Communications, and the Ideological Origins of the American Revolution. Religion in American History: A Reader. Ed. Jon Butler. New York: OUP USA, 1997. 88-103. Print.

Watson, Maurice. The Preaching of Martin Luther King. Encounter: Journal for Pentecostal Ministry. 1.1 (2006):1-6. Web.

Wright, Stephen. Preaching in Worship Today. Preaching with Humanity: A Practical Guide for Todays Church. Ed. Geoffrey Stevenson and Stephen Wright. London: Church House Publishing, 2008. 12-29. Print.

Maps are an interesting aspect of human history. Since their inventing in the ancient world, people have used them as a source of both knowledge and power. Maps can be utilized in various aspects. Some people use them to know boundaries of land, geographical features and political boundaries. This can be classified as a sort of practical knowledge in order to know where to go and what to expect there. The essay of James Akerman relates to maps in this sense. In fact Akerman praises the American road map of the twentieth century to be one of the greatest inventions at the benefit of the public. This is certainly the case for the American road maps. These maps had a direct impact on the popular culture. In fact they changed popular culture by introducing a new concept of traveling. The map is organized around the roads, the highways, and not vice versa.

The central theme that attracts viewers attention is the highway(s) and everything in the map is organized around it. One can view the trip that he wants to pursue and find in the map all the necessary facilities to make it as easier and pleasurable as possible. The map clearly indicates all the gas stations during the trip so you will not be concerned about running out of gas, all the restaurants and bars so you can refresh yourself and any natural park or attraction alongside the road which you can visit. This is a very practical way of informing people and motivating them to take the trip instead of de-motivating them. These maps changed the psychology of traveling by road in American society. Now the trip is not just about getting from point A to point B but also of enjoying the road and taking advantage of all the facilities and natural beauties that can be found alongside the road.

Another aspect of maps is their relation to power. The knowledge of the existence of oil has made people to mine it and use its enormous returns to dominate the world. Oil is a very important resource to a country since it keeps the economy running by providing energy as well as fetching foreign exchange thus contributing directly to the countrys gross domestic product. Despite many countries being involved in the search for oil minerals, the product has been found to occur only at selected areas of the world. This paper identifies maps, knowledge and power, and their relation to oil and people in the context of Harley (1988) in the book Maps, knowledge, and power.

The oil and gas map of the world conveys a significant message to the reader. The circles that symbolize oil production of the world attract attention immediately toward the Arabian Peninsula. The overlapping circles demonstrate of the producing power of the region. In the other hand, the oil consumption circles demonstrate the predominance of North American (mainly US) market for oil consumption. Thus, the inevitable thought that comes to mind is the connection between the two regions, i.e. the biggest consumer with the biggest producer. Subsequently one can understand the focus of interest of the United States government in the region just by viewing the circles of this map. Compared to the previous map or American roads, this one is conveying not a practical knowledge to people but a political and economical message to businesses and governments.

Introduction

Strawberries are sweet supple red fruits with surfaces that are seed-studded. They come from a low-growing plant belonging to genus Fragaria of the rose (Rosaceae) family, enclosing white flowers, lobed foliage, and runners. They originate all through the north temperate zones.

They are the most famous and trendiest fruits in the planet (Roger). There are over 600 assortments of strawberries that vary in taste, size, and feel; all of which have similar trait; heart silhouette, red fleshy tissue with yellow seeds shooting the surface, petite, royal, leafy green lids, and stalk that embellish their crowns (WHFoods). Below is picture of the strawberry fruit.

Detailed history

The word strawberry is coined from strewn berries about the plants and thus the strewn berry finally turned into Strawberry (Roger). They are not actual fruits or berries but distended ends of the stamen of the plant. The seeds are on the external surface, rather than the internal berry. There are around 200 seeds for each berry. They are low in calories and are non-fat, loaded with vitamin c, folic acid, fiber, vitamin B6 and potassium (Roger).

Over the years they have been utilized as medications for ailments like, stained teeth, sunburns, gouts and digestion (Hopley, 9). Strawberries were served up at medieval state occasions as a show of peace, wealth, and excellence. The most well-known communal intake of strawberries is at Wimbledon annually, when strawberries and cream are eaten by very well attired Englishmen in the middle of tennis games (Hopley, 9).

It is also popular knowledge that they were well adored by Russian empresses. American- Indians supposedly made-up Strawberry shortcake, smashing berries in food to prepare bread the colonists took pleasure in; they probably used wild berries because strawberries were first planted and cultivated in America in 1835 (Hopley, 9).

Origin

The origin of strawberries dates back to more than 2200 years ago. Initially they grew wild in Italy around 234 B.C where they were invented by the original Europeans in Virginia when their vessels grounded there in 1588 (Hopley, 9).

Early on, settlers in Massachusetts derived a lot of pleasure in consuming strawberries produced by local American Indians who grew strawberries as back as 1643. The period following 1860 saw strawberries being extensively cultivated in numerous parts of the nation. The Hoveg type was first introduced in Massachusetts in 1834 from France.

The Fraser kinfolk in Scotland coined its name from French migrants named Strawberry (Fraise) who accompanied William the Conqueror in 1066.There are allusions to the fruit as early as ancient Rome. Strawberries have been cultivated in 1900s. Currently, more than 25,000 acres are grown yearly in California which generates more than 80% of all strawberries in the United States (Hopley 9).

Averagely, 21 tons are produced on every acre with a total of 1 billion pounds of strawberries annually. The name grew from the Anglo-Saxon verb to strew (spread) and it was later called streabergen, straberry, streberie, straibery, straubery, and lastly, STRAWBERRY to the English (Hopley 9).

Various uses of strawberries

Strawberries have numerous uses. One of the most famous uses of strawberries is being used as recipe or an ingredient in preparation of drinks, meals or snacks. Strawberries are used as ingredients in many types of foods like cakes, yoghurts, desserts, salads, juices, meals and chocolates (Lyons, 92).

They are used as part of the food or snack as well as giving that special flavor. Due to their sweet nature and nutritional content they can almost be used in any type of food. When buying strawberries, one should select the fresh ones since they are highly perishable (WHFoods).

Another wide use and well accepted importance of strawberries is their numerous health benefits. One of them is that they are proficient in high levels of anti-oxidants and phytonutrients. They therefore destroy free radicals that could be responsible for diseases like cancer. They are very healthy fruits highly enriched with vitamin C as well being a good supply of folic acid and high fiber (Lyons, 92). They also provide vitamin k, vitamin 5, riboflavin, copper, magnesium and omega-3 fatty acids.

They arrest the savor of sunlight whether they are as tiny as unshelled almonds or as large as goose eggs (Lyons, 93). Due to this nature, they are used as medication for various ailments. Apart from the fruit, its leaves and roots are also used as medicine especially in the ancient Rome. Strawberries are also very beneficial in beauty therapies (Lyons, 102).

Strawberries as an ingredient

Strawberries are famous for being part of good flavors in ice creams, cakes, yoghurts, desserts, juices. For instance strawberries are widely used by the Italians to prepare granita which is an iced up fruit preparation. The ice is refreshing and can be prepared on a day before (Good Housekeeping, 197). The pictures below show how the strawberries can be used as an ingredient in different food products.

Strawberries are popularly used as ingredients in cakes. These cakes include strawberry and white chocolate mousse cakes, strawberry cheesecake as shown above (GoodFood). They are also used to prepare pink strawberry cheesecake, rhubarb and strawberry crumble with custard, strawberry and vanilla cream sponge, strawberry poplova, strawberry marshmallow mousse, strawberry and passion fruit meringue roulade as well as strawberry and vanilla shortcakes among many others (GoodFood).

Strawberries are also used as ingredients in strawberry tiramisu which substitutes the coffee flavor for tasty and colorful strawberry effect. One is required to have 3 cups of strawberries that are hulled and sliced. They are then mixed with 4 eggs, sugar, 8 ounces of mascarpone cheese and 30 to 40 sponge cookies or ladyfingers for a smooth, Italian twist (Good Housekeeping, 197).

Strawberries are used to make the famous and delicious chocolate-dipped strawberries from chocolate melted butter. This requires 6 whole, unhulled cups of strawberries that are clean and completely dried up. Then they are mixed with other ingredients which are; semisweet chocolate chips, butter and sliced nuts if necessary. It is then refrigerated to ensure that the coating is solid (Roger).

Apart from the strawberry fruits, one can extract the juice to give a multipurpose strawberry extract for various brands (WHFoods). The extract can be utilized in various foods and drinks to add flavor and the pink coloring. For instance it can be used in desserts to make a strawberry cheesecake or flavored cake, fruit pies like banana or lemon pies. It can also be used to flavor muffins, bread, cookies or meringues to sweeten the original recipe (Roger).

One can also add it to strawberry pie to enhance flavor. The extract can also be used as toppings for tum whipped cream, white frosting and vanilla icing with pancake syrup to give the breakfast a new face. It can be used in a pie to coat strawberries or over a cheesecake (Pulfer).

Strawberry extract can be used in drinks and meals to craft a strawberry essence even in coffee or tea to create a flavor. It can be added to a fruit juice or smoothie for a strawberry blend or flavor.

It can also be added to water or alcoholic drinks to make daiquiris or margaritas. Strawberry extracts can form a part of ingredient in sauces to season a meal, for instance over chicken or two sides for tasty meal like lamb in the company of strawberry couscous (Lyons, 101).

Healing potential of strawberries

Strawberries are highly nutritional with various vitamins, minerals, fiber and antioxidants. They are also low fat hence medically beneficial to diabetics.

They also ensure a healthy immune system due to the vital vitamins and thus appropriate for people with low immunity (WHFoods). Another benefit arises from it blood sugar regulation ability where it can reduce excess or unwanted sugar in the blood (WHFoods).

A number of current studies have established regular eating of strawberries to be connected with reduced possibility of type 2 diabetes (WHFoods). Considerable benefits were only recorded after frequent consumption gets to at least 2-3 strawberry portions weekly (Lyons, 98).

Strawberries are graded top in health-promoting antioxidants. Antioxidants aids fight the destructive effects of free radical action to cellular structures and DNA (WHFoods). To achieve this effect, fruits should be eaten raw when there nutritional value and digestion-aiding enzymes are high (Corbett).

They give an exceptional assortment of phytonutrients, including anthocyanins, flavonols, and hydroxybenzoic and hydroxycinnamic acids among others. Strawberries have anti-cancer benefits because of high anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory substance that augment oxygen metabolism (Corbett). They lower risk in various cancers like breast, cervical, esophageal and colon cancer Corbett).

Nearly all of the tumor-inhibiting researches on animals have paid attention on the phytonutrient like ellagic acid and ellagitannis properties of strawberries (WHFoods). Many phytonutrients in strawberry have surfaced as anti-cancer substances of unique importance (Corbett).

Beliefs

It is believed that if two people of the opposite sex split a twofold strawberry in half and share they fall in love with each other. It represents a sign for Venus, the Goddess of Love, due its color and shape (Roger).

Works Cited

Corbett, Doreen. Strawberries fight cancer, study shows. Wall street journal. 257.80 (2011). Print.

Good Food. Recipes for strawberry. 2011. Web.

Good Housekeeping. Strawberries. 252. 5. 2011: 197-197. Print.

Hopley, Claire. Strawberries. British Heritage 21. 4. 2000. p9. Print.

Lyons, Charlotte. Strawberry Delights. Ebony 52. 8. 1997. 96-102. Print.

Pulfer, Rachel. The Last Ingredient. Canadian Business 81.17. 2008. Print.

Roger, Doiron. Savoring strawberries. Mother Earth News 234. 2009. Print.

University of Illinois extension. History & lore, strawberries & more. 2011. Web.

WHFoods. Strawberries, whats New and Beneficial about Strawberries. 2011. Web.

Zestycook. 10 Great Uses for Strawberries by zesty. 2009. Web.

One can find the origins of the Islamic faith in the Arabian Peninsula. There, the local polytheist population conducted cross-continental trade, notably in Mecca, a center of commerce and a spiritual destination even pre-Islam (Brooks, 2019). In the sixth century CE, a prophet named Muhammad informed Meccas people that he had received Gods message: there is the one true God who is to be worshipped exclusively (Brooks, 2019). Islamic faith was based around Muhammads recitations of Gods will  the Koran (Brooks, 2019). Aside from the singular God and his prophet, Islam requires: praying daily facing Mecca, fasting during Ramadan, giving charity to the poor, and undertaking the Mecca pilgrimage (Brooks, 2019). These beliefs unite all Muslims into the Ummah community, struggling to abide by the Korans pillars; this struggle is known as Jihad (Brooks, 2019). The leaders hold dual political and spiritual authority governed by Sharia, an Islamic law based on Muhammads life and teachings (Brooks, 2019). Thus, the nature of Islam regulations throughout the Ummah is bifold.

Upon Muhammads passing, various conflicts arose around leadership inheritance. Believers formed two clashing fractions: Shiites, believing that only direct descendants should become Caliphs (leaders), and Sunnis, arguing that nobility and competence should suffice for appointment (Brooks, 2019). In the meantime, Muslim conquests expanded eastward to the Middle East and westward from the peninsula to North Africa and even Spain, establishing multiple caliphates (Brooks, 2019). While Arabic was instilled as a primary language, international land and marine trade were governed by integrated European systems (Brooks, 2019). Hence, Arab governance over this territory was not resolutely Muslim: rather, it incorporated practices of colonized nations.

The influence of Islam on Western history is undeniably significant. By the time European colonizers began their quests, the Muslim empire had spread across continents and Asia (Brooks, 2019). The Golden Age of Caliphates embraced scientific discovery, aiding the proliferation of general literacy, various natural sciences, medicine, banking, engineering, and philosophy (Awaluddin & Maznorbalia, 2019). Spain and Sicily became inter-religious and international hubs, allowing Muslims, Christians, and Jews to coexist (Awaluddin & Maznorbalia, 2019). Hence, much of this knowledge has dissipated throughout Europe during the conquest times; moreover, later in history, Europe relied heavily on importing numerous luxury products and other goods (Brooks, 2019). Overall, Caliphates superior trading and scholarship enabled it to contribute to forming European history substantially.

References

Awaluddin, M. A., & Maznorbalia, A. S. (2019). A suggestion that Europe is also Muslim: A study from historical and contemporary perspectives.Indonesian Journal of Islam and Muslim Societies, 9(1), 83.

Brooks, C. (2019). Chapter 14: Islam and the Caliphates. In Western civilization: A concise history (Vol. 1, pp. 229246). Portland Community College.

Phases of Astronomy

Until the present day, astronomy had its origin in antiquity, based on the study and observation of physical objects such as the moon and the sun. These were closely interlinked with mythology and religion. The Mesopotamian era catalogues stars, a time when a circle was first divided into 360 degree.

This was when Stonehenge observatory was first constructed in Southern England, followed by the period when the Indians constructed a big wheel to be used as a calendar, to the period when the carol temple was constructed as an observatory leading to the Greek period (Smith, 1999).

The Greek astronomy was influenced by the Egyptian and Babylonian astronomy that relied on astrology leading to the medieval western European view of astronomy and the renaissance period to the modern view of astronomy.

Important Astronomers

The astronomic wheel relied on important astronomers such as Plato who argued that the circle is the only perfect form, followed by Aristotle who proved that the earth was round contrary to the previous beliefs that the earth was flat, then Aristarchus who discovered that the earth rotated about its axis, to Eratosthenes who discovered the method for calculating the earths circumference, then Hipparchus who discovered stellar magnitudes, and Plotemy who came up with Almagest (Smith, 1999).

Ancient Greek Science

These included Copernicus who published his work in 1543 on retrograde motion the sun as the center around which planets revolved based on a mathematical model. This was followed by Tycho Brahe the inventor of geheliocentric system that provided accurate measurements of the positions of the planets. This was followed by Kepler. Smith (1999) argues that Kepler devised the three laws of motion.

These laws identified planetary motions to be elliptical with equal displacements of the line linking the sun and the planet taking place at equal time intervals and the relationship between the distances between the planets taking mathematical relationships of cubed distances. This was followed by Galileo who discovered the physical nature of heavenly bodies, the Milky Way, Jupiter, rotational sunspots, and the phases of Venus. This culminated to Sir Isaac Newtons three laws of motion.

Copernican Revolution

Based on a heliocentric model of the movement of heavenly bodies replacing the Ptolemaic model of the universe, where the universe was seen from the perspective the planets revolving round the sun in a sphere the birth of heliocentric cosmology. Mathematical calculations were basic tools in use.

Astronomy Today

This has blended principles of physics, quantum physics, and spectrometry in the study of heavenly bodies with new discoveries. In addition to that, satellites, spacecrafts, space observatories, and robots have been tools used in modern astronomy. Today the universe is idealized as being flat.

The Future of Astronomy

Based on current technology, physics, and astronomy more research may reveal new laws that govern the universe, the nature of solar systems and mans position and ability to conquer the universe.

Newtons Laws of Motion

According to the first law, a body can only change its direction of motion upon the action of an external impulsive force, while the second law stipulates that the rate of motion of a body is directly proportional to the applied force in the direction of the force and the third law clearly stipulate that actions and reactions are equal and opposite to each other.

Einsteins Law

The energy contained in the photons of a body is equivalent to the product of the frequency of light and Plancks constant that depends on the quantum energy in photons.

Einsteins General Theory of Relativity

The amount of energy in a body was directly proportional to its mass taking the square of the speed of light as a constant.

References

Smith, G. (1999). A Brief History of Astronomy. University of California, San Diego.

Center for Astrophysics & Space Sciences. Retrieved from https://cass.ucsd.edu/archive/public/tutorial/History.html

Latin America is a large geographic theory that includes 26 countries. They occupy part of North America and South America, having a diverse culture, traditions, and religions. The most common denominations are based on the historical past when these territories were Spanish and Portuguese colonies. Thus, the main part of the population of Latin America professes Catholicism, but there are other religions, albeit with a smaller amount.

The history of religion in Latin America is diverse, ranging from the paganism of the Indian tribes to modern Christianity. Before European colonizers came to Latin American lands, paganism was widespread among the population (Orique et al., 2020). Thus, the Aztec tribes had approximately a thousand deities, and moreover, rituals and sacrifices were widespread. The gods of the elements, life, and death, heaven, and hell, creators and healers, stood out. Temple buildings were built in the cities, in which various ceremonies and rituals were held. Among the Incas, the main deity was the Sun, as a symbol of harvest and life. The worship of totems was widespread, and each community had its own object of worship.

In addition, special attention was paid to the gods of war, as the tribes constantly faced either internal or external enemies. The warriors who appeared on the battlefield were given special funeral rites. A common tradition was to honor the memory of the deceased with a variety of gifts, including gold and jewelry. It is worth noting that such objects often became targets for pirates as a way of earning money. However, in the event of clashes with the Indians, the actions were brutal, as it was of significant value to the local tribes.

Nevertheless, these traditions remained in history, and the situation has changed dramatically. Today the leading denomination in Latin America is Christianity, approximately 90%, and Roman Catholicism formulates the major part (Orique et al., 2020). In Guatemala, Puerto Rico, and Brazil, the popularity of Protestantism is increasing, especially among the middle class (Orique et al., 2020). However, the historical features of the countries of Latin America have formulated some features of local Catholicism. This is a mixture of ancient traditions and culture and the influence of the modern ideologies of this denomination.

Some African cults are intertwined with the Catholic religion, especially in Brazil and the Caribbean. Thus, the main feature is the conduct of Catholic rites when worshiping African deities (Orique et al., 2020). On the altars in the church, one can notice both African deities and Christian saints. In some countries, the cult of the dead and the sacrifice of animals are also common. Due to various indigenous holidays and traditions, tourists have a unique opportunity to immerse themselves in the world of the 15th-16th centuries partially. It is also part of the tourism business, whereby tourists can see shamans and shamanic or pagan rituals. It is also worth noting that Argentina has the most developed Jewish and Muslim communities, in addition, one can notice the practitioners of Judaism, Mormonism, Jehovahs Witnesses, Buddhism, and Islam.

To conclude, the most popular denomination in Latin America is Christianity, namely Roman Catholicism. However, it has its own characteristics in terms of historical-cultural foundations, which are mixed with modern ideas and traditions. The main reason for deviating from the pagan course was European influence, especially during the times of Spanish and Portuguese colonialism. Finally, the preserved historical traditions and rituals make it possible for one to plunge into the times of the Aztecs and Incas and look at shamanic and early pagan rites.

Reference

Orique, D. T., Behrens, S. F., & Garrard, V. (2020). The Oxford handbook of Latin American Christianity. Oxford University Press.

Abstract

Climate change and peoples awareness of it is a serious issue that can lead to the deaths of many people and the planet. Large organizations can significantly contribute to helping the environment by addressing the problem and donating to appropriate charities, researches, and projects. An example of such an organization can be considered Freemasonry. While examining the history of the Masonic fraternity, the research discovered proof that the organization can offer great help to the environment. The history shows the great conviction of freemasons to their values; exceptional unity across nationalities, races, and religions; the desire to help others and spread the message of tolerance and brotherly love. Today the fraternity is able to support many people through charities and donations. With the help of Freemasonry, environmental issues can gain significant publicity across the world. Such an organization can support environmental research and projects, drawing the discovery of the climate change solution nearer.

Introduction

Freemasonry is believed to be one of the most acknowledged communities, being the older initiatory society in the West that does not depend on religion. Its roots go back to the medieval guilds of stonemasons; it has survived for hundreds of years, despite skepticism, suspicions, and persecutions. Freemasonry is both a successful and controversial society that is far from being extinct despite a decline in the number of members.

Throughout the course of history, Freemasonry was not only able to survive but also maintain the free spirit of its people. It has supported and united the members of the guild, despite their race or religious beliefs. While examining the fraternitys history, it can be considered to have the power to mitigate the damage of the current environmental situation and solve the issue of peoples awareness of climate change.

With the increasing temperature of the Earth, pollution, emission, rising sea level, millions of people have been suffering from the impact of climate change all over the world. Without a unified effort to save the planet and ultimately humankind, the situation will only worsen over the years. While governments, scientists, and large organizations propose various solutions, individuals can also limit the negative impact on the climate. For this, such organizations and fraternities like Freemasonry could attempt to spread awareness of the problem and help mitigate the damage.

Material and Methods

The history, practice, and rituals of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite were reviewed to answer the research question. Materials used for the study include articles and books describing the research topic. The literature was analyzed to determine the usual methods Freemasons used to discuss, promote, and help to mitigate a certain social or cultural problem. Based on the analysis, the topic of spreading awareness and mitigating the damage caused by climate change as a way for Freemasons to act was discussed. The conclusion was drawn based on the idea of help that could be provided by an organization like The Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite.

The History of Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite practiced by Freemasons

America

Freemasonry is not a religion, but they claim their values and traditions are timeless and above religious or political differences. Discussing these topics is forbidden in a lodge since they are often a source of disharmony and division (Bogdan & Snoek, 2014). They attempt to act honestly, ethically, and law-abidingly to set a good example for the people around the world. Fraternal ceremonies often include moral lessons; the masonic gatherings address development, acknowledgment, and establishment of regulations (Waite, 2013). The Masonic Fraternity is known for its secrecy and rituals. The rituals are used to instruct new candidates in the teachings of Freemasonry and test their skills. The secrecy of their teachings can derive from the use of metaphors of stonemasons tools and terms as a reminder of how the fraternity was originated.

Today the fraternal organization does not associate itself primarily with the Christian faith; it accepts men of all religions and sometimes even atheists. However, early Masonry is traced back to biblical times, formed from the myth of the craft of Masonry that came to England in the reign of King Athelstan (Mackey, 2012). There is no certain date of the establishment of Masonry; it is only known to be developed in a recognizable form in England and Scotland around the 17^th century (Mackey, 2012). The Premier Grand Lodge of England was formed there with its constitutions and rituals.

The spread of Freemasonry from the British Isles started during the Colonial Era. The earliest American lodges took place in Pennsylvania, but they appeared in every state after the American Revolution, with George Washington as the first Grand Master (Bullock, 2011). Despite a large part of freemasons supporting the abolition of slavery, African Americans were refused to join early American lodges (Dunbar, 2012). However, since the Masonic fraternity attracted Prince Hall and 14 other free black men, they were able to form the first African Lodge (Dunbar, 2012). Their power was limited until the end of racial segregation in the 1960s.

The Grand Lodge of Massachusetts denied the acknowledgment of African Lodge, but it did not make the Black freemasons abandon the fraternity. They declared themselves independent from the United Grand Lodge of England, becoming the African Grand Lodge of Massachusetts (Walker, 2010). The African-American jurisdiction became collectively known as Prince Hall Freemasonry and was not recognized legitimate by White Lodges (Popielarz, 2016). Even today, the integrated membership of Prince Hall and White Lodges, despite being officially recognized, is not practiced, especially in the Southern states.

The Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite is one of the bodies of Freemasonry. They state that their mission is to improve the communities in which they live by teaching the principles of brotherly love, tolerance, charity, and truth (Pike, 2018). A Supreme Council governs the Scottish Rite; however, there is no international authority over them (Hoyos, 2010). Supreme Councils of every country are sovereign unto themselves in their own jurisdiction (Jolicoeur & Knowles, 1978). The Scottish Rite is practiced across the United States and Canada, France, where it first emerged, Romania, and the United Kingdom.

The first Scottish Rite appeared in Chicago in the middle of the 19^th century. The membership was limited, and the Scottish Rite faced constant conflicts for territory (Lipson, 2015). The truce between all of the organizations was negotiated not long before the Great Chicago Fire (Stevenson, 1990). Scottish Rite Masons agreed to merge into one organization and set all past differences aside, rebuilding the city and the community from the ashes (Lynch, 2015). In 2012, another unexpected disaster affected the lives of freemasons and the people around them (Dumenil, 2014). They started working on strengthening their Almoners Fund to help the victims of Hurricane Sandy.

Europe

After the creation of the Grand Lodge of England in 1717, the unified Freemasons created policies and regulations for the fraternity. One of such policies was permission for others to join the guild, despite their nationality, race, or religious beliefs (Jacob, 2007). As such, the acceptance of Jews to Freemasonry began in England and spread to France and Germany, ignoring the growth of antisemitism in Europe (Cooper, 2010). At the end of the 19^th century, a Jewish fraternal lodge was created in Berlin. Some of them allowed not only Jews but also Muslims and Christians to join. Due to fraternal Jewish emancipation, Freemasonry was often accused and denounced.

In Europe, the 1940s was a difficult historical period in which many people were persecuted, tortured, and executed due to their race, views, and religion. The followers of Nazism and Fascism showed no mercy to anyone who differed from them. Some of the people whom they systematically oppressed were Freemasons, despite the lack of an obvious biological or racial identification hated by the Nazis (Schreiber, 2010). The reason for that was not only the contrast of ideologies and supposed assistance to the victims of persecution (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum). Hitler believed that Jews were able to avoid the racial and legal barriers that marginalized them in European society through the fraternity (Cooper, 2010). Due to being identified as willing members of the so-called Jewish conspiracy, Freemasons were considered to be one of the reasons for Germanys defeat in World War I.

The immerging issue of antisemitism in Europe and the establishment of the Fascist party did not prevent Freemasonry from being a place for men of every race and religion. It united the people of Europe, giving them space to communicate and socialize (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum). Despite the threats and accusations, freemasons stayed true to their values of fortitude and prudence. During the war, many freemasons lost their lives to Nazis, yet the regime seeking to end the fraternity did not succeed.

Freemasonry Nowadays

Today the Masonic fraternity fully embodies its beliefs and values by doing charity work. They commit to the lives of all people around them, supporting men and women of all ages. According to MCF Strategy (2018), they provide treatment for children, fund medical research, and contribute to local community services. Nearly four million Masons worldwide continue to help face the problems of the 21^st century.

The Issue of Climate Change

Climate change is the biggest and the most dangerous issue our planet is facing. Despite that, some people are unaware of it or do not believe in it. The danger of climate change can seem abstract or unimportant to some people (Climate change, 2001). To endure one of the greatest challenges humanity has ever had to face, people need to unite and solve the problem together.

The fight for our planet starts with spreading awareness of the problem. It can be accomplished individually and collectively. One person can share the news on social media and get the attention of three more. However, large organizations have a better chance to encourage humankind of actions. Addressing the problem at public gatherings, creating petitions, participating and encouraging charity work, as well as relocating finances to support environmental research and changes can significantly mitigate the damage. It is not something a single individual is able to do. As such, the involvement of large organizations and communities is crucial to solving the problem of climate change and saving our planet and lives.

Results

The results of the literature review show the history of Freemasonry and the Scottish Rite. Throughout the years, Freemasons were able to establish their organization, survive persecutions and not lose the focus on their values. European freemasons displayed courage, tenacity, and perseverance by defying the increasing popularity of antisemitism. Risking their prestige and lives, they remained true to their beliefs of the equality of all men and accepted Jews as members. By uniting men of different races, nationalities, and religions, the fraternal organization proved its ability to lead communities to a better future. The history of American Freemasonry can be viewed as an example of how the fraternitys values can drive people to resist and overcome such complicated social issues as racial segregation. The Prince Hall Freemasonry endured years of racism but prevailed and established itself as a Grand Lodge. Today, Scottish Rite and American Freemasonry organizations continue to contribute to society.

Discussion

Examining the history and current activities of Freemasonry and the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite, the required actions to mitigate the damage of climate change and spread the awareness of the issue can be discussed. The fraternal organization has previously managed to unite people of different nationalities, races, and religious beliefs. It can certainly be considered that such a vast worldwide community still connects people with these differences and political views today. Having followers in a variety of social spheres would efficiently spread the awareness of environmental issues. The Masonic Fraternity is also known to support medical research and donate to hospitals nowadays. As such, it can also support environmental studies, create petitions, and contribute to environmental charities by donating or participating. The topic of climate change can be addressed during the Masonic gatherings; saving the planet can be added as a value of freemasons.

Conclusion

The environmental issue is one of the most important discussions of today since climate change and global warming threaten the lives of all people and the safety of our planet. Despite that, many still disregard the problem or do not believe in it. The impact of environmental changes will affect all races, nationalities, and classes. Acknowledgment and recognition are desperately needed to solve this issue. Spreading awareness and mitigating the damage of climate change is in the power of large organizations.

Throughout history, Freemasonry and The Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite have proved their ability to unite people despite many differences. They were able to remain true to their values despite many difficulties, persecutions, and repression. Black American freemasons exhibited their will and determination to commit to the values that are greater than them. The desire to spread brotherly love, justice, tolerance, and prudence led the fraternity to what it is today: a large worldwide organization that continues to help millions of people. With such conviction, it is possible for the Masonic Fraternity to spread awareness and mitigate the damage of climate change through publicly addressing the issue and contributing to environmental research and projects. It can set an example of valuing the environment and significantly contribute to saving the planet.

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