Category: History

Introduction

The problem of language preservation is very important nowadays. There are 6800 languages on the Earth but many of them may disappear if people will not take the necessary steps in order to save them. The problem of language disappearance is urgent in many countries of the world. The problem is studied by many scholars and we already have the necessary tools to prevent the process and to save the endangered languages.

The aim of this report is to discuss the problem of the endangered languages preservation taking into account the historic and cultural conditions of their development as well as the impact of the modern time.

To achieve this goal, the historic and cultural backgrounds of the Akan and the Taiwanese languages have been summarized. In addition, the language documentation and machine translation have been discussed. Finally, the current problems of language preservation and the observed trends have been analyzed.

History Of The Endangered Languages

This section will present the overview of the historic and cultural background of some of the endangered languages.

The Akan Language

The Akan language is the most widely spread language in Ghana (Agyekum 24). However, it remains at hazard of disappearance due to the historic and cultural conditions. In addition, the economic and social situation in Ghana influences the popularity of the language substantially.

Taking into account the poor economy, people in Ghana strive to achieve the economic and social security. They consider English and other foreign languages as much more important than their authentic language.

The Ghanaian society is multilingual as the local people speak 76 different languages, among which 17 are dominant, 50 are considered as less endangered, and 8 are at risk of disappearance (Agyekum 24). Such vast diversity makes this African country very interesting from the linguistic perspective. The peculiarities of the social and cultural conditions in the country influence the Akan.

Although it is the language of 44% of the country population, it may disappear because of the impact of the social and cultural environment. In particular, the Ghanaian people use it in the limited circumstances; it is not the language of the government and is not used in the official documents; people speak English in the families and have the negative attitude to their authentic language (Agyekum 24).

The Taiwanese Language

The Taiwanese language is one of the endangered languages in the world. It has the Malayo-Polynesian and Chinese roots (Beaser n.pag.). From the 17^th century, Chinese culture influenced Taiwan substantially. The immigrants from China speak different dialects of the Chinese, which became widely spread in Taiwan.

The Southern Min topolect and Hakka made the greatest influence on the language formation (Beaser n.pag.). Later, Mandarin dialect spread across the country. In the 18^th and 19^th centuries, the Taiwanese language developed independently from the Chinese (Beaser n.pag.).

Since the second half of the 19^th century, the Taiwanese had been developing under the conditions of the Japanese occupation of Taiwan. In 1985, the Treaty of Shimonoseki was signed (Beaser n.pag.). The treaty initiated the numerous restrictions on the use of the authentic language. Its signing was the beginning of the suppression of the Taiwanese language.

Taiwanese survived due to the activity of the Presbyterian missioners in the island (Beaser n.pag.). They created the Romanized script for the local people. In addition, the national movements in support of the native language and against the Japanese suppression contributed to the language preservation (Beaser n.pag.).

Nowadays, the Taiwanese society is based on the democratic value and the law protects the right of people to speak any language they want. However, Mandarin is still the official language in the island.

Methods Of Language Preservation

The language documentation and machine translation are described in this section.

Language Documentation

The goals of the linguistic projects are to increase awareness of the endangered languages speakers and to document the authentic languages (Agyekum 24). Language documentation is considered to be the important method of language conservation.

There are three agents of language archiving including the depositors, the users, and the archivists (Agyekum 24-25). The depositors take the active participation in the language documentation.

They make the recordings, create various materials, and pass them to the archivists (Agyekum 24-25). It is clear that the users are those who use the materials. The archivists participate in the language conservation projects and solve the preservation programs in the long run.

Machine Translation

There are 6800 languages in the world and many of them remain unstudied. The computational linguistics can provide the tools for the endangered languages preservation but only 1% of the world languages have been the subject of its research (Bird & Chiang 126). The documenting takes an important place in this respect. This method is considered to be the main tool of the modern linguistics.

Machine translation represents the method of documenting used in the computational linguistics (Bird & Chiang 126). It is based on the modern technologies and it has many advantages in comparison with the methods used in the past.

The provision of the opportunity to avoid the usage of the treebanks and wordnets is one of them (Bird & Chiang 126). These tools are often rather expensive. The machine translation represents the cost effective method of documenting.

The Statistical Translation Model is the model of parallel text and one of the tools of the machine translation (Bird & Chiang 127). The application of the model assumes the fulfillment of the major tasks of the language documentation. In particular, the model translates the collected texts into the reference language.

The Application of the Machine Translation Model

The machine translation model was successfully applied in the frameworks of the language preservation project in Papua New Guinea (Bird & Chiang 129). It was used as the mean of language documentation. The model allowed representing the fifty endangered languages in the written form (Bird & Chiang 129).

Problems And Perspectives

This section deals with the current problems of language preservation as well as with its future perspectives (Bird & Chiang 129).

Current Problems of Language Preservation

According to the current estimates, only 600 languages will survive on the planet (Agyekum 24). That is why the language conservation is the urgent problem nowadays.

The scholars state that there is a psychological aspect of the languages disappearance, which is difficult to cope with. This aspect leads to the linguistic conflicts as people often consider their authentic languages as inferior and the foreign ones as superior (Agyekum 24).

One more challenge is the dynamism of the language environment. The linguists have to take into account the rapid changes occurring in it. The absence of the up-to-date technologies and the insufficient amount of the storage facilities complicate the work of the linguists (Agyekum 26).

The Trends in Language Preservation

The development of the IT technologies creates the new opportunities for language preservation. The linguists work in different parts of the world to collect and document the lexicon, morphology and conversations of the authentic languages speakers.

The modern technology allows achieving much better results and increasing the volume of the processed data (Villa 97). The digitalization of the collected texts is one of the brightest trends of the modern time. The computers will, undoubtedly, play a significant role in linguistics in the future.

Conclusion

The language conservation is the urgent task of the linguists nowadays. Many languages on the Earth are at hazard of disappearance. The modern technologies can facilitate the work in this field. The machine translation modernizes the process of language documentation.

Works Cited

Agyekum, Kofi 2012, Documentation and Preservation of the Akan Language. Web.

Beaser, Deborah 2006, The Outlook for the Taiwanese Language Preservation. PDF file. Web.

Bird, Steven, and D. Chiang 2012, Machine Translation for Language Preservation. PDF file. Web.

Villa, Daniel J. 2002, Integrating Technology into Minority Language Preservation and Teaching Efforts: an Inside Job. Web.

Introduction

In this research proposal, the researchers give an outline of the intended study of the linguistic history of the Mandarin. According to Gu (2012), Mandarin is the most widely spoken language in the world. Popularly known as the Chinese language or Huayu, Mandarin is majorly spoken in mainland China, Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong, and other neighboring countries. The research done by Koh (2010) observes that until 1913, the mainland Chinese were speaking many different dialects and languages, some of which did not have any close relation. However, the linguist, through the government of China, came together to develop a language that would be universally spoken in this country. This was not only to enhance the integration of the members of this society, but also to improve the learning experience.

The standard Mandarin language started taking shape in the 20^th century. Kane (2006) notes that major developments of this language occurred in this century as the linguists worked to develop a phonetic system that had a standard structure as a way of developing a national language. The team working on this new national language had to start by developing simple phonetic system that was easy to learn to help give it a shape that would be easy to develop. In order to come up with a language that had a standard structure, this team of experts had to create Chinese characters, alphabet, and symbol. Since then, there has been a massive development of this language by various educationists and other relevant experts. This research would seek to determine the historical development of this language and how it has become the most widely spoken language in the world today.

Methodology

Every research project applies a given research method that is considered appropriate based on the time available and the resources that are to be used. In this research, both primary and secondary sources of data will be very important in arriving at a conclusion. Secondary data will be obtained from published books, peer-reviewed journals, and other unpublished authoritative sources. Primary data will be collected from a sample population that has relevant information about the transition that this language has taken over the years. The researchers will identify some of the educationists in this country that have some knowledge about the historical development of the Mandarin language.

Consent will be obtained from the identified sample population in order to ensure that they understand the nature and purpose of this research. Questionnaires will then be developed and sent to them online. They will be expected to send back the filled questionnaires through online means. This research will take the qualitative approach in its analysis. This means that the research will take the descriptive approach. It will be important to describe some of the historical events which took place in the development of this language. Although quantitative research is very popular in social sciences, its appropriateness in this particular research was considered low. This explains why it was not applied in this research.

Timeline

The entire process of developing questionnaires, collecting data, analyzing the data, and compiling a report in this research is expected to take two months. When the proposal is approved, it will take one week to develop a comprehensive questionnaire. Data collection will take one month, while its analysis and preparing the report is expected to take three weeks.

References

Gu, S. (2012). A cultural history of the Chinese language. Jefferson: McFarland & Company. Web.

Kane, D. (2006). The Chinese language: Its history and current usage. Tokyo: Tuttle Publishers. Web.

Koh, E. (2010). Singapore stories: Language, class, and the Chinese of Singapore, 1945-2000. Amherst: Cambria Press. Web.

Introduction

The truth value is an important idea of the contemporary logical semantics and the philosophy of logic. The notion is conceived as the natural element of the language analysis in which sentences and expressions are interpreted as a special type of name that refers to a special type of objects called the True and the False. Basically, the classical logic has the truth values, which obey the norm of bivalence. In this context, there are only two distinct logical values. The notion of truth values in semantics has been used differently in logic and philosophy. They are applied as the primitive abstract objects in which sentences are denoted in both natural and formal languages. It includes values that indicate the truth in a sentence and convey information about a specific proposition and the values preserved in a valid inference.

Historic Background of Truth Values

Based on how they are used, truth values can be treated as structured, unstructured, or unanalyzed entities. In addition, the concept of truth values as compound entities perfectly conforms to the models of truth values such as three-valued and four-valued logics (Goldblatt, 2006). Gottlob Frege explicitly introduced the concept of the truth value into logic and philosophy in 1891. Even though he was the first to make it one of the key ideas of semantics, Boole and Pierce had already anticipated the theory of semantical values. The introduction of this new notion in semantics helped in enhancing an extensive and diverse impact on the development of the modern philosophy and logic (Anderson & Edward, 2004). A sentence can be determined as true or false based on the information given. For example, the sentence 24 is divisible by 6 is true while 111 is a multiple of 8 is false.

Truth Values and Semantics

The truth value offers a means to complete the formal elements of a functional analysis of language in a uniform manner. This is achievable through the generalization of the functional concepts and introduction of a special type of functions (Goldblatt, 2006). These include propositional or truth value functions with the various values consisting of a set of truth values. Specific representatives of these functions establish both expressions and logical connections. Consequently, a powerful tool is obtained to implement a conclusive principle that helps in determining the meaning of complex expressions in terms of their components (Camp, 2002). Therefore, it is possible to differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic logics.

The concept of truth values has been used to induce new perspectives into the philosophy of logic such as the category of truth, the idea of an abstract object and the nature of logical thinking among others. If the truth value is deemed a special object, the issues that arise determine the nature of their entities. This implies that the truth value cannot be given a general characterization. One way of providing it with specific characterization is by referring to it as an abstract object (Anderson & Edward, 2004).

Conclusion

The notion of Gottlob Frege about the truth value successfully became a standard component of both philosophical and logical terms used with semantics. The idea has become a crucial instrument used to achieve realistic and theoretical aspects of semantics. Truth values are essentially applicable in model theoretical semantics, especially in the areas of the knowledge and theoretical representations. In addition, considerations of the truth values create issues related to their ontological nature, facts and theories. Theoretical models have been used to explore the concept of the truth value beyond the initial idea of the True and the False developed by Frege. As a result, the notion has been developed to explain various aspects of semantics.

References

Anderson, D., & Edward Z. (2004). Frege, Boolos, and logical objects. Journal of Philosophical Logic, 33(1), 1-26.

Camp, L. (2002). Confusion: A study in the theory of knowledge. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Goldblatt, R. (2006). Topoi: The categorial analysis of logic. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications.

Introduction

Literature stands among humanitys oldest artistic endeavors, emerging quickly after the invention of the written language. Compared to regular writing, historical records or other types of text, literature is created to relay a narrative, either realistic or fictional in nature. It is a creative work that favors the use of different phrases, capable of transferring across messages, meanings and ideas. Humans ability to write literature can be seen as a testament to their large creativity, a capacity to know, learn, remember and analyze large amounts of information. The knowledge of an author, their belief system, or their intended message  all of it is captured through text and moved across the ages to other people. With the evolution of language and the written word, the capacity of people to create stories also changed and developed, being responsible for the creation of new literary genres, traditions and customs.

The history of literature is storied, spanning multiple centuries, civilizations and approaches, becoming a testament to the peoples universal drive to create. This work will attempt to examine the development of literature throughout history in many of its iterations. The purpose behind literature will be explored, as well as its significance in the lives of individuals. Ancient societies and their literary works will be made central to this discussion. By examining and analyzing works of old, it is possible to understand the modern literary scene and its complexity. Men, in all societies, sought to present messages to others as a form of communication, education, instruction or entertainment. The desire to share ones thoughts or entrust knowledge to others is the driving force behind much of literature.

The Purpose of Literature and Writing

The written word holds an important role for people and society as a whole. A variety of different separate civilizations inventing this concept can be seen as proof of its importance. Despite great variance in culture, history, background, territory and custom, writing was invented in many ancient societies after the creation of language. It is difficult to determine who precisely was the first to invent writing as it is understood by historians, and most sources agree that four different civilizations achieved this feat around the same time period. Egyptian hieroglyphics, early Chinese scrips, Mayan texts and southwest Asias cuneiform writing were all invented around the fourth millennium B.C. (Love & Wimsatt, 2019). These writing styles used different means to inscribe messages and evolved differently from each other. However, all of them undoubtedly fulfilled many needs of ancient societies.

Writing is a means of preserving meaning, of storing and re-using information that may become a part of peoples daily life. It is also a means to communicate, a tool of interaction and an exchange of ideas. In daily life, it can be utilized to provide instructions, keep track of financial considerations, and many other things. Similarly, literature is an offshoot of standard writing, one that accomplishes specific goals by existing. Comparatively, literature is more than simply writing or recording, being imbued with additional meaning or intent. Literature can entertain others, provide important life lessons, or tell cautionary tales. It is a tool of creation and a method of artistic expression, one which often pushes a persons language skills to their limits. In the constraints of society, literature persuades others, informs them about something, and gives the writer a capacity to express their ideas. There is no singular purpose in all writing, and the ideas that can be gained from it will vary wildly from interpretation to interpretation. It is vital to see writing as a creative process first and a public service second, compiling many different goals into a single piece of writing.

Mesopotamia and First Instances of Writing

Mesopotamia, undoubtedly, can be considered the cradle of human civilization, a starting point for many artistic and written endeavors. Previously placed in the Western Asia region, Mesopotamia played a crucial role in the development of modern human societies, being far more advanced than people may believe. People of this region were capable craftsmen and inventors, being responsible for the earliest human cities, irrigation canals, temples and feats of architecture. Sumerian cities even had their own toilet systems, owning to the need to maintain public hygiene. Their linguistic tradition was well-developed and vast, owing to a complex religious-centered belief systems. Sumerians worshipped many different gods, each of whom was connected to specific areas of Mesopotamia. The myths and legends of this civilization often talked about hero-kings, and the lives of gods, while also including the near-universal flood myth. Similarly, Mesopotamian languages were among the first to be written down via cuneiform tablets. By inscribing fresh clay tablets with carvings, the Sumerian people invented writing. In daily life, writing was an important tool, commonly used for the same purposes it is used today. Record-keeping, financial transactions, exchange of letters and other matters were all handled in written form. Similarly, the lives and historic feats of important people  kings and heroes were recorded in writing as well.

The Epic of Gilgamesh

When discussing Sumerian literary works, it is impossible to understate the importance of The Epic of Gilgamesh. No other early works of Mesopotamian writing can be considered this vital to the history of literature. Despite its age, the epic is still studied for its literary value, its use of poetry, metaphor and storytelling capability. The work, recorded in a collection of clay tablets, is considered the oldest surviving piece of literature in the world. As it is found today, not all of the original tablets survived, and the text on some of the present ones is damaged. However, the piece still presents incredible value to history, archeology and literature. In its time, the text was also significant, warranting a number of adaptations and alternative versions.

The literary work itself can be seen as semi-fictional, containing both accounts of real historical events and fantastical depictions of otherworldly feats. The epic describes the life and rule of Gilgamesh, a ruler of the ancient city of Uruk (Love & Wimsatt, 2019). Gilgamesh was by no means the only significant king of Uruk, and many others were considered heroic figures by the Sumerians. However, only his feats were described by the epic, forever etching them into history and popular culture. His character in the epic is significant not only because of the mythical or superhuman qualities Gilgamesh presented but also because of the changes in the kings personality that occurred throughout the story. Beginning the story as a tyrant, the man-god develops and grows as a result of his experiences, becoming an admirable and respected ruler. Both the accounts of the fantastical battles Gilgamesh partook in and his journeys with his friend Enkidu can be seen as a foundation for the modern heroic story. Compared to a regular historical account of a rulers life, there is a clear moral and thematic throughline in the work, highlighting the importance of friendship, kindness, heroism and other positive qualities. In this way, the oldest surviving literary tale holds up as a tool for informing others, transferring ideas and creatively interpreting real-life events.

Egyptian Literature

The creation of early Egyptian writing, as mentioned previously, happened around the same time Mesopotamian writing emerged. It served common utility-centered purposes, such as naming specific people, locations or facilities in order to identify them. The ability to write to be preserved for a long time was seen as a demonstration of its divine nature and its connection with gods. Gradually, the application and use of writing in peoples lives expanded, culminating in the creation of offering lists. Much like many other customs and rituals of ancient Egyptian society, early works of writing were closely related to death and the afterlife. In particular, offering lists served as a way to commemorate a life of a person and help their life after death to be sufficiently prosperous (Lichtheim, 2019). Believing in the immortality of the human being, ancient Egyptians focused heavily on burial rites, funeral proceedings and worship of the dead. The offering lists decorated tombs of both rulers and common people, detailing all of the proper offerings the deceased person should receive. Depending on the wealth and status of an individual, it was possible to further extend the offering list made in their tomb, signifying their important position. Researchers propose that offering lists were precisely the type of writing that gradually evolved into literature (Lichtheim, 2019). Slowly changing in size and scope, these pieces of text started focusing more on the achievements and accomplishments of people instead of simply listing their names or titles (Lichtheim, 2019). This change laid the groundwork for the autobiographical genre and evolved with the eras to be described in both prose and poetry.

Egyptian Funeral and Religious Texts

When discussing the oldest significant works of literature, the Egyptian Pyramid texts can be discussed. Pyramid texts, owning to their name, are a collection of texts found within Egyptian pyramids, used as decorations for pharaohs tombs. As mentioned previously, afterlife rites and burials played a central role in Egyptian culture, making the process of decorating tombs extremely important. Pyramid texts were a part of such decorations, inscribed into the walls themselves instead of any paper or clay material. Various rituals and offerings to the Egyptian gods were inscribed into the walls, as well as specific instructions for proceedings. These can include utterances for pharaohs to rise from their tomb after death, ways for them to reach the heavens, and descriptions of their lives, among other things (Mercer, 2020). The texts held large significance for both the populace at the time and modern literary scholars. As a contemporary work, they partake in the worship of important rulers, uphold traditional Egyptian customs and serve a commemorative purpose for the dead. In modern understanding, they are also the earliest example of Egyptian literature and a clear example of how culture influences the development of the written language.

Chinese Literary History

The development of literary art in China has expansive and varied roots. Compared to places like Egypt and Mesopotamia, it becomes harder to discern which work of literature is definitively the first of its kind, given a large variety of surviving Chinese texts. The history of Chinese writing and literature itself extends through many millennia, serving utilitarian, professional and creative purposes. An interesting aspect of Chinese literature is its heavy focus on philosophical discussion, coupled with a wide variety of ideologies that influence it, including Confucianism, Daoism, and others. Some existing early works are historical or military records, others are transcripts of legal proceedings. Many books and pieces of literature have made a significant impact on Chinas state organization, the system of beliefs and values. In particular, ideas of self-cultivation, rituals, propriety and peace largely stemmed from The Five Classics  a collection of prose and poetry from an early Chinese period (Asif & Bo Ling, 2018). The nation used writing as a tool to share common morals, educate the people and encourage virtuous or rule-abiding practices. To this end, Chinese literature presents itself as a definitive authority in promoting specific modes of conduct.

Conclusion

Throughout history, literature has developed and played many different roles. Depending on the society and its people, the language grew in its own unique ways in order to help people communicate between themselves or share specific ideas. In all cases, the growth of the literary field has a close connection to a civilizations traditions, history, culture and customs. For ancient Mesopotamians, the first instances of literature were a way to tell an engaging story and deliver an emotionally-driven moralistic message while also tying together the divine and the common. Regular writing, on the other hand, was used for far more mundane purposes and helped people live their day-to-day lives easier. In Egypt, writing also developed into a tool of the masses but was much more closely connected with death and the afterlife. The pyramid texts and early offering lists both worked as a method to pay respects to the people that passed away and also honored the Egyptian gods. Both religion and common practice intersect within Egyptian literature, offering a look into how the people of many centuries prior saw the world. In the case of Chinese literature, its effects on society were also profound. Putting aside the creative merits of poetry and prose. Chinas early works have had specific applications within society and a role to play in its organization. In order to promote morals and beliefs that were seen as beneficial to both society and its people, Chinese books highlighted the importance of rituals, proper conduct and respect. Furthermore, they also set specific bars of expectations for government officials or other important positions, fulfilling the regulatory role legislative works often have. As a whole, literature has had many different effects on the world around it, working to transform and enhance the human experience. Early works of writing are a mode of self-expression, a tool for education, and a piece of instruction combined, demonstrating the diversity of human thought.

References

Asif, M., & Bo Ling, Y. (2018). Belt and Road initiative: A spirit of Chinese cultural thought.International Journal of Business and Management, 13(12), 9. Web.

Lichtheim, M. (2019). Ancient Egyptian literature. University of California Press.

Love, A. C., & Wimsatt, W. (2019). Beyond the meme: Development and structure in cultural evolution. University of Minnesota Press.

Mercer, S. (2020). The Pyramid Texts. Global Grey.

Oscar Wilde was born on 16 October 1854, in Dublin, Ireland, and he was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and Magdalen College, Oxford. After completing school, he continued writing various publications and he became a prominent writer, poet, and aesthete in Ireland.

During the late nineteenth century, His writing genius made him to become one of the most successful writers in London and in other places. Currently, Wildes reputation rests on his unparalleled genius for witty conversations, epigrams, dramatic and literary merit of his works, which have made him to be popular. Oscar Wildes works had a profound effect on the history of the United States.

Always, Wilde recognized himself as a member of the Aesthetic Movement of the late nineteenth century. Therefore, Wilde endeavored to put more emphasis on aesthetic values over moral or social norms in his lifestyle and in his literary works. His life was greatly influenced by magnificence.

And in contrast to the normal Victorian styles and mores that existed during the 1880s and 1890s, he wore ostentatious clothes that made him stand out from everyone else. In most cases, his works were a subject of open misrepresentation and the objective of much moral fury. This took place both in Europe and in America. His various publications, for example, Dorian Gray, which had some homoerotic ideas, were also heavily criticized. Nonetheless, as pointed out earlier, he was one of the decadents of the late nineteenth century.

Therefore, he fought for the embracement of certain ideologies, such as pacificism, social reform, and libertarianism way of life. Even though most people spoke ill of him, he was making himself to be heard with his unique style and smartness. This made him to enjoy much success with most of his writings that brought him much popularity.

He acclaimed and gained acquaintance with several high-ranking personalities of his time, including fellow playwright George Bernard Shaw, American poets Walt Whitman and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, and English author and social critic John Ruskin (Merriman 2008, para. 2). In America, his publications motivated other writers to write on the same subjects. In addition, some of his works were modified to the stage and were produced as films in several occasions.

Consequently, because of the influence of his works, Wilde was invited in December 1881 to give a series of lectures in America on aesthetics. Even though the lectures were scheduled to last for only four months, he gave them for nearly a year, with over one hundred and forty lectures delivered in a period of two hundred and sixty days.

During the period, he strove to give the American people the most amiable English aesthete and this had a profound effect on the history of the U.S. (Ellmann 1987, 186-188). As a result, his teachings influenced some Americans who started to embrace aestheticism. During the tour, Wilde also met some influential American authors such as Walt Whitman and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow who had endorsed his teachings.

Again, because of the commercial success that his previous visit had brought, Wilde went back to the United States in 1882. During this second lecture tour, he spoke about the Cult of the Artificial. This notion out rightly snubbed the social conception of the natural for reasons given in the earlier sections of the paper.

Criss-crossing America on a grueling schedule, Wilde fully played the role of the aesthete while he was there and he dressed the dandy to a tee and was heard by an astonished America when, queried by Customs he said: I have nothing to declare& except my genius (Terpening 2007, para. 16).

His lectures aimed at putting together the splendor he saw in art onto the everyday lifestyle of people. He strove to realize these both practically and philosophically. For example, while he was a student at Oxford, he had adorned his dresses with blue china and lilies. Therefore, one of his talks during the tour was based on interior design. Although Wildes lectures affected the behavior of men and women in America, a number of people cruelly caricatured his views.

For example, during his tour to Boston to give a talk on aestheticism, the Republican (Springfield) newspaper wrote derogatory comments about him. However, despite the hostile media reception he received, he got a cordial reception in many parts of the United States and this assisted in facilitating the influence of his teachings.

During his life, Wilde wrote various popular and long-lived publications that greatly influenced the American society. The publications he authored made him to be recognized all over the country. More so, he was recognized as a Professor of Aesthetics.

For example in 1888, he wrote the novel The Happy Prince and Other Tales, which he dedicated to his two children he got in his marriage with Constance Lloyd. Two years later, he published The Picture of Dorian Gray. After these, he continued to publish other fairy tales. In the early 1890s, he authored a number of popular plays that further assisted in facilitating his views in Europe and America.

Lady Windermeres Fan (1892) tackled the issue of divorce in marriage, A Woman of No Importance (1893) dealt with the issue of divided allegiance among the children in the family, An Ideal Husband (1895) addressed the issue of corruption, and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895) addressed the significance of manners in the society.

Prior to writing the popular plays, Wilde had authored numerous essays and he concealed his real identity in most of them. In one of his works, The Critic as Artist (1890), he argues that criticism is the better component of creation and that it is not a must for the critic to have a fair standing or to be rational in his or her reasoning.

In a deeply conventional essay, The Soul of a Man Under Socialism (1891), he assumes a more positive perception of the road to embracing socialism and he opposes the Christian principle of self-sacrifice in favor of joyfulness. Wildes fairy tales, plays, and essays all had one purpose: to influence the behavior of his audience for them to accept his decadent views. And in the U.S., this was not an exception.

In conclusion, until his premature death on 30 November 1900, the numerous literary works that Oscar Wilde published greatly influenced the history of Europe and America. As a member of the Aesthetic Movement of the late nineteenth century, he advocated for sensitivity to artistic beauty and refined taste in his lectures and literary works. Although he was criticized for his devotion to and quest for the beautiful, his highly influential lifestyle appreciated art and beauty as the main objective of human life.

Reference List

Ellmann, Richard. 1987. Oscar Wilde. New York: Vintage Books.

Merriman, Charles. Oscar Wilde. Jalic Inc., May 2008, http://www.online-literature.com/wilde/ .

Terpening, William. The Picture of Oscar Wilde: A Brief Life. VictorianWeb, June 8, 2007, http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/wilde/wildebio.html .

Introduction

Antidumping, sometimes abbreviated as AD, is a source of controversy regarding several practices within the international trade. While many leaders and politicians may have lost their passion and zeal to implement antidumping laws, economists and other trade reformers still believe that antidumping is necessary in nurturing a sustainable international trade environment.

In most cases if not all, antidumping has only been dealt with in accordance with the existing circumstances and not as stipulated in the Antidumping Act of 1916 (Lindsey, 1999). In the view of the unfathomable significance of antidumping strategies, this paper discusses the U.S. Anti-Dumping Laws history, trace of implementation, and impact on business and the society.

Based on the broadness of the topic, the analysis is limited to the ethical implication of the AD Act. To achieve this core and noble task, this synthesis is divided into segments, which give an informative and detailed analysis of issues surrounding the law and its overall impact on the business society.

Dumping

Dumping has received a myriad of definitions in literature by scholars, researchers and analysts throughout history. However, the overall epicenter of most of these definitions has focused on price discrimination in several markets in world markets. According to Jacob Viners 1922 definition, dumping refers to price discrimination occurring between markets at an international level.

How does this occur in international trade? Dumping simply takes its course when export price is much lower compared to that which sellers are charging buyers at the domestic level, with regard to all the terms and conditions of sale (Lindsey, 1999). In other words, such products attract lower prices at the export market contrary to what consumers in the home market are being offered.

Besides this school of thought, dumping in business context may refer to a case where marginal costs are higher than the export cost of a given commodity in the market. It, therefore, suffices to mention that the major determining parameters for dumping are the export and domestic prices of the commodity in question.

Regardless of its simplicity and interpretation, dumping has remained a major problem in international trade for a long period of time, with several efforts having been witnessed to mitigate its impact in the now fully-grown international business market. On the other hand, a case where the export market attracts higher prices compared to what is offered locally is referred to as reverse dumping (Irwin, 2005). The above descriptions form the basic understanding of dumping as recognized by the World Trade Organization.

Moreover, it is important to note that major analyses of the current dumping situation revolve around commodities being sold at a higher value than local prices since antidumping laws mainly feature this scenario. The concept is sometimes linked to subsidies and bounties. Notably, dumping is not caused by subsidies and the two ideas are usually regulated by different and independent legislations (Mastel, 1998).

According to Viner (1923), dumping can be classified into sporadic, short-run and long-run depending on certain factors like the cause and duration. Based on the effects of dumping and the unbeaten need for good dumping, laws have been drafted and ratified to control dumping and ensure that all business operations on the international and local scale do not violate them (Viner, 1923).

A good example is the United States Antidumping Law which has been in existence for almost a century. The law has received manifold criticism and support throughout history with some critics arguing that it needs amendment to accommodate current and emerging issues, which may differ from its initial mandate.

The U.S. Antidumping Act of 1916

The United States Congress endorsed the act in the 1916 with the heading, Unfair Competition. This was contained in Title VIII of the Revenue Act of 1916. The act outlawed any form of dumping in the United States, including the sale of articles at a price higher than the local or wholesale price.

This was aimed at preventing easy exportation of products to the United States and to guard its market against external forces (WTO, 2004). Through this act, the U.S. could prevent any form of monopolization of the market emanating from traders who could consider finding a ready market for their products in the country.

With regard to the provisions of the act, one would become a defaulter and liable for the penalty if found violating the entire law or a section of it. A fine of $5,000 was proposed in the act and or a jail term not exceeding twelve months as deemed necessary and right by the court of law. Persons injured as a result of the defaulters misdemeanors were also at free will to sue the defiant in his/her or her district court of the U.S. This would result into recovery of the damage, payment of the suit expenses and an attorneys fee (WTO, 2004).

History and implementation

In the early 20^th century, a period which covered between 1904 and 1921, several countries that had become industrialized enacted a law to deal with dumping. These countries mainly consisted of the U.S., the Great Britain, Australia, Canada, the Union of South Africa and New Zealand. Their agreement aimed at compensating against unfair advantage of major foreign producers by imposing an antidumping charge.

However, other rules were developed extremely after the Second World War when GATT started operating in the year 1948 (Krishna, 1997). A core component of GATT is Article VI, which clearly deals with cases of antidumping coupled with two important conditions that would warrant a country to impose an antidumping levy.

The first condition is when the importing country offers a lower price than the home country and that no person is authorized to impose an antidumping levy unless with substantive evidence of the likelihood, negative impact of the practice in the local market. However, this attempt failed due to lack of preciseness and binding ground (Hurabiell, 1995).

In another attempt to revive the antidumping law, it was made an agenda in 1967 during the Kennedy Round. The fruit of this was the GATT Antidumping Code which had better binding authority than the previous document (Hurabiell, 1995). This Round mainly dwelt on how and when to apply antidumping laws before the Code was adjusted in the year 1979 because of fundamental reasons.

The first one was to have a clear difference and clarity of thought between antidumping and countervailing. Secondly, the European Commission felt dissatisfied with the way the United States was interpreting injury requirements stringently. These necessitated further developments to make the Code more applicable in dealing with the dumping problem (Krishna, 1997).

Article 13 of the Antidumping Code was added, which required developed countries to have special regard on developing countries in exercising antidumping measures. As if this was not enough, the need for further negotiations was witnessed during the Uruguay Round of 1994 (Krishna, 1997).

This was in response to what economists believed to manageable trade and protectionism that had been achieved in the previous decade. It was highly welcomed as several nations pledged their commitment towards maintaining the cooperation multilaterally and their backing of measures that were tariff-free.

During the developments in Uruguay, the Antidumping Code was further developed to allow a country to impose levy on products from specific countries where dumping had a higher likelihood of causing domestic damage to the market. Additionally, it was acceptable if dumping practices by that country negatively affected the local industry (Krishna, 1997).

Impact on Business Society

An important observation of the U.S. Antidumping Law is that it predominantly focuses on international forms of price discrimination and acts on those sales that are made below cost. This does not matter on the nature of the sales made as a result of greed or not. On the other hand, antitrust laws guard against predatory sales and do not check on making sales below cost.

Analytically, this difference is essential since predatory pricing has adverse economic effects due to its tendency to promote monopoly and social inequality (Krishna, 1997). To the contrary, non predatory sales discrimination has net economic benefits to the side being favored with lower prices.

In addition countervailing-duty regulations allow the addition of levy on products that have been subsidized by the exporting country. Although these laws have been in existence for long, they have almost remained unchanged and embraced inclusivity. Initial laws covered sugar, before they were revised to accommodate dutiable and non-dutiable commodities imported from other countries (Mastel, 1998).

It is worth noting that several changes have been witnessed within the business society since the adoption of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. This has led to a quantifiable rise in competition for local firms emanating from imports. However, suffering firms are protected under section 201 of the escape clause and adjustment assistance.

Trade adjustment aims at protecting workers who may have been affected as a result of high import competition. This is done through training, relocation allowance and job search. On the other hand, section 201 escape clause permits exemption from imports temporarily to allow the affected party to stabilize. Such breathing can be of importance in cases where firms are experiencing difficulties in adapting to import competition (Irwin, 2005).

Notably, the adoption and implementation of the U.S. Antidumping Law has resulted into better protection for industries as most firms are able to secure this protection than under the escape clause. This protection was considered as a rescue option for those industries which felt oppressed by the escape clause.

Moreover, the law continues to evolve to become more effective to serve the increasing number of industries seeking protection (Mastel, 1998). From this analogy, it can be clearly viewed that the core function and operating principles of the U.S. aid are prevention, punishing and compensation of predatory prices, among other international trade malpractice relating to the United States imports policies and directions.

Conclusion

While the antidumping laws are commonly faced with resistance and criticism, it is important to appreciate the impact of these laws in augmenting business ethics and operating standards in international trade. Antidumping laws are essential in providing a level ground for business as this may be over exploited by developed countries.

They further promote the growth of economies by eliminating extreme monopoly cases that may lead to social inequalities. Having been in operation for decades, the U.S. Antidumping Law has had an immense impact on business society even though the law has undergone numerous amendments.

References

Hurabiell, M. (1995). Protectionism versus free trade: Implementing the GATT antidumping Agreement in the United States. University of Pennsylvania Journal of International Business Law, 16(3), 567-614.

Irwin, D. (2005). The rise of U.S. antidumping activity in historical perspective, Issues 2005-2031. Washington, D.C: International Monetary Fund.

Krishna, R. (1997). Antidumping In Law and Practice. World Bank. Web.

Lindsey, B. (1999). The U.S. Antidumping Law Rhetoric versus Reality. Center for Trade Policy Studies. Web.

Mastel, G. (1998). Antidumping laws and the U.S. economy. New York: M.E. Sharpe.

Viner, J. (1923). Dumping: A problem in International Trade. Chicago: Chicago University Press.

WTO. (2004). United States  Anti-Dumping Act of 1916. World Trade Organization. Web.

Introduction

In this research proposal, the researchers give an outline of the intended study of the linguistic history of the Mandarin. According to Gu (2012), Mandarin is the most widely spoken language in the world. Popularly known as the Chinese language or Huayu, Mandarin is majorly spoken in mainland China, Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong, and other neighboring countries. The research done by Koh (2010) observes that until 1913, the mainland Chinese were speaking many different dialects and languages, some of which did not have any close relation. However, the linguist, through the government of China, came together to develop a language that would be universally spoken in this country. This was not only to enhance the integration of the members of this society, but also to improve the learning experience.

The standard Mandarin language started taking shape in the 20^th century. Kane (2006) notes that major developments of this language occurred in this century as the linguists worked to develop a phonetic system that had a standard structure as a way of developing a national language. The team working on this new national language had to start by developing simple phonetic system that was easy to learn to help give it a shape that would be easy to develop. In order to come up with a language that had a standard structure, this team of experts had to create Chinese characters, alphabet, and symbol. Since then, there has been a massive development of this language by various educationists and other relevant experts. This research would seek to determine the historical development of this language and how it has become the most widely spoken language in the world today.

Methodology

Every research project applies a given research method that is considered appropriate based on the time available and the resources that are to be used. In this research, both primary and secondary sources of data will be very important in arriving at a conclusion. Secondary data will be obtained from published books, peer-reviewed journals, and other unpublished authoritative sources. Primary data will be collected from a sample population that has relevant information about the transition that this language has taken over the years. The researchers will identify some of the educationists in this country that have some knowledge about the historical development of the Mandarin language.

Consent will be obtained from the identified sample population in order to ensure that they understand the nature and purpose of this research. Questionnaires will then be developed and sent to them online. They will be expected to send back the filled questionnaires through online means. This research will take the qualitative approach in its analysis. This means that the research will take the descriptive approach. It will be important to describe some of the historical events which took place in the development of this language. Although quantitative research is very popular in social sciences, its appropriateness in this particular research was considered low. This explains why it was not applied in this research.

Timeline

The entire process of developing questionnaires, collecting data, analyzing the data, and compiling a report in this research is expected to take two months. When the proposal is approved, it will take one week to develop a comprehensive questionnaire. Data collection will take one month, while its analysis and preparing the report is expected to take three weeks.

References

Gu, S. (2012). A cultural history of the Chinese language. Jefferson: McFarland & Company. Web.

Kane, D. (2006). The Chinese language: Its history and current usage. Tokyo: Tuttle Publishers. Web.

Koh, E. (2010). Singapore stories: Language, class, and the Chinese of Singapore, 1945-2000. Amherst: Cambria Press. Web.

Introduction

The truth value is an important idea of the contemporary logical semantics and the philosophy of logic. The notion is conceived as the natural element of the language analysis in which sentences and expressions are interpreted as a special type of name that refers to a special type of objects called the True and the False. Basically, the classical logic has the truth values, which obey the norm of bivalence. In this context, there are only two distinct logical values. The notion of truth values in semantics has been used differently in logic and philosophy. They are applied as the primitive abstract objects in which sentences are denoted in both natural and formal languages. It includes values that indicate the truth in a sentence and convey information about a specific proposition and the values preserved in a valid inference.

Historic Background of Truth Values

Based on how they are used, truth values can be treated as structured, unstructured, or unanalyzed entities. In addition, the concept of truth values as compound entities perfectly conforms to the models of truth values such as three-valued and four-valued logics (Goldblatt, 2006). Gottlob Frege explicitly introduced the concept of the truth value into logic and philosophy in 1891. Even though he was the first to make it one of the key ideas of semantics, Boole and Pierce had already anticipated the theory of semantical values. The introduction of this new notion in semantics helped in enhancing an extensive and diverse impact on the development of the modern philosophy and logic (Anderson & Edward, 2004). A sentence can be determined as true or false based on the information given. For example, the sentence 24 is divisible by 6 is true while 111 is a multiple of 8 is false.

Truth Values and Semantics

The truth value offers a means to complete the formal elements of a functional analysis of language in a uniform manner. This is achievable through the generalization of the functional concepts and introduction of a special type of functions (Goldblatt, 2006). These include propositional or truth value functions with the various values consisting of a set of truth values. Specific representatives of these functions establish both expressions and logical connections. Consequently, a powerful tool is obtained to implement a conclusive principle that helps in determining the meaning of complex expressions in terms of their components (Camp, 2002). Therefore, it is possible to differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic logics.

The concept of truth values has been used to induce new perspectives into the philosophy of logic such as the category of truth, the idea of an abstract object and the nature of logical thinking among others. If the truth value is deemed a special object, the issues that arise determine the nature of their entities. This implies that the truth value cannot be given a general characterization. One way of providing it with specific characterization is by referring to it as an abstract object (Anderson & Edward, 2004).

Conclusion

The notion of Gottlob Frege about the truth value successfully became a standard component of both philosophical and logical terms used with semantics. The idea has become a crucial instrument used to achieve realistic and theoretical aspects of semantics. Truth values are essentially applicable in model theoretical semantics, especially in the areas of the knowledge and theoretical representations. In addition, considerations of the truth values create issues related to their ontological nature, facts and theories. Theoretical models have been used to explore the concept of the truth value beyond the initial idea of the True and the False developed by Frege. As a result, the notion has been developed to explain various aspects of semantics.

References

Anderson, D., & Edward Z. (2004). Frege, Boolos, and logical objects. Journal of Philosophical Logic, 33(1), 1-26.

Camp, L. (2002). Confusion: A study in the theory of knowledge. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Goldblatt, R. (2006). Topoi: The categorial analysis of logic. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications.

Oscar Wilde was born on 16 October 1854, in Dublin, Ireland, and he was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and Magdalen College, Oxford. After completing school, he continued writing various publications and he became a prominent writer, poet, and aesthete in Ireland.

During the late nineteenth century, His writing genius made him to become one of the most successful writers in London and in other places. Currently, Wildes reputation rests on his unparalleled genius for witty conversations, epigrams, dramatic and literary merit of his works, which have made him to be popular. Oscar Wildes works had a profound effect on the history of the United States.

Always, Wilde recognized himself as a member of the Aesthetic Movement of the late nineteenth century. Therefore, Wilde endeavored to put more emphasis on aesthetic values over moral or social norms in his lifestyle and in his literary works. His life was greatly influenced by magnificence.

And in contrast to the normal Victorian styles and mores that existed during the 1880s and 1890s, he wore ostentatious clothes that made him stand out from everyone else. In most cases, his works were a subject of open misrepresentation and the objective of much moral fury. This took place both in Europe and in America. His various publications, for example, Dorian Gray, which had some homoerotic ideas, were also heavily criticized. Nonetheless, as pointed out earlier, he was one of the decadents of the late nineteenth century.

Therefore, he fought for the embracement of certain ideologies, such as pacificism, social reform, and libertarianism way of life. Even though most people spoke ill of him, he was making himself to be heard with his unique style and smartness. This made him to enjoy much success with most of his writings that brought him much popularity.

He acclaimed and gained acquaintance with several high-ranking personalities of his time, including fellow playwright George Bernard Shaw, American poets Walt Whitman and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, and English author and social critic John Ruskin (Merriman 2008, para. 2). In America, his publications motivated other writers to write on the same subjects. In addition, some of his works were modified to the stage and were produced as films in several occasions.

Consequently, because of the influence of his works, Wilde was invited in December 1881 to give a series of lectures in America on aesthetics. Even though the lectures were scheduled to last for only four months, he gave them for nearly a year, with over one hundred and forty lectures delivered in a period of two hundred and sixty days.

During the period, he strove to give the American people the most amiable English aesthete and this had a profound effect on the history of the U.S. (Ellmann 1987, 186-188). As a result, his teachings influenced some Americans who started to embrace aestheticism. During the tour, Wilde also met some influential American authors such as Walt Whitman and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow who had endorsed his teachings.

Again, because of the commercial success that his previous visit had brought, Wilde went back to the United States in 1882. During this second lecture tour, he spoke about the Cult of the Artificial. This notion out rightly snubbed the social conception of the natural for reasons given in the earlier sections of the paper.

Criss-crossing America on a grueling schedule, Wilde fully played the role of the aesthete while he was there and he dressed the dandy to a tee and was heard by an astonished America when, queried by Customs he said: I have nothing to declare& except my genius (Terpening 2007, para. 16).

His lectures aimed at putting together the splendor he saw in art onto the everyday lifestyle of people. He strove to realize these both practically and philosophically. For example, while he was a student at Oxford, he had adorned his dresses with blue china and lilies. Therefore, one of his talks during the tour was based on interior design. Although Wildes lectures affected the behavior of men and women in America, a number of people cruelly caricatured his views.

For example, during his tour to Boston to give a talk on aestheticism, the Republican (Springfield) newspaper wrote derogatory comments about him. However, despite the hostile media reception he received, he got a cordial reception in many parts of the United States and this assisted in facilitating the influence of his teachings.

During his life, Wilde wrote various popular and long-lived publications that greatly influenced the American society. The publications he authored made him to be recognized all over the country. More so, he was recognized as a Professor of Aesthetics.

For example in 1888, he wrote the novel The Happy Prince and Other Tales, which he dedicated to his two children he got in his marriage with Constance Lloyd. Two years later, he published The Picture of Dorian Gray. After these, he continued to publish other fairy tales. In the early 1890s, he authored a number of popular plays that further assisted in facilitating his views in Europe and America.

Lady Windermeres Fan (1892) tackled the issue of divorce in marriage, A Woman of No Importance (1893) dealt with the issue of divided allegiance among the children in the family, An Ideal Husband (1895) addressed the issue of corruption, and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895) addressed the significance of manners in the society.

Prior to writing the popular plays, Wilde had authored numerous essays and he concealed his real identity in most of them. In one of his works, The Critic as Artist (1890), he argues that criticism is the better component of creation and that it is not a must for the critic to have a fair standing or to be rational in his or her reasoning.

In a deeply conventional essay, The Soul of a Man Under Socialism (1891), he assumes a more positive perception of the road to embracing socialism and he opposes the Christian principle of self-sacrifice in favor of joyfulness. Wildes fairy tales, plays, and essays all had one purpose: to influence the behavior of his audience for them to accept his decadent views. And in the U.S., this was not an exception.

In conclusion, until his premature death on 30 November 1900, the numerous literary works that Oscar Wilde published greatly influenced the history of Europe and America. As a member of the Aesthetic Movement of the late nineteenth century, he advocated for sensitivity to artistic beauty and refined taste in his lectures and literary works. Although he was criticized for his devotion to and quest for the beautiful, his highly influential lifestyle appreciated art and beauty as the main objective of human life.

Reference List

Ellmann, Richard. 1987. Oscar Wilde. New York: Vintage Books.

Merriman, Charles. Oscar Wilde. Jalic Inc., May 2008, http://www.online-literature.com/wilde/ .

Terpening, William. The Picture of Oscar Wilde: A Brief Life. VictorianWeb, June 8, 2007, http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/wilde/wildebio.html .

Introduction

Literature stands among humanitys oldest artistic endeavors, emerging quickly after the invention of the written language. Compared to regular writing, historical records or other types of text, literature is created to relay a narrative, either realistic or fictional in nature. It is a creative work that favors the use of different phrases, capable of transferring across messages, meanings and ideas. Humans ability to write literature can be seen as a testament to their large creativity, a capacity to know, learn, remember and analyze large amounts of information. The knowledge of an author, their belief system, or their intended message  all of it is captured through text and moved across the ages to other people. With the evolution of language and the written word, the capacity of people to create stories also changed and developed, being responsible for the creation of new literary genres, traditions and customs.

The history of literature is storied, spanning multiple centuries, civilizations and approaches, becoming a testament to the peoples universal drive to create. This work will attempt to examine the development of literature throughout history in many of its iterations. The purpose behind literature will be explored, as well as its significance in the lives of individuals. Ancient societies and their literary works will be made central to this discussion. By examining and analyzing works of old, it is possible to understand the modern literary scene and its complexity. Men, in all societies, sought to present messages to others as a form of communication, education, instruction or entertainment. The desire to share ones thoughts or entrust knowledge to others is the driving force behind much of literature.

The Purpose of Literature and Writing

The written word holds an important role for people and society as a whole. A variety of different separate civilizations inventing this concept can be seen as proof of its importance. Despite great variance in culture, history, background, territory and custom, writing was invented in many ancient societies after the creation of language. It is difficult to determine who precisely was the first to invent writing as it is understood by historians, and most sources agree that four different civilizations achieved this feat around the same time period. Egyptian hieroglyphics, early Chinese scrips, Mayan texts and southwest Asias cuneiform writing were all invented around the fourth millennium B.C. (Love & Wimsatt, 2019). These writing styles used different means to inscribe messages and evolved differently from each other. However, all of them undoubtedly fulfilled many needs of ancient societies.

Writing is a means of preserving meaning, of storing and re-using information that may become a part of peoples daily life. It is also a means to communicate, a tool of interaction and an exchange of ideas. In daily life, it can be utilized to provide instructions, keep track of financial considerations, and many other things. Similarly, literature is an offshoot of standard writing, one that accomplishes specific goals by existing. Comparatively, literature is more than simply writing or recording, being imbued with additional meaning or intent. Literature can entertain others, provide important life lessons, or tell cautionary tales. It is a tool of creation and a method of artistic expression, one which often pushes a persons language skills to their limits. In the constraints of society, literature persuades others, informs them about something, and gives the writer a capacity to express their ideas. There is no singular purpose in all writing, and the ideas that can be gained from it will vary wildly from interpretation to interpretation. It is vital to see writing as a creative process first and a public service second, compiling many different goals into a single piece of writing.

Mesopotamia and First Instances of Writing

Mesopotamia, undoubtedly, can be considered the cradle of human civilization, a starting point for many artistic and written endeavors. Previously placed in the Western Asia region, Mesopotamia played a crucial role in the development of modern human societies, being far more advanced than people may believe. People of this region were capable craftsmen and inventors, being responsible for the earliest human cities, irrigation canals, temples and feats of architecture. Sumerian cities even had their own toilet systems, owning to the need to maintain public hygiene. Their linguistic tradition was well-developed and vast, owing to a complex religious-centered belief systems. Sumerians worshipped many different gods, each of whom was connected to specific areas of Mesopotamia. The myths and legends of this civilization often talked about hero-kings, and the lives of gods, while also including the near-universal flood myth. Similarly, Mesopotamian languages were among the first to be written down via cuneiform tablets. By inscribing fresh clay tablets with carvings, the Sumerian people invented writing. In daily life, writing was an important tool, commonly used for the same purposes it is used today. Record-keeping, financial transactions, exchange of letters and other matters were all handled in written form. Similarly, the lives and historic feats of important people  kings and heroes were recorded in writing as well.

The Epic of Gilgamesh

When discussing Sumerian literary works, it is impossible to understate the importance of The Epic of Gilgamesh. No other early works of Mesopotamian writing can be considered this vital to the history of literature. Despite its age, the epic is still studied for its literary value, its use of poetry, metaphor and storytelling capability. The work, recorded in a collection of clay tablets, is considered the oldest surviving piece of literature in the world. As it is found today, not all of the original tablets survived, and the text on some of the present ones is damaged. However, the piece still presents incredible value to history, archeology and literature. In its time, the text was also significant, warranting a number of adaptations and alternative versions.

The literary work itself can be seen as semi-fictional, containing both accounts of real historical events and fantastical depictions of otherworldly feats. The epic describes the life and rule of Gilgamesh, a ruler of the ancient city of Uruk (Love & Wimsatt, 2019). Gilgamesh was by no means the only significant king of Uruk, and many others were considered heroic figures by the Sumerians. However, only his feats were described by the epic, forever etching them into history and popular culture. His character in the epic is significant not only because of the mythical or superhuman qualities Gilgamesh presented but also because of the changes in the kings personality that occurred throughout the story. Beginning the story as a tyrant, the man-god develops and grows as a result of his experiences, becoming an admirable and respected ruler. Both the accounts of the fantastical battles Gilgamesh partook in and his journeys with his friend Enkidu can be seen as a foundation for the modern heroic story. Compared to a regular historical account of a rulers life, there is a clear moral and thematic throughline in the work, highlighting the importance of friendship, kindness, heroism and other positive qualities. In this way, the oldest surviving literary tale holds up as a tool for informing others, transferring ideas and creatively interpreting real-life events.

Egyptian Literature

The creation of early Egyptian writing, as mentioned previously, happened around the same time Mesopotamian writing emerged. It served common utility-centered purposes, such as naming specific people, locations or facilities in order to identify them. The ability to write to be preserved for a long time was seen as a demonstration of its divine nature and its connection with gods. Gradually, the application and use of writing in peoples lives expanded, culminating in the creation of offering lists. Much like many other customs and rituals of ancient Egyptian society, early works of writing were closely related to death and the afterlife. In particular, offering lists served as a way to commemorate a life of a person and help their life after death to be sufficiently prosperous (Lichtheim, 2019). Believing in the immortality of the human being, ancient Egyptians focused heavily on burial rites, funeral proceedings and worship of the dead. The offering lists decorated tombs of both rulers and common people, detailing all of the proper offerings the deceased person should receive. Depending on the wealth and status of an individual, it was possible to further extend the offering list made in their tomb, signifying their important position. Researchers propose that offering lists were precisely the type of writing that gradually evolved into literature (Lichtheim, 2019). Slowly changing in size and scope, these pieces of text started focusing more on the achievements and accomplishments of people instead of simply listing their names or titles (Lichtheim, 2019). This change laid the groundwork for the autobiographical genre and evolved with the eras to be described in both prose and poetry.

Egyptian Funeral and Religious Texts

When discussing the oldest significant works of literature, the Egyptian Pyramid texts can be discussed. Pyramid texts, owning to their name, are a collection of texts found within Egyptian pyramids, used as decorations for pharaohs tombs. As mentioned previously, afterlife rites and burials played a central role in Egyptian culture, making the process of decorating tombs extremely important. Pyramid texts were a part of such decorations, inscribed into the walls themselves instead of any paper or clay material. Various rituals and offerings to the Egyptian gods were inscribed into the walls, as well as specific instructions for proceedings. These can include utterances for pharaohs to rise from their tomb after death, ways for them to reach the heavens, and descriptions of their lives, among other things (Mercer, 2020). The texts held large significance for both the populace at the time and modern literary scholars. As a contemporary work, they partake in the worship of important rulers, uphold traditional Egyptian customs and serve a commemorative purpose for the dead. In modern understanding, they are also the earliest example of Egyptian literature and a clear example of how culture influences the development of the written language.

Chinese Literary History

The development of literary art in China has expansive and varied roots. Compared to places like Egypt and Mesopotamia, it becomes harder to discern which work of literature is definitively the first of its kind, given a large variety of surviving Chinese texts. The history of Chinese writing and literature itself extends through many millennia, serving utilitarian, professional and creative purposes. An interesting aspect of Chinese literature is its heavy focus on philosophical discussion, coupled with a wide variety of ideologies that influence it, including Confucianism, Daoism, and others. Some existing early works are historical or military records, others are transcripts of legal proceedings. Many books and pieces of literature have made a significant impact on Chinas state organization, the system of beliefs and values. In particular, ideas of self-cultivation, rituals, propriety and peace largely stemmed from The Five Classics  a collection of prose and poetry from an early Chinese period (Asif & Bo Ling, 2018). The nation used writing as a tool to share common morals, educate the people and encourage virtuous or rule-abiding practices. To this end, Chinese literature presents itself as a definitive authority in promoting specific modes of conduct.

Conclusion

Throughout history, literature has developed and played many different roles. Depending on the society and its people, the language grew in its own unique ways in order to help people communicate between themselves or share specific ideas. In all cases, the growth of the literary field has a close connection to a civilizations traditions, history, culture and customs. For ancient Mesopotamians, the first instances of literature were a way to tell an engaging story and deliver an emotionally-driven moralistic message while also tying together the divine and the common. Regular writing, on the other hand, was used for far more mundane purposes and helped people live their day-to-day lives easier. In Egypt, writing also developed into a tool of the masses but was much more closely connected with death and the afterlife. The pyramid texts and early offering lists both worked as a method to pay respects to the people that passed away and also honored the Egyptian gods. Both religion and common practice intersect within Egyptian literature, offering a look into how the people of many centuries prior saw the world. In the case of Chinese literature, its effects on society were also profound. Putting aside the creative merits of poetry and prose. Chinas early works have had specific applications within society and a role to play in its organization. In order to promote morals and beliefs that were seen as beneficial to both society and its people, Chinese books highlighted the importance of rituals, proper conduct and respect. Furthermore, they also set specific bars of expectations for government officials or other important positions, fulfilling the regulatory role legislative works often have. As a whole, literature has had many different effects on the world around it, working to transform and enhance the human experience. Early works of writing are a mode of self-expression, a tool for education, and a piece of instruction combined, demonstrating the diversity of human thought.

References

Asif, M., & Bo Ling, Y. (2018). Belt and Road initiative: A spirit of Chinese cultural thought.International Journal of Business and Management, 13(12), 9. Web.

Lichtheim, M. (2019). Ancient Egyptian literature. University of California Press.

Love, A. C., & Wimsatt, W. (2019). Beyond the meme: Development and structure in cultural evolution. University of Minnesota Press.

Mercer, S. (2020). The Pyramid Texts. Global Grey.