Love and Hip Hop is not merely a reality TV show; it is a cultural phenomenon that has captivated audiences worldwide. As a passionate viewer and fan, I am excited to share my personal narrative and reflections on the impact this show has had on my life. From the glamourous world of music and entertainment to the raw and unfiltered stories of love, struggle, and triumph, Love and Hip Hop has provided a platform for artists to showcase their talent and viewers to connect with their favorite stars.
Body:
The Allure of the Music Industry:
Love and Hip Hop offers a glimpse into the exhilarating world of the music industry. Through the show, I have witnessed aspiring artists chasing their dreams, navigating the complexities of the industry, and overcoming obstacles to achieve success. The show highlights the passion, talent, and dedication required to make it in the music business, inspiring viewers to pursue their own creative aspirations.
Personal Struggles and Resilience:
Love and Hip Hop delves into the personal lives of its cast members, revealing their struggles, vulnerabilities, and triumphs. The narratives often touch on issues such as relationships, family dynamics, mental health, and personal growth. These stories resonate with viewers on a deep level, reminding us that even our favorite celebrities face challenges and setbacks. Through their resilience and determination, the cast members teach us valuable lessons about overcoming adversity and staying true to ourselves.
Representation and Diversity:
One of the most significant aspects of Love and Hip Hop is its celebration of diversity and representation. The show features a wide range of cast members from different ethnicities, backgrounds, and sexual orientations. This diversity allows viewers from various communities to see themselves reflected on screen, breaking stereotypes and fostering a sense of inclusion and empowerment.
Addressing Social Issues:
Love and Hip Hop goes beyond entertainment by tackling relevant social issues. The show sheds light on topics such as systemic racism, LGBTQ+ rights, gender equality, and the struggles faced by marginalized communities. By incorporating these discussions into the narrative, Love and Hip Hop serves as a platform for awareness, education, and dialogue, encouraging viewers to examine their own biases and become agents of change.
Impact on Popular Culture:
Love and Hip Hop has left an indelible mark on popular culture. It has sparked conversations, memes, and even inspired spin-offs and merchandise. The catchphrases and iconic moments from the show have become part of our collective lexicon. Love and Hip Hop has influenced fashion, music trends, and even the way we interact with social media. It has become a cultural touchstone that unites fans around the world.
Conclusion:
Love and Hip Hop is more than just a reality TV show. It is a platform that empowers artists, showcases personal journeys, addresses social issues, and connects with audiences on a profound level. Through its captivating narratives, diverse cast, and unfiltered storytelling, Love and Hip Hop has become a cultural phenomenon that resonates with viewers across different walks of life. It reminds us of the power of passion, resilience, and the universal language of music. As a fan, I am grateful for the opportunity to be part of this journey and to witness the impact Love and Hip Hop has had on popular culture and the lives of its cast members.
‘The fire this time’ rings out the themes of indigenous resistance or indigenous reality. It shows there is a political, religious, and cultural connection among the African-American, Blacks and Native Americans and indigenous communities. This link is somehow unifying and cohesive among the people and enable people to appreciate each other more not necessary along racial boundaries, but on humane basis.
This video presentation shows the struggle for independence fought by indigenous individuals in West Papua New Guinea and other areas. This presentation is connected to a state of exploitation that continues in the world that has deprived people so much, yet the struggle continues (Raging Blakkindian Dub 2).
‘The sociology and history of African American’ brings out the theme of poverty. It observes that poverty levels are more concentrated to the urban areas due to the historical denial of access, deindustrialization, that is, lack of job opportunities, and segregation of groups. Poverty is particularly concentrated among the black community. The percentage of high poverty and extreme poverty areas has increased.
Also the book brings out the theme of crime and fratricide in an urban setting. It is notices that there is an increase in trend intra-racial homicide danger of the African Americans which is not particularly inter-racial; furthermore it was higher in black communities than any other group. By 1987, the ratio of blacks to whites is 1:9, yet almost one out of two people arrested of murder and none negligent manslaughter was a black, and 41% of those murdered were blacks (Black 210).
The cool pose’, this book brings out the theme of racism and discrimination among the various races in the United States. It also brings out the theme of dilemma of masculinity among men in the United States. Racism, harsh injustices and discrimination mostly affects black men, subjecting them to social stress and social symptoms.
Being a man and a black in US meant that one was weak economically, politically, and social arenas, which were occupied by whites. Also their hard work did not yield the same fruits as their counterparts, whites, in terms of wages and positions (Majors and Billson 3)
According to Chunk D. of ‘Public Enemy’ the “3Es” necessary for healthy community development were economics, education and enforcement, however these factors play a role in the pieces stated above. According to ‘cool pose’ social, economic and environmental problems have worsened the black men’s problems in school.
Drop-out percentages are stiff, failure is rampant, alienation is epidemic and performance is below average. Black men are suspended, expelled, kicked out and drop out of school that any other group. The black males form the highest percentage of the unemployed, in 1987 the unemployment rate stood at 34% as compared to only 17% of all races together.
According to Dr. Black (245), Blacks were always caught wrong footed by the law due to their negligent acts or desperate actions. Segregation and discrimination in workplaces have aggreviated the economic position of the black males. High poverty levels have affected their productivity and worsened their health. Segregation concentrates education disadvantage among the black communities.
External forces such as the police and the media also greatly influence the achievement of the “3Es”. The media reflect the state of the society and enlighten people on their rights and the realities of life. The media gives the people a conscious informed mind to decide in matters affecting their lives, for instance, cultural orientation, economic and political empowerment.
On the other hand, the police are the law enforcers, they are an instrument of the government to ensure law and order is maintained within the country and also ensures that rules of the law are adhered by everyone irrespective of the race. The police also ensure equity is maintained in administering justice to the masses.
There are issues that can be identified that affect other communities, not necessarily, African Americans, but regardless of the racial makeup. These include; gender discrimination, environmental calamities, political instabilities or poor governments, social unrests, corruption, and unfair judicial systems.
Works Cited
Black, Albert. The Sociology and History of African Americans, volume 1. Washington, DC: University of Washington, 2000. Print.
Majors, Richard & Billson Janet. Cool Pose: The Dilemmas of Black Manhood in America. Simon & Schuster, 1992. Print.
Raging Blakkindian Dub. The Fire this Time. 2009. Web.
The book Can’t Stop Won’t Stop: A History of the Hip-Hop Generation brings out the history of the United States from the eyes of a person who would have been considered a loser in the past. The book is about how the underdogs created the Hip hop culture and music and then struggled to make these well recognized arts in the America society.
It is somewhat a story about how these underdogs came from rugs to riches through developing the Hip-hop culture. The author depicts how Hip-hop grew from something that was practiced in the ghettos to the headlines in mainstream America.
In this book, Chang highlights the plight of Hip-hop entertainers such as graffiti artists, deejays and emcees from the ghettos of LA, NY and Kingston and how life struggles motivated them to success.
Chang captures how the pioneers of the Hip-hop culture faced economic, social and political struggles in their quest to make it in life. Chang divided the book into parts known as Loops which are arranged chronologically to show the history of Hip-hop.
Introduction
The Introduction was written by Kool Herc to depict the story about the Hip-hop culture. Herc brings out that Hip-hop is not only an art but also a means of expression for the current generation. Hip-hop has kept alive ideologies that were invented in the Bronx in the 1970s.
These ideologies and history have been preserved by the culture since even people who did not live during that time have a clear view of all that transpired then. Even though times have changed since the Bronx most struggles that the youth experience today are the same as those faced by minority groups during the 1970s.
Herc pointed out that Hip-hop gives the neglected youth a voice through which they can air their grievances to the society. In the Introduction Herc explains that Hip-hop today connects youths from all over the world given that it has become a powerful force.
From the Introduction, the modern generation can understand that Hip-hop is more than a form of music or lifestyle. Herc explained that Hip-hop provides a voice to the oppressed and it has been used successfully in the past. Hip-hop was used by youths in the ghettos to express their afflictions since society had neglected them and denied them of their rights as citizens.
They turned to Hip-hop as a source of expression where they turned their aggression into rap music and graffiti art. This later grew to become famous and a source of livelihood in addition to being a form of expression.
The Introduction points out the origin of Hip-hop and provides the current generation of youths with information about how the culture came into existence. This is important as it keeps the movement focused on relevant issues and not just the economic aspect of Hip-hop.
The First Loop. “Babylon is Falling: 1968-1977”
In the first Loop entitled “Babylon is Falling: 1968-1977”, Chang brings out how the Bronx was almost being turned into a neglected land that is forgotten. In the neglected ghettos, there were social issues as well as political tensions and these gave rise to the practices of Hip-hop artists. The problem of rebellion that was in these areas was because of oppression of the poor.
There was a deliberate attempt to turn the Bronx into an obsolete land with limited opportunities and this offended the residents. Other issues included poor education, criminal activity and abandoned project buildings. According to Chang and Herc (2008), the roots of the Hip-hop culture came from the gang culture that was prevalent in the Bronx during the late 1970s.
During this period, graffiti art and hip hop music were done in the streets by black and brown people. From the first Loop, Chang traces the roots of Hip-hop back to the rebellion that occurred in the Bronx and Jamaica and he establishes that oppression during this era gave birth to the culture today known as Hip-hop.
What emerges from Loop 1 is that the Hip-hop culture did not just emerge from the blues or from the creativity of an individual. Rather, the culture came into existence as a result of the many struggles that people living in marginalized ghettos were going through.
That being stated, it is likely that were it not for the discrimination and neglect of the poor people in Jamaica and The Bronx, Hip-hop culture could not have come out in the form that it did.
Even though people in other ghettos were going through similar unpleasant situations, they may not have been as courageous and creative as the pioneers of Hip-hop. Chang does well to highlight the origin of Hip-hop lest it be assumed that the culture just came into existence naturally.
Something else which emerges from the segment of Babylon is Falling is that the traits of Hip-hop are associated with resistance to oppression. Hip-hop was used by the youth during the 1970s to express themselves since they were neglected and considered as outsiders in their own country.
This form of discrimination pushed youths in the ghettos into activities such as drug abuse, crime and gang mentality. The political and social situation during that time forced youths into these vices since they were neglected and unable to access decent means of living.
This however raises the question that, “are youths justified to adopt Hip-hop lifestyle in the current era when discrimination and poverty are addressed by the government?”
What is seen today in the name of Hip-hop is a fusion of different genres of music with the themes of partying, making money or sex. There have been attempts to revive the Hip-hop culture and return it to what it used to be in the past.
Hip-hop artists such as Common, Nas and KRS 1 have tried to release music that emphasize on the need for a united movement which focuses on important issues in society and not the popular topics which jam the airwaves nowadays. These attempts have had little impact since the music which sells is still based on leisure topics such as partying.
The efforts put in by the pioneers of Hip-hop appear to be dwindling away because of the current breed of artists who have no regard for the struggles of the minority groups.
These artists are also not concerned with political issues and their implication on the poor and marginalized groups. Herc and Chang did well to educate people about the history of Hip-hop since without this information the movement could have already lost direction and meaning.
Reference
Chang, J. & Herc K. (2008). Can’t Stop Won’t Stop: A History of the Hip-Hop Generation. St. Martins Press, New York.
Despite its modern popularity, Hip Hop has been an unambiguously African-American cultural heritage birthed from the unique amalgamation of hybrid social influences (Forman 1). As such, it has often reflected the voice of the African-American population in the national discourse surrounding heavy topics of race, social culture, and identity. The structure that is hip-hop has been often identified as resting upon four core elements, which are rapping (MCing), Disk-Jockeying (DJing), break-dancing (b-boying), and aerosol art (graffiti) (Forman 1-2).
Conscious hip-hop developed as a sub-genre of political hip-hop, which started as a platform of transforming rap music into a call for social activism and political or social action. While there is no overarching political hip hop ideology; with perspectives ranging from Marxism to the beliefs of Flat-Earth Theory, conscious hip hop seeks to challenge the dominant philosophical, economic, cultural, and political consensus. As such, it is decidedly antagonistic to the status quo, despite not aggressively advocating for specific paths or demanding revolution. Rather, conscious hip hop raises awareness on social, cultural, and political issues, leaving the listener to come to their own opinions. This is also its discerning feature versus political hip hop, with the latter being delivered in a charged, militant fashion (Adaso 1).
With hip hop being reflective of the lived-in conditions of its creators, and this population being predominantly African-American people, rap has often been emotionally, culturally, and politically charged. This undertone, both in the message and execution of the song, has been more predominantly pronounced within conscious hip hop. As a result, this essay will seek to review how the message in conscious hip hop has morphed to reflect the current racial and social fractures within the current political regime within the United States.
The History and Rise of Conscious Hip Hop
A significant influence on the emergence of political and conscious hip hop can be attributed to the Civil-Rights Movements and the Black Power Movements of the 60s and 70s in the United States. These movements provided an emphasis on black pride while providing commentaries on Black ideological elements. Some of the songs within this era, which proudly carried the theme of black pride may include James Brown’s Say it Loud (I’m Black and I’m Proud) in 1968, Nina Simone’s To Be Young, Gifted and Black in 1969, and Billy Paul’s Am I Black Enough for You in 1972. These earliest conveyances of social and political commentary were mostly within the genres of soul, jazz, and funk, but would form an indisputable influence in the sound and message that would be later carried by hip hop (Forman 4).
The regime of President Ronald Reagan in 1980, however, brought worsening conditions for the impoverished urban African-American youth. As a result, hip-hop artists began to incrementally address their communities’ worsening conditions social issues including political apathy, police brutality, and incarceration or mass unemployment, and oppression (Forman 10). This situation creates the precedence of hip hop as reflective of the socio-political climate in the country, especially as influencing the African-American population. This particular amalgamation of issues and complex socio-political climate greatly influenced the birth of conscious hip hop, along with its “genre cousins” of political hip hop and gangsta hip hop; like the birth of music has often been in response to powerful events happening within the world of the artists (Burnimm 620).
Of these subgenres, the most sensationalized in media and research was Gangsta Rap. This was primarily due to its blunt, unapologetic approach to its political, cultural, and social commentary. Its pioneers are N.W.A, Ice Cube, and Ice T, who blended crime stories, the ideology of “the street”, and aggression towards perceived oppressive structures (Forman 2; Lawson 554). A toned-down version of this sub-genre political hip hop, with the focus being primarily still on the economically, culturally, and politically disenfranchised black community. However, conscious hip hop would be later coined by the term “message rap” which was developed following the release of pioneers Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five’s The Message in 1982. This term suggests an element of reflection and intellectual engagement on the prevalent social issues, primarily race and class struggle and this aligns with Dyson’s definition of conscious rap as “rap that is socially aware and consciously connected to the historic patterns of political protest and aligned with progressive forces of social critique” (Dyson 64). This ideology resonates strongly, and is tinged with the message of Du Bois, that the African-American strives not to influence, but rather for equality; to be accorded equal rights as those of his fellow citizen and not be discriminated against (Du Bois 41).
Ideology in Contemporary Society, and Popular Themes
Socially aware hip-hop artists will often dissect the ideals and attitudes proliferating mainstream culture. With the beginning of the current political regime of President Donald J. Trump; which has often been criticized for divisive and discriminatory politics, prevalent messages against institutionalized racism and classism, as well as promoting black liberation have been relayed consistently across modern conscious hip hop.
Anti-Racism, Black Liberation, and Nationalism
The 2016 Presidential elections were dominated in large part by a dominant catch-phrase by the would-be successful candidate, Donald Trump. This was the “Make America Great Again” slogan. This particular slogan was seen by many, especially the African-American community and other minorities, as a loaded phrase. This was partly due to the racist-coded undertones that appealed to the predominantly white population that may have felt their loss of status with the previous regime under an African-American president, and also the politics of the candidate which were often divisive across social and racial lines. The slogan also mirrors Ronald Reagan’s 1980 election bid slogan which was “Let’s make America Great Again.”
Joey Bada$$ would later reveal that he released his song “Land of the Free” on January 20th, 2017 to coincide with the day that Donald Trump was inaugurated as president (Genius 1). This particular song featured heavily subliminal messages on racism, classism, and black liberation with lyrics such as “… can’t change the world until we change ourselves…” which speaks to the liberation of the oppressed. Further, the lyrics allude to the Ku Klux Klan through the spelling of its America as “Amerikkka” to symbolize the racism that is prevalent in the country and the artist’s concerns that the entry of Donald Trump as the 45th President would only exacerbate the situation. This is further outlined in his lyric “… Donald Trump is not equipped to take this country over. Let’s face facts ‘cause we know what’s the real motives” (Genius 1). This message of anti-racism and Black Liberation, such as his lyric “Still got the last names of our slave owners” is reiterated with other hip hop artists and songs in this period including Joyner Lucas’s’ I’m not Racist and Childish Gambino’s This is America.
Joyner Lucas’ I’m Not Racist in particular is a comprehensive song with an ambient trip-hop beat that is an experimental sound sourced from funk, jazz, and R&B which may be a homage to the roots of conscious hip-hop. The song’s lyrics represent an uncomfortable discourse on race and classist stereotypes that the population shies away from, without the artist explicitly taking one side or the other. However, in the music video, the white actor in it dons a “Make America Great Again” cap. On the other hand, Childish Gambino’s “This Is America” addresses a wider issue of mass shootings and gun violence in the US, along with enduring racism and discrimination against African-American communities. As the title portrays, the music video to the song was a bleak representation of the state of America at the time, with the artist being both “the purveyor of violence, and the subject of terror” (Prettyman 156).
Anti-Poverty, Socialism, and Class Struggle
Many hip hop artists come from primarily underclass communities, and hence the ideals of anti-poverty, socialism, and class struggle are often reflected in their lyrics. This may also be politically exacerbated by the current regime, with the prevailing attitude among African-American communities being that the president and regime may be disconnected from their plight owing to his privileged background. A powerful example of a socially empowering song would be Logic’s “1-800-273-8255” featuring artists Alessia Cara and Khalid. Which passes an anti-suicide message right from the title, which is the US suicide hotline. In this song, which was released in partnership with the National Suicide Prevention Lifeline, the following lyric is featured; “I’ve been on the low, I been taking my time. I feel like I’m out of my mind… Who can relate?” (Genius 1). The artists collaboratively provide the message that there is help for anyone that is dejected, and that giving up is never the answer
Further, the Kendrick Lamar song “XXX” featuring U2 is seen as an allegory of the current political regime and the underlying class struggle. This is embodied in Kendrick’s lyric “… God bless America you know we all love him. Yesterday I got a call like from my dog like 101. Said they killed his only son because of insufficient funds…” and “…It’s murder on my street, your street, back streets Wall Street, corporate offices Banks, employees, and bosses with Homicidal thoughts; Donald Trump’s in office…” (Genius 1). The artist seeks to reflect the classism and struggle happening in the disenfranchised African-American communities, to which he belongs.
Conclusions and Reflections
Hip hop has been an unambiguously African-American movement, despite contemporary popularity and a more widespread acceptance. As a result, artists within the genre have often used the platform to voice their outlook on the issues that are plaguing their communities, ranging from social, cultural, and political problems, to personal ideologies and teachings. With the current regime being widely viewed as disenfranchising to the African-American community, and regular racially-loaded messages and controversies hitting both mainstream and social media platforms, conscious hip hop; which has always been concerned with social and political commentary, has evolved to reflect the situation. Further, this has seen the popularity of this particular medium grow, with artists identified primarily as conscious artists gaining mainstream popularity, and escaping the obscurity of the underground (Adaso 3). These may include Kendrick Lamar, J-Cole, Common, Lupe Fiasco, and Common among others. The message in contemporary conscious hip hop has been primarily on anti-racism, which may reflect on the current socio-political situation within the United States.
Works Cited
Adaso, Henry. “Conscious Rap Reveals Genre’s Uplifting Side but Has Limited Appeal.” LiveAbout, LiveAbout, 2018. Web.
Burnim, Mellonee V., and Portia K. Maultsby, eds. African-American music: an introduction. Routledge, 2014.
Du Bois, W. “The Souls of Black Folks. Of Our Spiritual Strivings.” Chicago: AC McClurg and Co (1903).
Dyson, Michael Eric. Know what I mean?: Reflections on hip-hop. Civitas Books, 2007.
Forman, Murray. “Conscious hip-hop, change, and the Obama era.” (2010).
Genius. “Joey Bada$$ – LAND OF THE FREE.” Genius, 2017. Web.
Lawson, Aaron. “Straight outta Compton: Witness the strength of disability rights taking one last stand for education reform.” Syracuse L. Rev. vol. 67, 2017, pp 551.
Prettyman, Michele. “The Persistence of” Wild Style”: Hip-Hop and Music Video Culture at the Intersection of Performance and Provocation.” JCMS: Journal of Cinema and Media Studies, vol. 59, no. 2, 2020, pp.151-157.
Music has always been one of the main topics for discussion among scholars. The modern world has brought to society lots of different styles, genres, and directions in music. Hip-hop culture is one of the music genres which appeared in America in the 1970s. There are several ite3ms that create the hip-hop culture: MCing, DJing, graffiti writing, and break dancing. Hip-hop fashion and slang do play not the last role in the hip-hop culture.
Hip-hop has always been associated with men, but at the beginning of the 1990s women became an essential part of hip-hop. It is not that till that time women did not participate in hip-hop culture, they were not placed on one level with them. “Black women’s involvement in the fostering African-American community development forms the basis for community-based power” (Forman Keyes 2004-267).
The prejudices that the only man can “move the crowd” (Forman Rose 2004-299) have been ruined many years ago. Women create their pieces of music on the same themes as men, they also read rap on racism, physical abuse of women and children, drug addiction and AIDS, teen pregnancy and black politics, and others. (Forman Rose 2004).
“Women artists must be vigilant about keeping the history of their contribution to the art form of MCing top of mind. As the sole female on a song full of male rhymes, Mystic embraces the charge of representing the ladies” (Hess 2007-66).
Non-white women entered the hip-hop culture with four categories of rap music performances: “Queen Mother”, “Fly Girl”, “Sista with Attitude” and “Lisbian”. Four of these categories are mirrors of images, voices, and lifestyle, they “are introduced to rap by specific female rappers or MCs and are considered by the interpretive community in general as representative of and specific to African American female identity in contemporary urban culture” (Forman Keyes 2004-266).
Some people worry that too much sex and violence are presented in rap music. The youth is listening to it and makes some conclusions, they live by this music and the society is worried about their outlook, which is created influenced by rap music. Cheo Coker said that rap is a direct reflection of society, and it will be able to change “no sooner than the populace that influences it changes its audience” (August 2000).
To be honest, we should not blame rap music for violence and sex, all the violence and sex which is observed in rap music are those negative things the rap musicians see in the society, in the country they live in. “Hip-hop can give us the mirror the ills of the society and to tap that potential we need to look in that mirror and work to change the things we see” (Forman Pough 2004-288).
Non-white women were in the male shade for a long time. The hip-hop culture society was not sure whether they will be able to create a great effect by their creations of the listener. But women were not afraid, they took the risk and compete with men and did not fail. Now non-white women’s hip-hop culture flourish, and people consider them to be even better than men in some aspects, dance and body movements for example.
The hip-hop culture increases all the time and the part of women does not reduce, moreover, it increases. Black female identity took a worthy place in rap music performance.
Works Cited
Coker, Cheo. “Who’s gonna take the weight” Essence magazine. August 2000.
Forman, Murray. Neal, Mark Anthony. That’s the joint! The hip-hop studies reader. Routledge, 2004.
Hess, Mickey. Icons of hip hop: an encyclopedia of the movement, music, and culture. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007.
There are many ways to learn more about hip hop, its impact on people, and its development through different decades. In the United States of America, hip hop is defined not only as a music style with its own characteristics and features. It is a style of human life, an explanation of people’s thoughts or even the ground people try to rely on. Hip-Hop: Beyond Beats and Rhymes is a documentary movie that helps not only to understand the nature of hip hop but to connect a single style of music with the necessity of such crucial issues as social identity, inequality, and the necessity to meet the standards people set and expect to be fulfilled.
There are many educative and provocative scenes in Hip-Hop: Beyond Beats and Rhymes; still, the scene from the photo session with hip hop artists such as Busta Rhymes, Mos Def, and Talib Kweli remains to be remarkable due to the possibility to understand that social identity is not what a person actually is but what other people want to see in this person.
Every scene of the documentary movie Hip-Hop: Beyond Beats and Rhymes has its meaning and goal. Byron Hurt, the director and producer of the movie tries to choose the most interesting moments from the interviews with celebrities, who share their points of view about hip hop and how it may influence the style and quality of life. The scene with the photo session of several famous hip hop artists shows that people are diverse, and even their passion to one music style should not be a criterion according to which all people can be divided into several groups. Many people accept hip hop as a harsh and tough style where people promote the ideas of violence, sexual diversity, masculinity, and man’s power.
Busta Rhymes underlines the necessity to look “tough” and consider the importance of “tough position in everything” (Hip-Hop: Beyond Beats and Rhymes). His words mean that people expect hip hop to be tough. There are no options for artists except following these expectations. Still, it does not mean that they have to stay harsh in their real family lives. They can smile, make jokes, have fun, and even be kind to everyone around them. In fact, this scene helps to understand that the issue of social identity should be a kind of personal decision made by a person regarding their own feelings, emotions, dreams, and needs.
Being an international student from China and living in Seattle during the last several years, I have already realized that it is not always necessary to choose social identity in regards to the expectations of people around. Still, as soon as the choice is made, a person has no right to deviate from the decisions made. I think that America is the country where people, both native citizens, and residents, are free to decide what styles of life they can choose, what music they can listen, what words they can use in their language, and what thoughts they can develop. The only thing that is really required is to stay loyal to every decision made, and every word said.
In general, social identity is a personal sense of who they are in regard to the groups they belong to. It is an image that is created by a person, and as soon as it is created, it cannot be radically changed because it helps a person to survive in the world, find the required portion of support and understanding, and believe in personal powers and abilities.
Works Cited
Hip-Hop: Beyond Beats and Rhymes. Dir. Byron Hurt. Perf. Busta Rhymes, Chuck D, and Fat Joe. PBC, 2006. Web.
Figure 1. 50 Cent’s “Get Rich or Die Tryin’” mainstream. Adapted from “50 Cent’s Story: From Shootings to Million-Dollar Deals,” by Virk, K, 2018, BBC.
Thinking about media examples of deviant behaviors, the hip-hop subculture is one of the most obvious solutions. In a short period, rappers were able to create their masterpieces and motivate millions of people through their songs and stories. Early 50 Cent posters were usually characterized by aggressiveness and violence because of the image chosen by Curtis James Jackson III. His album “Get Rich or Die Tryin’” was everywhere, and his photo behind the broken glass (as shown in Figure 1) was recognizable (Virk, 2018). At first, society might negatively react to this example because it is associated with the disorder and the desire to break something (e.g., law, people, or even human souls) to deliver the message. However, there is a chance to change this opinion and treat this picture as I do. My feelings about the offered media example are more compassionate. I see a black person with sad and even angry eyes (maybe because of misunderstandings, prejudice, and discrimination). He has to break the glass to be recognized and heard by society, relying on his strengths and abilities.
In most cases, people find it appropriate to consider social deviance as the intention to cross the line for personal benefits. In this media example, 50 Cent is represented through the broken glass, which is not socially appropriate and is usually provoked by some fight or other criminal intentions. Conflict theorists introduce crime as a rational act that may be explained by the inevitability of certain conditions (Clinard & Meier, 2016). This theory underlines the role of the government and law in protecting human property and rights (Clinard & Meier, 2016). The glass represents the line that should be broken for certain groups of people to gain equality and understanding. In general, this example proves that hip-hop music and subculture can be dangerous for those who poorly interpret it. As a result, aggression, anger, and conflict are the first words that come to people’s minds when they think about hip-hop. Instead, it is high time to look at the situation from a different angle and discover a new characteristic of social deviance in modern society.
References
Clinard, M. B., & Meier, R. F. (2016). Sociology of deviant behavior (15th ed.). Cengage Learning.
In his book Know What I Mean? Reflections on Hip Hop, Eric Dyson explores hip-hop and considers a variety of facets of this culture and its impact on the development of the American society and other subcultures. One of the most interesting and meaningful arguments the author provides is that the culture reflects the way African Americans see themselves as prisoners of the society.
As Dyson puts it, black males understand who they really are in prison “because the society throws you few other options, means that you’re already in a kind of psychological and spiritual prison” (14). It is necessary to note that the author makes a strong argument and proves that black males explore their identity through prison experiences.
Prison and Hip-Hop
Going to Prison
In the first place, it is necessary to note that prison is seen as the most important factor affecting development of black males’ identity and three types of experiences are singled out. Admittedly, these people see prison as one of two options as they have to live in “poverty-stricken neighborhoods” and get a “low-wage employment” or “a life of imprisonment” (Baxter and Marina 98).
Hip-hop performers romanticize prison experiences and depict them as a necessary route for a black male (Masciotra 64). Dyson stresses that this stage of hip-hoppers’ life is the beginning of their great life as people are “already in a kind of psychological and spiritual prison” (14). Therefore, their way to prison is not frightening at all as they are already enclosed in a cell.
Returning from Prison
Another important stage is returning home. In terms of hip-hop culture, black male can never start valuing freedom until they feel the emotions of returning home from prison. This experience also makes black males feel a part of a larger group as Dyson names it “a gang, a crew… a tribe” (15). Therefore, there is a certain transition from one particular group to the other where roles are clear and taken for granted (Dobrin 172).
Those pertaining to this culture feel safe as they know the route from their own experience or from other people’s (especially hip-hop performers’) experience. Notably, storytelling is crucial for the hip-hop culture and it develops black males’ identities very often (Hill 252). The impact the hip hop culture has on development of African Americans’ identities will be discussed in detail below.
In prison
Finally, one of the most important stages is being in prison. Dyson states that being “locked up” and taken away from relatives and friends is often painful but it strengthens inmates’ character (15). It is noteworthy that Dyson’s argument is very precise and comprehensive at the same time as black males are ‘locked up’ in prison and the larger American society by existing conventions.
It is possible to infer that they see themselves as underprivileged people who are doomed to be incarcerated both physically and metaphorically. Basically, prison is seen as a school of life for a ‘righteous’ black male. Inmates learn how to survive and become real men. Notable, prison is often seen as another ghetto where African Americans are placed by the society. Hip-hop performers and those sharing values of this culture bear in mind a simple truth that prison is a way to become stronger and able to survive in a bigger world.
Identity and Masculinity
As has been mentioned above, these three stages of life affect development of a black male’s identity. Dyson notes that black males “shape a large part of their identity” in prison (14). Again, while sharing stories, they contribute to creation of a particular type of identity. Of course, in these stories, reality is somewhat distorted and people start valuing quite specific qualities. For instance, these people have to feel they are different from the society and they have to share the same background (come from poor neighborhoods).
Black males as well as representatives of other races adopt the image of the real male who is against the system (Forman 4). It is noteworthy that lots of under-privileged whites and Hispanic people easily adopt hip-hop culture and strive for sharing the same identity codes (Hess 372). It is important to add that many educators use hip-hop songs to address the youth (Alim 162). Kelly suggests that this is a way to speak the same language with students and shape (at least, slightly) their identities (53).
More so, hip-hop has become a global culture for those who are deprived of benefits of life within the system. Dyson argues that this way of life is created by the society and, for black males, “a necessity is turned into a virtue” (14). For instance, Australian hip-hop performers use the same cues and identify themselves with African Americans (Dominello 40). Interestingly, hip-hop culture also affects development of Chinese subcultures (Liu 146). Therefore, it ceased to be a culture of black males only as it has been reaching loads of other races and even social groups.
Apart from identity, hip-hop culture is associated with black males’ masculinity. Dyson argues that masculinity and “the black male body is constantly assaulted by the withering force of injustice” (16). Clearly, a variety of hip-hop songs contain mentioning of masculinity or the way a guy should act and even look like (Arthur 106). Alim also notes that hip-hop culture often marginalizes women who are seen as somewhat inferior (“Does Hip Hop Hate Women” 22).
Feminist scholars stress that hip-hop culture undermines creative power and participation of women in development of this subculture (Durham 118). Dyson also claims that masculinity is often associated with certain violence due to prison experiences shared by black males (17). This element of the culture has drawn a lot of attention of researchers who argue that violence in songs often transforms in domestic violence (Cundiff 72). Thus, black males believe they have the right to use violence against their partners as it is a way to reveal their masculinity.
Conclusion
On balance, it is possible to note that Dyson provides a strong argument that hip hop culture is based on prison experiences. Black males share their stories and develop particular identity and masculinity. The author suggests that this culture creates certain comfort zone for those who see themselves as underprivileged individuals who are against the society rather than within it.
Numerous researchers come to similar conclusions and even try to shape young people’s identities. Admittedly, hip hop culture is a product of a combination of socioeconomic and historical factors. The American society is still divided into many groups and people within these groups feel they have to develop conventions and follow certain rules to survive.
Works Cited
Alim, H. Samy. “Critical Hip-Hop Language Pedagogies: Combat, Consciousness, and the Cultural Politics of Communication.” Journal of Language, Identity, and Education 6.2 (2007): 161-176. Print.
—. Does Hip Hop Hate Women?: A Community Dialogue about Hip Hop and Gender Politics. n.d.
Arthur, Damien. Hip Hop Consumption and Masculinity. n.d.
Baxter, Vern Kenneth and Peter Marina. “Cultural Meaning and Hip-Hop Fashion in the African-American Male Youth Subculture of New Orleans.” Journal of Youth Studies 11.2 (2008): 93-113. Print.
Cundiff, Gretchen. “The Influence of Rap/Hip-Hop Music: A Mixed-Method Analysis on Audience Perceptions of Misogynistic Lyrics and the Issue of Domestic Violence.” The Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications 4.1 (2013): 71-93. Print.
Dobrin, Sidney I. Race and the Public Intellectual: A Conversation with Michael Eric Dyson. n.d. Web.
Dominello, Zachariah. “Keepin’ It Real, Mate: A Study of Identity in Australian Hip Hop.” Griffith Working Papers in Pragmatics and Intellectual Communication 1.1 (2008): 40-47. Print.
Durham, Aisha. “Hip Hop Feminist Media Studies.” International Journal of African Studies 16.1 (2010): 117-135. Print.
Dyson, Michael Eric. Know What I Mean?: Reflections on Hip-Hop. New York, NY: Westview Press, 2007. Print.
Forman, Murray. “General Introduction.” That’s the Joint!: The Hip-Hop Studies Reader. Ed. Murray Forman and Mark Anthony Neal. New York, NY: Routledge, 2011. 1-9. Print.
Hess, Mickey. “Hip-Hop Realness and the White Performer.” Critical Studies in Media Communication 22.5 (2005): 372-389. Print.
Hill, Marc Lamont. “Wounded Healing: Forming a Storytelling Community in Hip-Hop Lit.” Teachers College Record 111.1 (2009): 248-293. Print.
Kelly, Lauren Leigh. ” Hip-Hop Literature: The Politics, Poetics, and Power of Hip-Hop in the English Classroom.” English Journal 102.5 (2013): 51-56. Print.
Liu, Xuexin. “Across the Borders: Hip Hop’s Influence on Chinese Youth Culture.” Southeast Review of Asian Studies 32.1 (2010): 146-153. Print.
Masciotra, David. Working on a Dream: The Progressive Political Vision of Bruce Springsteen. New York, NY: Bloomsbury Publishing USA, 2010. Print.
One of the most notable aspects of a contemporary living in America is the fact that, as of today, the sub-culture of Hip-Hop had ceased being considered in terms of a largely marginalized socio-cultural phenomenon. Probably the main reason for this is that, as time goes on, Hip-Hop continues to grow ever more discursively inclusive, which in turn creates the objective preconditions for it to acquire the status of a fully legitimate culture of its own. Even today, Hip-Hop has effectively stopped being solely associated with a particular music style – hence, causing people to increasingly refer to it as the multi-dimensional ‘style of life’: “Its (Hip-Hop’s) cultural forms or common activities, include — DJing (i.e., ‘turntablism’), rapping (i.e., ’emceeing’), dancing (i.e., ‘breaking’ or breakdancing), and art writing (‘graffiti art’)” (Brunson 6).
In its turn, this allows us to hypothesize that Hip-Hop can be best discussed as the cultural medium that allows its creators (African-Americans) to project their existential anxieties unto the American society, which in turn makes it possible for them to contribute to the ‘making of America actively’. In my paper, I will explore the validity of this suggestion at length, while advancing the idea that Hip-Hop (especially ‘rapping’) can be well seen as the instrument of African-American perceptual/socio-economic liberation.
Nowadays, it became a commonplace practice to suggest that, up until comparatively recent times, African-Americans used to suffer from being exposed to the different forms of racial discrimination. What it is rarely mentioned, however, is that even today, these people often find it rather impossible to remain thoroughly observant of the conventions of the currently predominant euro-centric discourse in America, as subtly racist and even worse – utterly hypocritical. The reason for this is quite apparent – this discourse is being largely concerned with the country’s White Conservatives opposing their Liberal White adversaries.
Yet, neither the Conservative no Liberal cause appeals to the majority of African-Americans, as individuals who, due to being psychologically healthy, are well capable of recognizing the sheer fallaciousness of both of the mentioned causes. After all, despite their ability to indulge in the well-meaning rhetoric of political-correctness, the country’s White ‘owners’ never ceased being solely concerned with striving to enjoy the sensual pleasures of life (sex), to attain a social prominence (domination) and to become rich (money). In its turn, this established the objective prerequisites for the emergence of Hip-Hop as we know it.
After all, this sub-culture can be well discussed, as such that reflects the fact that ever since the early seventies, African-Americans began to grow increasingly aware that, in order for them to be able to get rid of their socially underprivileged status, they must be willing to face the truth that there is nothing ‘metaphysical’ about one’s life. Being essentially ‘hairless apes,’ people cannot help having their unconscious desires essentially animalistic – even when they do not admit it to themselves consciously. This explains why, ever since the time of its emergence, Hip-Hop became strongly affiliated with promoting materialism, violence, and sexism – the trend that reached its peak during the nineties (Crossley 504).
Thus, Hip-Hop can be well discussed as the instrument of Black people’s intellectual liberation from the religion-based White oppressiveness. Therefore, it is fully explainable why, ever since the early seventies, African-Americans were able to empower themselves rather substantially, in the social sense of this word. It appears that this is the direct consequence of the fact that, after having adopted Hip-Hop as an integral part of their lifestyle, they were able to perceive the surrounding social reality, as it is, without holding any idealistic illusions about it.
Apparently, the sheer popularity of Hip-Hop, as a sub-culture (not only among Blacks but among Whites, as well) directly derives from the fact that it is thoroughly consistent with most fundamental Darwinian laws of nature. As Murray pointed out: “Hip-hop has no taboos, and it resists the mythic unity and naivete of Afrocentricity and Black Nationalism, opting instead for the hustler, “playa’,” pimp mentality, the money-rules-everything-around-me mentality” (6).
Thus, it will be thoroughly appropriate, on our part, to suggest that Hip-Hop represents specifically those people (primarily, African-Americans), who happened to be both:
endowed with plenty of biological vitality,
possessing certain intellectual integrity that allows them to celebrate such their endowment.
Allegorically speaking, Hip-Hop is a ‘raw power,’ which originates in the hearts of intellectually liberated African-Americans, and which is now being enjoyed in just about every part of the world — conceptually speaking. However, Hip-Hop is best defined as the tool of self-affirmation, on the part of those people who, despite having suffered from different injustices in the past (due to the color of their skin), grew powerful enough to be claiming their share of ‘goodies’ in the White-dominated world. As Shabazz noted: “Hip-hop’s spatial practice allows for practitioners to transform their lives through transforming the built environment.
It is a way to challenge exclusion and access spatial power through the Black occupation of public space” (373). Therefore, it is fully explainable why the representatives of just about every racial minority (such as Puerto-Ricans) in the U.S. enjoy the public image of being strongly affiliated with Hip-Hop – such their image confirms that these people indeed have what it takes to be able to put away with the legacy of White oppression, once and for all. Hip-Hop actually helps them to confirm it in their own eyes: “Like other Latino groups, Puerto Ricans are using rap as a vehicle for affirming their history, language, and culture under conditions of rampant discrimination and exclusion” (Flores 84). Thus, there is indeed a good rationale in referring to Hip-Hop in terms of a culturally-philosophical paradigm, which helps its affiliates to challenge the hegemony of pretentiously tolerant but factually vicious Whites and to reclaim the environmental niche of the latter consequently.
What has been said earlier, in regards to the actual significance of Hip-Hop, should not be considered merely a piece of abstract philosophizing? The reason for this is that it is not only that Hip-Hop empowers those associated with it theoretically, but also practically. The validity of this statement can be illustrated, in regards to the Hip-Hop cult-figure Kool Herc – a person who is being commonly referred to as the concerned sub-culture’s ‘father.’ Before he moved to New York from Jamaica, the cultural life of the city’s Black community used to revolve around the functioning of Black commercial radios, which mostly broadcasted White pop and disco music (Berman 138).
In its turn, this presupposed the situation when the performance of DJs was essentially concerned with changing vinyl records upon the club-owners’ request. Herc changed all that – during the music-parties that he used to stage, DJs never ceased to remain in the action’s actual control, by the mean of resorting to the so-called ‘reggae-scratching’ technique, which allowed them to create nothing short of the compositions of their own, without having been required to compose music. According to Chang, this was nothing short of a groundbreaking musical revolution: “Forget melody, chorus, songs – it was all about the groove, building it, keeping it going… Herc zeroed in on the fundamental vibrating loop at the heart of the record, the break” (79).
Therefore, there is nothing surprising about the fact that Herc went down the history of Hip-Hop as the first MC (master of ceremonies) ever – unlike his predecessors in the field of ‘Black music,’ he succeeded in turning the newly emerged Hip-Hop style into the gizmo of a social advancement for otherwise underprivileged Black youth. This simply could not be otherwise, because Herc’s very approach to staging music-parties made it possible for young African-Americans to compete with each other on a dance-floor, while Herc was inserting reggae-‘breaks’ (some of which used to last for no less than 10 minutes) between the song’s consequential parts.
In other words, Herc’s music allowed the transformation of formerly passive Black listeners into the musical action’s active participants – hence, providing them with not only the opportunity to enjoy themselves, during the musical performance’s entirety but also to take practical advantage of their genetically predetermined talent for dancing and rhyming.
As of today, the Hip-Hop sub-culture continues with the mission of increasing the measure of evolutionary fitness, on the part of African-Americans. The reason for this is that, despite being criticized (on account of its presumed ‘low-class’), this sub-culture is essentially concerned with the promotion of the masculine existential values among ‘ghetto’-residents: “Attaining manhood through a struggle with white patriarchy… is an essential element in the (Hip-Hop-driven) construction of Black masculinity” (Shabazz 372).
This explains why Hip-Hop is being criticized by both: Right and Left, in the first place – the concerned White critics unconsciously perceive it as the threat to their continual ability to lead a ‘struggle-free’ lifestyle of the descendants of slave-owners. Having been deprived of their ancestors’ masculine qualities (reflected by these people’s ‘taste’ for the different forms of degeneracy, such as homosexualism), today’s Whites cannot help experiencing the sensation of envy towards the people of color, especially if the latter happened to be affiliated with Hip-Hop. This explains all the lamentation, on account of Hip-Hop’s ‘viciousness,’ heard from the self-appointed White guardians of ‘public morality’ (Dyson 64).
Nevertheless, there a number of good reasons to believe that the sub-culture of Hip-Hop will grow ever stronger as time goes on. The main reason for this is that, as it was implied earlier, Hip-Hop fully correlates with the principle of the ‘survival of the fittest’ – hence, the concerned sub-culture’s apparent ability to find the ever-newer forms of self-actualization, which in turn suggests that it continues to evolve.
I believe that the earlier deployed line of argumentation, as to what can be considered the discursive significance of Hip-Hop, is fully consistent with the paper’s initial thesis. Apparently, the emergence of this specific sub-culture can indeed be deemed indicative of the fact that it is only a matter of time before American Whites will be no longer in the position of enjoying the undisputed dominance in the field of the nation’s cultural life.
Works Cited
Berman, Eric. “The Godfathers of Rap.” Rolling Stone 672/673 (1993): 137–139. Print.
Brunson , James. “Showing, Seeing: Hip-Hop, Visual Culture, and the Show-and-Tell Performance.” Black History Bulletin 74.1, (2011): 6-12. Print.
Chang, Jeff. Can’t Stop Won’t Stop: A History of the Hip-Hop Generation. New York: Picador, 2005. Print.
Crossley, Scott. “Metaphorical Conceptions in Hip-Hop Music.” African American Review 39.4 (2005): 501-512. Print.
Dyson, Michael. “The Culture of Hip-Hop.” That’s the Joint!: The Hip-Hop Studies Reader. Eds. Murray Forman and Mark Anthony Neal. New York: Routledge, 2004. 61-69. Print.
Flores, Juan. “Puerto Rocks: Rap, Roots, and Amnesia.” That’s the Joint!: The Hip-Hop Studies Reader. Eds. Murray Forman and Mark Anthony Neal. New York: Routledge, 2004. 69-87. Print.
Murray, Derek. “Hip-Hop vs. High Art: Notes on Race as Spectacle.” Art Journal 63.2 (2004): 4-19. Print.
Shabazz, Rashad. “Masculinity and the Mic: Confronting the Uneven Geography of Hip-Hop.” Gender, Place & Culture: A Journal of Feminist Geography 21.3 (2014): 370-386. Print.
Hip-hop music has become popular in Japan despite dismissal by the country’s major media companies. This revolution has provided Japanese youths with an opportunity to express their views as well as sharpen their skills in music. Most of the artists have developed through underground club scenes. They have gained support from the Japanese youth who love their music. The local name for the underground club scenes is Gemba (Condry, 2006).
There have been debates against development of hip-hop in Japan despite the efforts by fans and artists to grow this music. Critics against localization of this music argued that it would result in division. However, localization of culture has proved to be a path towards globalization. This paper will focus on the debates following the revolution of hip-hop music in Japan.
Debates Emerging from Hip-hop Popularization
Major corporations in Japan dismissed hip-hop music as a transient fad which would come to an end. However, the Japanese youth pressed on with this culture, and have proved these corporations wrong by making hip-hop popular.
Today, hip-hop culture matches the Japanese powerful media companies in driving globalization. Since this culture was adopted from America, there was fear that it would result in conflict between the two nations. It was argued that adopting hip-hop and localizing it would hinder globalization, but it has amounted in interconnectedness and global sharing.
Borrowing culture and localizing it, is a form of interaction among the artists, the fans and the general audience. The revolution of this culture rescued youths from the economic uncertainty experienced in Japan in the early twenty first-century (Condry, 2006).
Hip-hop artists have challenged the world on crime issues, for example, the American government’s response to terrorism attacks. The artists seek to know what the government has planned in response to these attacks. This is a form of communication to the governments, and not offensive stereotype as initially assumed. While clubbing, the Japanese youths socialize, network and share business ideas.
This is a scene that offers more than just mere stage performance and entertainment. It provides a forum for the artists, fans, producers and even the organizers to network. The issue of commercialization of hip-hop music came about when a smaller fraction of the artists went for major record labels to promote their music.
This caused a stir, and it was assumed that the artists were driven by economic benefits. However, this was not the case, most of the artists focused on refining their music in the Japanese languages to give it a Japanese flavor. This was done in the gembas, fans segregated themselves according to artist preference (Condry, 2006).
Hip-hop culture has also encouraged the youths to be socially responsible. For instance, environmentalists would visit and teach the youth on proper waste disposal and recycling. They were also taught about the best beer products for their consumption. So, contrary to the assumption that these activities would ruin morals, they also served to educate the youths on social responsibility and united them.
Unity gave them one voice for them to address the authorities. An example of such representation is when one of the emcees Utamaru challenged the government on backroom dealings. The fans joined him with screams and cheers to show their support for this message.
The artist represents the rest of the group in disapproving corrupt activities that the government is involved in. The messages are not only limited to Japanese politics, but also on global ones. Through these expressions, the artist challenges the cultural hegemony in the west; he portrays hip-hop in Japan as a global style and not Americanization.
This shows that the hip-hop culture in Japan is not interested in competing with other nations, but rather promoting globalization through music localization. The artists have diversified their music to become very dynamic and competitive, a fact doubted by many hip-hop critics in the past (Condry, 2006).
Cultural globalization has always been symbolized by multinational organizations like Coca-cola. However, the Japanese hip-hop culture has changed this fact. Japan has attracted attention from the hip-hop culture which concentrates on the local languages and peer groups of different generations. The culture is distinct and stands out from the multinational corporations; it promotes global sharing and networking.
Cultural globalization is achieved by connecting hip-hop scenes world-wide to create diversity in styles. In contrast to the expectations that global culture would be homogeneous, localization of music works best. When nations with different cultural backgrounds borrow music ideas and localize them, this becomes a form of sharing.
It brings nations together through music exploration to build cultural flows and interactions. Hip-hop revolution in Japan shows the importance of networking. Through the Japanese peers, hip-hop music has expanded to be recognized by major record labels that had rejected it at first (Condry, 2006).
Conclusion
The revolution of hip-hop music in Japan was met with objection. It was assumed that the culture would die if not supported by the major music record labels, or the media.
However, this worked out to introduce the concept of cultural globalization in which nations are interconnected by sharing music. The artists are popularized by their own music and not through the media. Therefore, the belief that media is the only tool that drives globalization is misguided, culture can also be used to promote globalization.
Reference
Condry, I. (2006). Hip-hop Japan: Rap and the paths of cultural globalization. Durham, NC. Duke Univ. Press.
