Category: Hinduism

Introduction

Hinduism is the third most popular religion on earth. This paper seeks to discuss Hinduism in details by covering its Origin, diffusion, location, and characteristics. The discussion will bring out what makes Hinduism unique.

Origin of Hinduism

Hinduism is one of the oldest religions, and it is considered to be approximately 20,000 years old. It was the first religion of human civilization. The chief prophets that introduced the Hindu religion were BRAMHA from central India together with BISHNU and MAHESWARA from the south and north India respectively.

Hinduism, unlike Christianity and Muslim, does not subscribe to a single book either does it derive origin from a human being like Jesus and Mohammed for Christians and Muslims respectively, instead it is an amalgamation of numerous religions and various set of beliefs. Hindu lacks creed and a single authority which makes it unique.

Hinduism as a name was derived from central Asia as an explanation of the civilization that took place along the river Sindhu. The pronunciation of s as H by the residents brought the real meaning of the name of the religion. The specific origin of Hindu was at the Indus valley in Pakistan; the Hindu religion was originally referred to as SANATANA DHARMA.

The residents of Sindhu invaded India and integrated with the local population and adopted the Hindu religion. Hinduism is divided into various divisions and includes the Punjab and the Gujarati as the main groups while the others come from India, Sri Lanka, and other countries.

The language used in the summons is Sanskrit. Other distinguishing features that make Hinduism unique are: they lack a theological doctrinarian, lacks a single system of morality and also there is an absence of the concept of the prophet (Dogra and Dogra 5).

Diffusion of Hinduism

From the Indus valley, Hinduism spread into Southeast Asia all through to the island of Bali in Indonesia. Hindu has an estimated population of 750 million followers. The largest numbers of people who subscribe to the Hindu religion are in India where it is the main religion with almost 80% of believers.

The Hindu religion also has some followers in the United Kingdom that amount to approximately 1% of the UK population; in the UK it developed in the 1960s and 1970s following the migration of people from Africa and India to the UK.

Location of Hinduism

Being the third largest religion in the world Hindu is the predominant religion in the south Asia region. That means it is the main religion in India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Indonesia. The spread of Hindu religion was primarily due to trade. The Indians used their merchandising power to assimilate people into the Hindu culture.

This is explained by the presence of Hindu in the dominantly Muslim countries like Malaysia, the main reason why it operates in these Muslim countries is due to its appealing and universal nature.

Characteristics of Hinduism

Just like the other religions, Hindu has an inherent characteristic that distinguishes it from other religions. Among the characteristics of Hindu are: there exists no universal Hinduism, and it lacks a conventional system of beliefs. The distinguishing tenets of Hinduism are the belief in the following themes: “Dharma-to mean ethics and duties; Samsara- rebirth; karma- right action and moksha- liberation of the cycle of samsara” (Hinduism 1).

Followers of Hinduism believe in one Supreme Being who they refer to as Brahman: Brahma to them is uncreated, omnipotent, omnipresent and eternal; Hindi recognize the existence of other gods representing different aspects of Brahma, and they recognize both the masculine and the feminine to complement each other (Hinduism 1). These are:

• Brahma: this is the creator aspect of the supreme god and often associated with Maya; avidya Maya who is the symbol of ignorance and Vidya Maya who is the symbol of knowledge (Hinduism 1).
• Vishnu: he is the one who preserves the universe and can appear in the earth in different forms and more often linked with the incarnations of God (Hinduism 1).
• Shiva: This aspect of God who is the destroyer or transcendent; he is the supreme God of Shaiva, the three branches of Hindu (Hinduism 1).

Hindu also believes in the theory of causality or karma: the Hindu religion believes on the rebirth and the notion that the human soul is eternal. According to a Hindu therefore, an individual can experience the consequences of his actions through the rebirth cycle.

Another belief of the Hindu religion is the belief in the theory of the wheel of rebirth: this is well known as the reincarnation of rebirth. Hinduism is a polytheistic religion: the fact that there is one god and several goddesses make it a polytheistic religion.

Hinduism, unlike Christianity, is not only a religion but a way of life. Several forms of Hindu are henotheistic; this implies that they recognize only one Supreme Being but under him are the gods and goddess who can manifest each source (Hinduism 1).

Lastly, it should be noted that Hindus have three basic principles that are linked to religion; these are:

• Worship: Hindu belief in worship as an integral mode of their faith.
• Cremation: according to the Hindus, people who die are burned and not buried.

Adherence to the rules of the caste system: caste system is the division of individuals according to social groups. Each caste has its specific rule that has to be followed and obeyed (Hinduism 1).

Conclusion

Hinduism is quite popular and unique too. Hinduism cannot be considered to be a religion due to its many divisions and origin. Unlike other religions, Hinduism did not originate from a prophet but rather is considered as a set of many beliefs which are sewn together.

Works cited

Dogra, Urmila and Dogra, Ramil. Let’s know Hinduism: the oldest religion of infinite adaptability and diversity, 2^nd Ed. New York: Star Publications, 2003. Print.

Hinduism. Hinduism from the ancient time. Hinduism Today, 2011. Web.

Practices and rituals signify the activities that the followers of a religion are required to engage in. They provide an avenue for strengthening their religious beliefs. Similarities and differences can arise when considering the rituals and practices in religious practice, thereby offering a unique perspective in determining the significance of religion to its followers.

The religious activities also act as a record of what characterizes a specific religion. Most of the rituals have been conducted through the ages and passed over generations. They have become part of individuals’ identity and a means of social integration (Clarke, 2013).

Practices and rituals are the physical manifestations of the activities of religion. Such actions are given a spiritual meaning by the followers. In Hinduism and Jainism, followers engage in different rituals during religious festivals, holidays, and events. Though differing in nature, the activities give followers a means of communication with a spiritual being, or they strengthen their beliefs, as the case is with Jainism (Warrier, 2004).

Ritual practices by Hindus are seen as a way of ensuring the spiritual enhancement and the general well-being of the individuals. Devotees can eliminate prarabdhas (past karma) and asanas (bad tendencies), thereby guaranteeing their well-being in both the short-term and the long-term.

In the long-term, spiritual enhancement changes the follower’s attitudes and personality by merging their life with faith and spirituality. In the short-term, it helps with good health and warding off evil and misfortunes. In the end, the devotee is believed to become contented and happy (Cort, 2001).

The practice of public worship or Puja is essential in Hindu rituals and practices. Individual destinies are impacted by malefic influences of the planets. This results in suffering and pain. Only activities like the Puja, which are guided by astrological calculations, provide a way of easing the suffering of the believers. Ritual fire or home ceremonies are also a common Hindu practice for achieving various needs, like becoming knowledgeable and gaining wealth and good health (Warrier, 2004).

Hinduism is composed of a multitude of deities, comprising of the major divinities like Siva, Ganesh, and Krishna. There are also semi-divine divinities like nagas (serpents) and yakshas (tree spirits), as well as the rural village gods and the goddesses. They are not subject to specific ritual traditions, but a Hindu’s choice on any deity is determined by the family or through personal choice.

Altars are common in a typical Hindu home, where they reflect familial and regional preferences. Community and individual circumstances are easily adaptable. There is no single authoritative body or texts that dictate ritual and practices that are expected. Numerous ritual manuals exist, but the context of the practices is obligatory (Clarke, 2013).

Jains have regular rituals or kriyas for followers, which guide them on a journey towards the ‘inner’ self from the ‘outer’ self. Regarded as the ‘right conduct,’ rituals occur with the complete understanding of the meaning of various activities and devotions. For Jains, ‘empty’ ritualistic practices are not beneficial.

In other words, ritual practices are not merely observed for the sake of appearances or as a result of habits. Both laypeople and ascetics conduct six essential rituals. The rest of the rituals are conducted in differing ways by the two groups (Warrier, 2004).

Jains have a series of religious practices that are conducted at varying frequencies. Those that are essential are sometimes carried out once in a lifetime. The practices are also dissimilar amongst the different Jain communities and sects. Murtipuka is a sect of Jains who worship images and have colorful rituals in temples. They differ greatly with the non-image worshiping Sthanakvasi. The rituals amongst Jains also vary locally, where devotees are given the option to choose their variations for rituals (Cort, 2001).

Jainism lacks a religious leader to guide its practices and rituals. This is unlike the Hindu’s Brahmin caste, for instance, which acts as a priesthood. The ascetics in Jainism hold the role of being religious guides to laypeople, but they do not consider themselves as priests.

Ascetics are respected and venerated during religious rituals, but they do not act as a link between deities and the laity. Moreover, they are not involved in the administration of temples. Some ritual functions that can be conducted by qualified specialists or Vidhikaarak also exist (Warrier, 2004).

My social environment is characterized by varying religions, with different beliefs and practices. Many people are religious, as religiosity provides a way of finding inner peace, dealing with problems that arise in life, while also acting as a way of appreciating the assistance from the divine being.

Religious practices and beliefs are part of the way of life of a Hindu or a Jain, and it can be seen in their day-to-day activities. In my experiences with Hindu devotees, I have come across the various rituals conducted before and after birth. These comprise a life ritual, where a child’s naming ritual is conducted. It signifies the sanctity of the child. The pregnant mother’s hair is also braided as a way of purification.

Practices and rituals of faith can act as representatives and provide the dimensions of religion as supernatural. Devotees get a better understanding of what is expected of them by following a set of complex ritualistic practices. Religion traverses a huge part of people’s social life if it is easier to see the manifestation in the day-to-day lives of the people.

References

Clarke, M. (2013). Handbook of research on development and religion. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.

Cort, J. E. (2001). Jains in the world: Religious values and ideology in India. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Warrier, M. (2004). Hindu selves in a modern world: Guru faith in the Mata Amritanandamayi mission. London, UK: Routledge.

Introduction

India is recognized as the origin of four main religions. These are Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism and Sikhism. There are various reasons that led to the flourishing of Hinduism and Islam in the country while Christianity and Buddhism took a beating in the country. The latter two have a small following in India.

Why Islam and Hinduism flourished in India

Hinduism is considered supple, private and a way of life. One requires renouncing the worldly things to achieve Godhood. The religion allows individuals to worship diverse gods. Each of these gods symbolizes a particular aspect of nature. As the Indian population modernized, they gradually comprehended the actual meaning of the ‘Vedas’. Subsequently, they moved to henotheism and monotheism. They became entrenched into monism-advaita-non-dualism as the center. Unfortunately, for Buddhism, it came into the Indian arena when Ritualistic approach to spirituality had become unbearable. There was no regard for Gnana-Kanda-Path of understanding. Intense confusion concerning the system of reverence and internecine disputes became common, founded on spiritual beliefs (Ramani 1).

The many weaknesses that existed in Buddhism saw many people revert to Hinduism. The branching of the religion from a single school of thought further weakened the religion. It pronged into a variety of sects including Mahayana. In addition, the rulers began the intense promotion of Hinduism across the country. The leaders became so influential that any other religion was despised. However, Islam was largely embraced by the population as it had cultural roots (Ramani 1).

India was sub-divided prior to the arrival of Muslims during the 8^th century. Muslim rulers from Afghanistan created collaborative control of various parts of India. The development of the Islamic Sultanate on the eastern facilitated the spread and dominance of Islam in the areas occupied by the Muslim leaders. They succeeded in incorporating Asian cultures into Muslim and Hindu cultures that were common among the populace. The move helped in reinforcing Hinduism and Islam. The two religious factions co-existed harmoniously (Ramani 1).

Why Buddhism and Christianity did not flourish in India

When Buddhism begun to flourish during the era Qin Dynasty, the country did not succumb to the religion. Instead, the population continued to subscribe devotedly to Hinduism. Initially, Buddhism was largely embraced by ordinary people as well as the upper castes. The main supporters of the religion were businessmen. They donated huge amounts of financial resources for the religion’s activities. The elite in the society including leaders’ wives and mothers subscribed to Buddhism. The followers eventually reverted to their initial calling to Hinduism when Adi Shankara emerged in social and religious circles. He was accompanied by Ramanuja. They attracted many Buddhists back to Hinduism. The result was the weakening of Buddhism in the sub-continental country (Sarafan 1).

The major reasons for the failure of flourishing of Buddhism include the fact that trusting in Nil as a Truth is almost impossible for the brain. Buddha’s doctrine was theoretically straightforward. However, it was challenging for devotees to follow considering the various misinterpretations. In addition, the religion detested profanity. However, the Buddhists venerated Buddha’s figurines. This was perceived as double standards and profuse insincerity (Sarafan 1).

Islam, which had taken deep roots in the Indian community, was intolerant to both Buddhists and Christians. The followers despised other religions except Hinduism which had a large following and would therefore defeat Muslims if a religious war broke out. Muslims persecuted Buddhists and Christians. Most of them converted to Islam or Buddhism. Those who strongly held to their doctrines went into exile or risked becoming martyrs.

Conclusion

Hinduism and Islam are predominant religions in India. The successes of these religions are based on historical events that took place in the sub-continent. Among them was religious intolerance against Christians and Buddhists. The failure of Christianity and Buddhism taking deep roots into the Indian population was largely contributed to by Buddhists contradicting the teachings that Buddha had envisaged such as the avoidance of idolatry.

Works Cited

Ramani, Steve. Why Buddhism and Christianity did not Flourish in India. 2011. Web.

Sarafan, Greg. Muslim Hindu Religious Interactions in the Mughal Empire: The Birth and Death of a Cohesive Culture. 2014. Web.

The caste system is a description of the way the people in the Hindu society were divided based on their talents and the corresponding vocations (Sarma); it was once supposedly devised to bring order, discipline, and specialization. It “lays down social, moral and ethical precepts for the guidance of the people and formulates rules for the observance of rites and ceremonies; it is absolutely binding on Hindus”. (Walker 27) It typifies social conditions. (Klass 188). It however had a profound influence on the social life of the Hindus for overages; a few examples of its negative influences on some sections of the society, are oppression, ‘untouchability’, and denial of entry into religious places. While all those benefited by it sing its praises, those put to disadvantage curse it utterly. In other words, lower castes detest it with vengeance. (Walker 29).

Problem Statement

This paper examines the origin of the caste system, its features, and its status as of now. In other words, the social forces that introduced this system are traced; its characteristics are enumerated. Besides, the present status of the system which underwent changes overages as any institution does will be described.

Origin of Caste System

An ancient Hindu sage called Manu (called the law-giver) is the supposed author of a famous code of Hindu law and jurisprudence. (Walker 27). He, according to Sivananda, who lived 30 million years ago¹ during the age of mental purity (age of truth) is said to have laid down this caste system in his code of laws called Manu-smriti, the first of the three such codes, to allot duties to the persons in the society in correspondence with their abilities and aspirations. Manu dictated 100000 verses but now it stands abridged into 2685 verses divided into 12 books. (Walker 28) The code was inviolable. A famous Vedic verse declares, “All that Manu said is medicine”. The chief design of code seems to have been to give divine sanction to the institution of caste, to make caste supreme in India…. (Walker 28) At a time when the society was in its initial phase of civilization and the people were living as tribes or clans, a system was needed to allow work to each individual so that the society’s needs were fulfilled.

The goods and services were bartered among the castes. It was rather an ancient model of the recent self-sufficiency economical system. (Sarma) As ages passed by, the allotted work became a vocation or a profession in a straight jacket fashion and the generations started inheriting those vocations no matter what one’s inborn skills were and how different they were from those of his forefathers. To make matters worse, each profession or vocation varied in the level of esteem it commanded from the society; persons of castes such as Brahman and Ksatriya were held in high esteem while those of the Sudra caste was given low esteem. Manu says, “When a Brahmin is born, he springs to light above the world; he is the chief of all the creatures, entitled by the eminence of birth to the wealth of the world.” (Walker 28). This kind of sanction deprived the lower castes of equal treatment by society. As a consequence, the respect that each caste commanded from the society had automatically arranged them in a hierarchy. It means that a society that was once divided horizontally turned into a vertically divided society – of hierarchy. The system, either at the instance of upper castes or something else, perpetuated itself into the present-day society, no matter how talented the persons belonging to lower castes are and how poorly talented the persons belonging to the upper castes are.

Characteristics of Caste System

A discussion on the constituents of the caste system- four castes is proper here before we try to understand its present status. The Hindu social system of Vedic people who moved from the west into South Asia during the second millennium BCE was composed of four major subdivisions: brahmana, a sacerdotal or priestly category; ksatriya, a chiefly, noble or warrior category; vaishya who were variously perceived as commoners, farmers or merchants or all three together and sudra, a category of servants or commoners of a status lower than vaishya. ( Klass 188) Brahmins worship God for themselves as well as others and teach knowledge to others. Kshatriyas rule the land and implement laws among the people for the latter’s overall welfare. Vaishyas cultivate lands and trade in goods. According to Sharma, “sudra was limited in his vocational options and was generally relegated to providing service and assistance to members of the host tribe”. The members of all the four castes are called ‘caste Hindus’. Besides them, there is a miscellaneous caste called ‘panchama or chandala’ whose members are the social outcasts. They, it is believed, violated the code of social conduct and hence were ostracized by society( zz gupshop forum). These ghettoized-untouchable, non-vegetarian persons known as non-caste Hindus are mostly cobblers and menial workers.

Stutley and Stutley ( 323) describe the differences among the castes. Brahmins wear gold and silver ornaments whereas Ksatriyas wear gold and silver items of inferior quality. Vaishyas wear brass ornaments whereas Sudras wear iron items. In regards to matrimonial sanctions, Brahmins can marry four wives, Ksatriyas three, Vaishyas two, and Sudras one only.

Changes in Caste System

The caste system seems to have received the approval of the then society as reflected in the hymn of Rigveda:10.90 which declares that “original castes are in existence and they represent the manifest expression of transmigration of souls and divine justice.” (Klass 189) But the caste system has undergone drastic changes, though certain fundamental differences remain. Since the ages till right now, nobody can marry more than one wife in any community though it was otherwise in the Manu-smriti. Women who were supposedly confined to be homemakers in the ancient code have now been donning different roles including those of rulers. Indira Gandhi and Sonia Gandhi are examples. K.R.Narayan, belonging to the so-called lower caste was President of India. All these points to fact that Manu-smriti is no longer of any relevance in India. (The Present Day Indian) Sarma too argues that manu-smriti contradicts Vedas and hence was never popular among Hindus. The caste system of manu was only a temporary device of some sections and hence not a fully approved institution. Walker (29) observes that “Manu’s Brahmins were a creation which emerged as a method of self-preservation in opposition to Eurasia and hybrid people flooding India.”

Present Status of Caste System

According to a Wikipedia article, “the Indian caste system is gradually relaxing, especially in metropolitan and other major urban areas, due to deeper penetration of higher education, co-existence of all communities and lesser knowledge about caste system due to alienation with rural roots of people. But in the countryside and small towns, this system is still very rigid. However, the total elimination of the caste system seems distant, if ever possible, due to caste politics. The Government of India has officially documented castes and sub-castes, primarily to determine those deserving reservation (positive discrimination in education and jobs) through the census.

The caste system is still prevalent in the Hindu community through some welcome changes towards its eradication are taking place.

Works Cited

Klass, Morton. Varna. The Encyclopedia of Religion. Vol.15. 1987.

Modern Status Of Caste System. Caste. 2007. Web.

Present Day Indian,. India Culture Discussion Chat Forums. Hindu Religion: Improvising with times. 2007. Web.

Sarma, S.C. Hindu Caste System & Hinduism: Vedic Vocations Were Not Related To Heredity. 2001. Web.

Sivananda, S S. Hindu Law-Givers: The Hindu Law-Givers in the Hindu Scriptures. 2007. Web.

Stutley, J & Stutley, M. A Varna. Dictionary of Hinduism: Its Mythology, Folklore and Development 1500 B.C.-A.D.1500. 1977.

Walker, Benjamin. Manu. Hindu World: An Encyclopedic Survey of Hinduism. 1968.

ZZ, Gupshop Forums. 2007. Web.

Zoroastrianism

Zoroastrianism is among the oldest and highly influential religions in the world. It refers to a system of beliefs founded in Persia by Zoroaster in the 6^th Century BC (Rose 9). Zoroaster was an Iranian prophet and introduced his followers to Ahura Mazda as their deity. The religion set forth in the Zend-Avesta bases its teachings on the concept of struggle between good and evil (Hartz 18). The Avesta is the religion’s book of law, which contains an anthology of petrified writings gathered together over several centuries. Once ranked as the most influential religions in the world, Zoroastrianism started fading during the turn of the 7^th Century after Muslims managed to conquer Persia, modern-day Iran (Waterhouse 100).

Currently, the religion has more than 2.6 million followers in the world, although most of them live in Iran and India. In India, the religion is referred to as Parsiism. The religion has two major features about the concept of God. First, there is a monotheism that believes in only one God (Hartz 24). Second, there is a dualism that applies the doctrine where reality consists of two basic opposing elements such as good and evil or mind and body (Hartz 27).

According to the teachings of Zoroastrianism, human beings can make free choices. However, they warn that the choices have a huge impact on their destiny, thus the need to make the right ones (Waterhouse 123). The religion practices initiation rituals for young boys when they attain the age of seven in India. Fire towers are a common element of Zoroastrianism beliefs. They are mainly used during Yasna, which is a major ceremony that involves sacrificing the sacred liquor (Rose 33). The fire has to stay burning throughout the ceremony.

Hinduism

Hinduism refers to a body of religious and philosophical cultural practices based on a caste system characterized by a belief in a supreme being of many forms and natures (Rosen 17). It is common among people in India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Nepal. The religion’s teachings are founded on the view that opposing theories apply as elements of one eternal truth based on a desire for liberation from earthly evils (Doniger 51).

Information about the real origin and founder of Hinduism is not known because most of its historic sacred texts were never dated. Hinduism is organized in a system where some followers consider Shiva as their God, while others recognize Brahman (Doniger 69). One of the most important documents for followers of this religion is Vedas. They are sacred writings of Hinduism written in early Sanskrit, an ancient official language of India that is now used only for religious purposes (Michaels 92).

Brahmans, which refer to the priestly class often apply as the symbol of authority in Hinduism along with the Vedas. Hinduism believes in promoting a culture of diversity and a sense of unity among its adherents. Some of the notable themes promoted through the teachings of Hinduism include Dharma, Karma, Moksa, and Yoga. Dharma refers to an ancient sage in the Hindu mythology worshiped as a God (Michaels 112). Karma refers to teachings on the effects of one’s actions, which determine their fate in the present life and the next incarnation. Moksa refers to the release from the cycle of rebirth. Yoga involves going through the paths of actions, knowledge, and devotion as a way of promoting the control of body and mind.

Works Cited

Doniger, Wendy. The Hindus: An Alternative History. London: OUP Oxford, 2010. Print.

Hartz, Paula. Zoroastrianism. California: Info Base Publishing, 2009. Print.

Michaels, Axel. Hinduism: Past and Present. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2004. Print.

Rose, Jenny. Zoroastrianism: An Introduction. New York: I.B. Tauris, 2011. Print.

Rosen, Steven. Essential Hinduism. New York: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. Print.

Waterhouse, John. Zoroastrianism. New York: Book Tree, 2006. Print.

Introduction

Christianity and Hinduism are the two oldest world religions with diverse beliefs and practices. However, many Christians and Hindus have been brought together by the changing social circumstances. Hinduism involves many deities that possess powers, protecting the Hindus in their routine activities. The Trimurti, the triple form, explains the basic beliefs about Hindu deities’ functions in the karmic cycle of life. St. Thomas Church of South India is one of the Christian communities operating in the Hindu context. Although Christians and Hindus have conflicting religious practices, they share some beliefs that allow them to live together in harmony and understand each other.

Hindu Deities in the Trimurti

While Hindus have many gods who serve different functions in their lives, three gods are considered the most important. The Trimurti represents the three gods that are most significant among Hindus: Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva (Corduan, 2012, p. 377). The three forms of deities allow Hindus to understand the nature of God and the universe. The deities represent the three basic forces in the universe: creation, sustenance, and destruction (Donder, 2022). Hindus believe that Tridevi is the trinity of goddess consorts for the Trimurti. The Hindu deities in Trimurti have different historical developments and functions in the kalpic cycle of life.

Brahma

Although Brahma is considered the first God of the Hindus, he is not the most important. The god is believed to have been born from a golden egg. After that, Brahma created the earth and all things on it (Asmariani, 2022). Between 500 BCE and 500 CE, the god was eclipsed by Vishnu and Shiva (Donder, 2022). Some myths describe him as having come from a lotus that was issued from Vishnu’s navel. Brahma’s function in the kalpic cycle of life is creating life in the initial life and reincarnation. Additionally, Brahma created the second God, Vishnu. Therefore, Brahma is the god the creator who gives Hindus life.

Vishnu

Vishnu, sometimes referred to as Narayana, is the second God of the Hindus. The god is associated with light, especially the sun, but is not included as one of the original seven solar gods. Vishnu is believed to have been married to Lakshmi, Ganga, and Sarawati (Donder, 2022). He is believed to have originated from the city of Vaikuntha on Mt. Meru where shining gold and jewels existed. The main function of Vishnu in the kalpic cycle of life is to preserve and guard men (Asmariani, 2022). Vishnu appears on earth in various incarnations to maintain harmony and fight demons that are destructive to human life.

Shiva

Shiva is the third god of the Hindus in Trimurti whose name means the “auspicious one”. god is believed to have originated from Rudra, who was worshipped in the Indus valley during the Vedic period (Corduan, 2012, p. 380). A common iconic attribute of Shiva is the third eye in the middle of the forehead (Chamoli et al., 2021). Shiva’s function in the kalpic cycle of life is to terminate the human soul, allowing its entry into the next successive life. Therefore, Shiva uses his powers to destroy the world’s illusions and imperfections.

The Caste System of Hinduism

Social stratification helps in defining an individual’s position in society. The Hindu caste system is one of the oldest forms of surviving social stratification. The system divides Hindus into rigid hierarchical groups based on their karma and dharma. While karma refers to an individual’s work, dharma is their duty. The system is believed to have existed for more than 3, 000 years (Leo & Panigrahi, 2021). The system has divided the Hindus into six different groups each occupying a specific hierarchal position in society: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shudras, and Dalits (Leo & Panigrahi, 2021). Brahmins include priests and teachers, while Kshatriyas include warriors and rulers. Vaishyas consist of farmers, traders, and merchants, while Shudras are laborers. Meanwhile, the Dalits are the outcasts such as the street sweepers and latrine cleaners (Corduan, 2012, p. 389). The caste system dictates every aspect of a Hindu religious and social life.

Dalits’ Application in a Hindu Life

Dalits represent Hindus in the lowest echelon of Indian society. The social and religious life of a Hindu in the Dalit group is different from others. The person lives in a colony that is segregated from people in the upper positions. Additionally, the person can only marry an individual within the Dalit caste (Corduan, 2012, p. 389). Furthermore, those in the Brahmin caste cannot accept food and drinks from the individual in the Dalit caste. Therefore, the Hindu within the Dalit caste is repressed by those in the upper castes. The caste system has led to discrimination and social stratification among Hindus.

Christians Living in the Hindus Society

St. Thomas Church of South India

Christians’ social and religious life is centered on the teachings of Jesus Christ as provided by the Holy Bible. Saint Thomas Christians in India believed that the true teachings of Jesus have only survived in India (Leo & Panigrahi, 2021). The Christians believe that Jesus studied His beliefs in India before returning to Israel. The Saint Thomas Christians in South India emphasize spiritual practice and experience gained from such practice. Consequently, they are not focused on the intellectual concepts of theology and dogma. Although some St. Thomas Christians’ beliefs conflict with Hinduism, some of their beliefs are similar.

All pervasive divinity, karma, reincarnation, and dharma are key Hindu beliefs and practices. Hindus believe in the existence of one all-pervasive God who energizes the entire universe (Leo & Panigrahi, 2021). Consequently, the Hindus worship one God without denying the existence of others. Meanwhile, the Saint Thomas Christians only believe in the existence of only one God who is pure in consciousness (Geevarghese, 2022). The two religions believe in karma: people’s actions ultimately determine what they receive. The Thomas church holds that human actions are flawed by sins, and are destined to hell. However, the Hindus believe that karma is manifested in three basic forms: prarabdha, sanchita, and kriyamana (Geevarghese, 2022). While the prarabdha is experienced through the body as sanchita karma’s part, kriyamana is caused by decisions and actions.

The Hindus believe that life goes through birth, life, and rebirth in the cycle of samsara. Therefore, reincarnation among Hindus involves the living things having an atman or soul. Like the Hindus, the Saint Thomas Christians believe in reincarnation. According to the church, reincarnation enables them to grow and evolve spiritually. Dharma among the Hindus involves observance of religious and moral conduct to guide one’s conduct. Similarly, the Saint Thomas church believes that dharma guides their moral behaviors when interacting with others and natural things. The belief is of universal application and eternal. Although Hindus and Saint Thomas church have some common beliefs, their interpretations are different.

Problems A Hindu Faces When Understanding Gospel

The different views on the common beliefs of the Hindus and Saint Thomas Christians present various problems when a Hindu seeks to understand the gospel. The Christian belief that there is only one God, may cause a Hindu to doubt Christianity since they believe in the existence of many Gods. Although reincarnation and karma are common among Hindus and Christians, it may be difficult for a Hindu to understand since the Biblical origin of sin is used. Therefore, using the Bible in explaining the common beliefs may make the Hindu doubt Christianity.

Engaging a Hindu with Gospel

Christians can engage Hindus with the gospel of Jesus Christ in understanding God, the fall of Adam, and Jesus Christ’s forgiveness and salvation. The Christian can utilize the Hindu’s belief in the all-pervasive God. Informing the Hindus that God is eternal and above all other spirits, will enable the Hindus easily understand God’s existence since they believe that there is one God above all other Gods. In explaining the fall of Adam, the Christian should utilize the concept of karma that the Hindus understand. Furthermore, the concept of reincarnation, life after death, would be used in explaining who is Jesus. Since both religions believe that God is merciful, the Christian can explain how the death of Jesus and shedding of His blood led to the forgiveness and salvation of human beings. The Hindu should be informed that Jesus was sent by God as a sacrifice for human sins who wage is death. Therefore, it is through Jesus Christ that Christians reincarnate into pure beings.

Conclusion

Hinduism and Christianity are common religious beliefs that dictate social life. Although the Hindu believe in the existence of many gods, Brahma, Shiva, and Vishnu are the three most important. Hinduism as a way of life stratifies its believers in various castes that define their social life and religious practices. The Saint Thomas church includes Christians who live among the Hindu community. The church believes in all-pervasive divinity, karma, reincarnation, and dharma, but from different perspectives. Therefore, a Christian can use the common beliefs in engaging a Hindu to understand the gospel of Jesus Christ.

Reference

Asmariani, A. A. R. (2022). The process of creation and dissolution of the universe in Bhuwana Sangksepa’s text. Jurnal Penelitian Agama Hindu, 6(2), pp. 16–27. Web.

Chamoli, A., Gupta, P., &, Uniyal, A. (2021). Aghora: The unflinching soul.Webology, 18(1), pp. 1318–1323. Web.

Corduan, W. (2012). Neighboring faiths: A Christian introduction to world religions. IVP Academic.

Donder, I. K. (2022). Exploring human divinity for solving of social disharmonies: A perennial study concept of humanity in Hindu theology perspective.Journal of Positive School Psychology, 6(3).

Geevarghese, A.R. (2022). Negotiating dual belonging: A study of the sociocultural history of the St. Thomas Christians of India1 (1st ed.). Routledge. Web.

Leo, I., & Panigrahi, Dr. D. (2021). Caste discrimination and social change in India. Journal of Social Responsibility, Tourism and Hospitality, 1(2).

Introduction

Hindu mythology occupied a sizable cast of gods, devils, immortals, people, and wildlife. Some played prominent parts in one epoch but faded into the shadows in others, whereas others gained fame after spending time in relative obscurity (Scanes & Chengzhong, 2018). Hinduism’s core ideas provide the framework for how myths develop. For instance, reincarnation is often known as the displacement of souls.

Discussion

According to Hinduism, every soul lives a countless number of lives. The soul reincarnates or transforms into something like a new living person after the demise of one body, and perhaps gods can reincarnate as humans (Scenes & Chengzhong, 2018). Indian believes the universe is generated continuously and obliterated, just as each human soul is endlessly reborn.

Hindus hold that the purpose of Buddha’s arrival on earth was to distract an individual from the appropriate awe of the Vedas, causing the world to deteriorate and eventually end as the cosmic pattern dictates. At the world’s extinction, the tenth avatar, Kalki, appeared to oversee its annihilation and the formation of a brand-new, pure planet (Scanes & Chengzhong, 2018). Hindu mythology and belief permeate every element of Indian culture and society. They serve as the inspiration for many artistic creations, ranging from Rama works produced in the 700s to contemporary Indian films concerning mythical tales.

Indians believe that Brahma created the cosmos through ideas. The earth then experienced a 4,320,000-year-long Maha Yuga also referred to as the historic period. Additionally, they believed there were four yugas, or periods, in the Maha Yuga (Scanes & Chengzhong, 2018). From Krita Yuga a golden Brahma’s age through two associated decades under Vishnu’s guidance to the Kali Yuga a dark Shiva’s age, each is narrower and more wicked than the previous ones.

A different golden era follows a dark time, and the Maha Yuga process continues a thousand times. Shiva then quenches all existence with sweltering temperatures and a suffocating deluge, leaving the world barren as Vishnu slumbers (Scanes & Chengzhong, 2018). A lotus blossom erupts from Vishnu’s belly after some thousand Maha Yugas, becoming Brahma, who is prepared to begin the creation task again.

Ritual

Puja refers to ritual devotion in Hinduism that can range from a short daily procedure performed in the household to lengthy temple procedures. Pujas typically include presenting bouquets or fruits as a sacrifice to a god figure (Scanes & Chengzhong, 2018). The components of a puja vary significantly depending on the group, region, time of the day, congregation requirements, and religious text. The god is requested to be available as the primary object of devotion to acknowledge the puja and respond to the pleas. The objective of setting, time, and performance of the puja are all specified.

A god who took on a puja existed, and the people treated it respectfully due to a royal visitor. The god’s care, also known as upacharas starts in the daylight when it is softly awakened from slumber and continues throughout the day with ritual practices and clothing (Scanes & Chengzhong, 2018). The provision of the customary consists of three meals and the nightly bedtime rite.

Arati, or the wafting of ignited lamps before a figure of a deity or an individual to be honored, is a substantial form of puja in Indian sanctuary and home devotion. A plea or song was chanted or sung when the congregation makes about three or more concentric revolutions around the lamp as part of the ceremonial (Scanes & Chengzhong, 2018). Arati is a ceremony frequently followed in Indian homes when special visitors are in attendance.

Indians believed that some pujas could be held by the congregation alone, while others could require the support of clergy or other ritually skilled individuals. People could perform a puja for an explicitly stated goal or just out of gratitude (Scanes & Chengzhong, 2018). Additionally, it is an important aspect of various domestic ceremonies.

Symbol

Hinduism is among the ancient active denomination in the world. Although routine and stage performance also played an important part in the organization’s dissemination, its numerous holy scriptures in Sanskrit and native languages acted as a medium of conveyance to other regions worldwide (Scanes & Chengzhong, 2018). Hinduism started to control Southeast Asia around the fourth century and preserved its supremacy for about a thousand years.

In Hinduism, artwork and building design are strongly interconnected. Therefore, if someone ignores the elaborate sculptured adornment that coated the monuments, Indian architecture can convey fragmentary and inaccurate views (Scanes & Chengzhong, 2018). In the Hindu temple, there are enormous slots within the altar of the three outer walls that feature carved images representing different components of the god housed inside.

In the temple, the sanctuary image captured the godly essence. For instance, the crevices of a temple consecrated to Vishnu could demonstrate several forms. (Scanes & Chengzhong, 2018). A temple committed to Shiva could indicate the various heroic performances and a temple committed to the grand Goddess could depict the fights with several beasts.

Conclusion

Local differences also occurred in the eastern region of Odisha. For example, Shiva’s family, the wife Parvati, their heirs Ganesha, the deity of surmounting impediments, and the fearsome Skanda were often portrayed in the crevices of Shiva temples (Scanes & Chengzhong, 2018). Furthermore, the facades of temples were decorated with Mithun as, affectionate spouses, and reiterating banks of flora resembling documents. They were regarded as beneficial themes because they stood for development, wealth, and achievement.

Reference

Scanes, C. G., & Chengzhong, P. (2018). Animals and Religion, Belief Systems, Symbolism and Myth. In Animals and Human Society (pp. 257-280). Academic Press.

Introduction

There are two philosophical books in Hinduism under the titles of “The Upanishads” and “The Bhagavad Gita”. These tractates are widely discussed by philosophers all over the world as they contain various controversial perceptions and descriptions of the nature of both human lives and their spiritual needs. The following paper will discuss the relationship between Atman and Brahman in “The Upanishads”, observe the tractate’s perspective regarding pantheism or panentheism, and explain differences between both higher and lower selves to prove that the teaching of the book is authentic and presents an original explanation of people’s nature.

Complex Relationship Between Atman And Brahman

How is the relationship between Atman and Brahman complex? To answer the given question, it would be proper to mention that the writing called “The Upanishads” identifies Brahman as a “Supreme Personality of Godhead”. In turn, Atman is described as an “Individual spirit soul”. The relation between the two terms is friendly as they complement each other. There can be no other physical or spiritual form of a being without a soul. The two elements can be perceived as two birds sitting together on a branch because one of them is enjoying its fruit (that is interpreted as an atomic individual soul). In turn, its companion is not eating the fruit because it must watch another bird control and guide its actions. “Like two golden birds perched on the selfsame tree, Intimate friends, the ego and the Self Dwell in the same body”. Indeed, the human soul is something that is responsible for all the deeds of the body. These two objects cannot exist without each other – just like plants cannot survive without water. Hence, the relationship between Atman and Brahman is complex because it is not always possible for a body to adhere to its soul’s principles.

The Upanishadic Worldview

In my estimates, the Upanishadic worldview results neither in pantheism nor panentheism because the teaching’s philosophy is not related to God. Moreover, it somewhat contradicts the meaning of God that is inherent in the terms of both pantheism and panentheism. Although the doctrine describes all the living creations on Earth as something supernatural and almighty, these terms are more related to Christianity where people do not focus on worshiping themselves. Instead, they make sacrifices of everything they have to the Father, Son, and the Holy Spirit.

It appears that the Upanishadic teaching is focused on the explanation of this world’s nature and phenomena that influence people’s souls and their lifestyles. In turn, both pantheism and panentheism describe everything on Earth as God’s creations and miracles. Although there is a group of people that believe that these doctrines are interrelated, their initial ideas contradict each other’s worldviews.

The Difference Between The Lower And Higher Selves

According to the text of “The Upanishads”, it is obvious that the so-called higher and lower selves represent people’s genders. For instance, a higher self is an individual of the opposite gender that makes a first-person (lower self) happy and full of life energy. Instead, when one prefers to stay with companions of the lower self (the same gender), they are likely to develop their knowledge and be joyful. Hence, men are higher selves for women and vice versa. It is essential to spend more time with higher selves because only they can bring comfort and support to one’s life on Earth “The Self takes on a body with desires, Attachments, and delusions, and is Born again and again in new bodies To work out the karma of former lives”. This point makes it limpid that the doctrine of Hinduism emphasizes that all souls have genders. This is a unique approach because the majority of other religions contradict such a statement. Therefore, “The Upanishads” make people in Hinduism choose between both higher and lower selves that will influence particular emotions of the ones who choose. This philosophy also explains the vision of many people on certain sexual orientations.

Atman Is Brahman

Is the equation that Atman equals Brahman appropriate? To answer the question, it is necessary to recall that Atman is a person’s soul, whereas Brahman is known as a cosmic soul. Therefore, the statement means that the human soul represents the world soul (direct interpretation). Although this might sound somewhat confusing, it can be considered convincing because the actual meaning of the statement implies the belief that human beings are interrelated with supernatural powers. Indeed, there are several religions that promote this worldview. However, no one is capable of proving or refuting it. It is important to understand that anything that is not palpable in this reality is connected to the spiritual world. Hence, I find the equation that Atman equals Brahman convincing.

Conclusion

Although I do not support a number of the Upanishadic views and explanations of different phenomena, the teaching contains some sound theories about the human soul and its intentions. It appears that the doctrine focuses on the explanation of an alternate reality and how it influences people’s lives on Earth. Nevertheless, these views do not support pantheism that is common in other religions and is focused on worshiping God. Instead, “The Upanishads” describe how individuals must develop their inner beings and souls.

Bibliography

Easwaran, Eknath. The Bhagavad Gita. 2nd ed. Toronto, ON: Nilgiri Press, 2007.

Easwaran, Eknath. The Upanishads. 2nd ed. Toronto, ON: Nilgiri Press, 2007.

Contents of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata

The Ramayana is an epic poem by Valmiki, and it majors on the life of the Kosala Prince, Rama, by exploring how his father, King Dasaratha, kicked him out of the kingdom and his adventures in the Indian forests with the wife and brother, Sita and Laksmana respectively. It also chronicles the kidnapping of Sita, which heralded the war with Ravana before the return of Rama to Ayodhya, where he became a king. The Mahabharata is an epic story by Vyasa detailing the Kurukshetra War and the life of Princes Pandava and Kaurava. The narrative contains works on philosophy and devotion like the four goals of life, which is commonly known as the purusharthas. Mahabharata is “the longest poem ever written as it contains over 200,000 individual verse lines” (Sharma and Gaur 137).

Hindu deities

Deva is a Hindu deity meaning a god of good spirit. This God is masculine, and he is present in people’s souls. Deva is responsible for the good things that a person accomplishes, and in some contexts, he is termed as the God of light or excellence. On the other side, Ishvara is the deity representing the God one oneness. This God is masculine, and in most cases, he is referred to as a king, husband, or ruler. In Hindu mythology, Ishvara is the God that unites all individuals by creating the oneness that exists in everything and everyone (Gupta 73).

Freud, James, Otto, and Jung’s perspectives on why we have religion

According to Freud, religion is needed to constrain people from violent impulses as a way of promoting civilization, which allows people to live together peacefully (Armstrong 357). Therefore, from a Freudian perspective, religion is needed to confine people to certain boundaries that allow coexistence. On his side, James held that people need religion because it gives them positive power, which then causes a change of mind (Allen 114). The changed minds lead to certain behaviors, which are acceptable amongst different people. On the other side, James believed that religion is a product of individual experiences as opposed to being a set of beliefs. On his side, Otto maintained that people needed religion, as it is part of them (Melissa 84). The dreadful side of God allows people to live within certain confines, which control the chaos. The fascinating side is attractive, and it brings out the love within individuals. These different characteristics facilitate coexistence. Finally, Jung held that religion is needed for the spiritual aspects of fear and hunger to force people to pursue purpose, which gives meaning to life.

The four stages of life

The four stages of life according to dharma include “Brahmacharya [student], Grihastha [householder], Vanaprastha [retired], and Sannyasa [renunciation]” (Mittal and Thursby 231). The first stage comes before the age of 24, where one focuses on studying. The second stage, which falls between 24 and 48 years of age, involves marrying coupled with getting children and educating them. This stage is the most important in social circles as it is the productive stage of one’s life. The third stage is between 48 and 72 years, where an individual slides into retirement. The household duties are passed on to another generation before assuming advisory roles in society. Finally, the last stage comes after 72 years old, and an individual stops pursuing material gains to focus on peace and spirituality.

Works Cited

Allen, James. William James on Habit, Will, Truth, and the Meaning of Life, Savannah: Frederic C. Beil, 2014. Print.

Armstrong, Karen. A History of God, New York: Ballantine Books 1993. Print.

Gupta, Bina. An Introduction to Indian Philosophy, London: Routledge, 2011. Print.

Melissa, Raphael. Rudolf Otto and the Concept of Holiness, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997. Print.

Mittal, Sushil, and Gene Thursby. Dharma, in the Hindu World, London: Routledge, 2004. Print.

Sharma, Rajiv, and June Gaur. Ancient Indian Literature: An Anthology, New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, 2000. Print.

Introduction

Hinduism is a widely popular religious tradition, practiced by over 900 million individuals across the world and considered the third most commonly adopted religion (Ramalingam et al., 2015). Although it originated from India, Hindu practitioners can be seen all over the world. This paper focuses on the religious belief of Hinduism and how it can affect the attitudes of medical personnel at the end of life and palliative care by critically examining and critically analyzing the current research on the topic and practice guidelines for medical professionals.

About Hinduism and Its Impact on Medical Care

The main issue of Hinduism and palliative and end-of-life care is associated with end-of-life decisions because of the conflict between Hindu principles, funeral arrangements and traditional approaches to managing end-of-life decisions. End-of-life care is defined by Ramalingam et al. (2015) as “interventions provided to assist individuals and their families near the end of life and may include hospice and/or palliative care” (p. 8). The knowledge gap here is the fact that the medical professionals and patients or their families may have different opinions regarding end-of-life care and since this topic is sensitive, it is vital to examine how religious beliefs such as Hindu affect the provision of care and the beliefs of individuals related to medical services.

Clinical Practice Issues and Current Research

Ramalingam et al. (2015) state that previous studies conducted in the United States and Europe found evidence that religious beliefs affect the perception of physicians and other medical professionals. Since the researchers focused specifically on the Hindu religion, it is possible to draw some conclusions about its impact on the end of life and palliative care. Ramalingam et al. (2015) concluded that “ethical, cultural, and patient-centered environment” (p. 9). This means that most medical professionals, particularly in the United States where the research took place, have adjusted their beliefs based on the scientific and medical standards and ethics, meaning that there are no barriers for them at the end of life care.

Spirituality and Clinical Practice

The research reviewed in the previous slide suggests that physicians practicing Hindu do not use their religion in their work. However, another scenario is a non-Hindu medical professional who comes in contact with a Hindu patient at an end-of-life facility. WHO’s definition of the end of life care approaches the issue of quality of life from the spiritual and psychological perspectives (cited in Sharme et al., 2013). This means that it is the duty of a medical professional to assist the patient and their family by respecting the religion they practice regardless of the personal views and opinions that this medical professional may have.

Specifics of Hindu Traditions

Next, to understand the specifics of end-of-life care pertaining to the Hindu religion, it is necessary to review the death practices adopted in India. Laungani (2001) wrote a case study describing the rituals that are prevalent among Hindu people, mainly the familial relationships, the family status in the society that is associated with the death of an individual. Mainly, Hindu tradition is characterized by the cast system, where each member of the society belongs to one of three groups – “the Kshatriyas (the warrior caste), the Vaishyas (the business and trading caste) and the Sudras (the lowest caste, born to serve the needs of the three higher castes)” (Laungani, 2001, p. 88).

The described factors help understand that Hindu families may treat end-of-life care and arrangements differently, based on their cast and position in society. Hence, medical professionals should be aware of this aspect and ask their patients or their families questions to determine their point of view. Another example of Hindu beliefs is that if the father of the family dies, the family loses their status, which threatened their financial well-being (. Hence, it is commonly believed that a man should outlive a woman. The variety of traditions that Hindus have in regards to funeral arrangements concern the way the family members dress, the red wedding mark of the widow, the food, and other aspects of life.

Barriers

Research by Doorenbos (2003) suggests that the main barrier of seeking hospice care for Indian people is the lack of awareness that these services exist and a cultural barrier concerning the misunderstanding of the staff members. The latter is an important factor because it suggests that Hindus do not want to use end-of-life care services in fear of being misunderstood or that their traditions will be violated because the medical personnel will not understand them.

Additionally, “Hindus should die “with God in their thoughts or on their lips,” which is why the patient or their family choose to chant or read the holy book, as it keeps the focus of the person on the god (Doorenbos, 2003, p. 27). While these procedures are not standard for Western medicine and end-of-life care, it is vital to provide the opportunity to conduct these rituals because it affects the way these families deal with grief.

Additionally, it is believed that the body should remain at home before cremation, and the ceremony is performed following traditions as well. Moreover, research by Gupta (2011) suggests that the third generation of Hindus in the United States still follows the traditions and beliefs of the religion. All of these elements differ from the traditional funeral arrangements accepted in Europe and the United Kingdom. Unless the personnel is familiar with them, they may appear to be strange. However, as was mentioned at the beginning of this presentation, a vital aspect of end-of-life care is the ability to provide comfort to the family members and the patient, respecting their culture and traditions.

Practice Guidelines

The reviewed research suggests that Hindu beliefs of medical professionals working outside India do not obstruct them from critically analyzing their work and using standard medical practices or adhering to the Western ethics standards. However, some issues exist with non-Hindu medics, since many Hindus report not seeking help because of fear of misunderstandings based on different cultures. Hence, the practice recommendation is to be cautious of the specifics of Hindu traditions that were discussed in this presentation and respect the wishes of the patient and their family.

Conclusion

Overall, this presentation focused on Hinduism and the effects that this religion has on people who come in contact with palliative and end-of-life care. The current research on the topic suggests that physicians have adopted the scientific approach to end-of-life care and do not consider their religion as something that obstructs their medical practice as they focus on healthcare ethics and values.

References

Doorenbos, A. Z. (2003). Hospice access for Asian Indian immigrants. Journal of Hospice and Palliative Nursing, 5(1), 27-33.

Gupta, R. (2011). Death beliefs and practices from an Asian Indian American Hindu Perspective. Death Studies, 35(3), 244-266.

Ramalingam, V., Saeed, F., Sinnakirouchenan, R., Holley, J., & Srinivasan, S. (2015). End-of-life care beliefs mong Hindu Physicians in the United States. American Journal of Hospice and Palliative Medicine, 32(1), 8-14.

Sharma, H., Jagdish, V., Anusha, P., & Bharti, S.. (2013). End-of-life care: Indian perspective. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 55(6), S293-S298.

Laungani, P. (2001). Hindu deaths in India—Part 1. International Journal of Health Promotion and Education, 39(3), 88-96. Web.