Category: Heritage

Twentieth-century Europe underwent a series of significant events that were bound to alter the continent. Hence, on the eve of the millennium, Europe was quite different from what it had looked like at the beginning of the 20^th century. Numerous wars, revolutions, changes in political and economic spheres – these and other circumstances were decisive factors for many nations’ future. The end of the century was marked by more positive happenings, such as the collapse of the communist regime and gaining of independence by many countries. However, it is crucial to view these occurrences through the prism of the century’s start.

Generally, historians tend to take sides when talking about the level of importance of 1900s-1990s events. As Paxton and Hessler note, the “incommensurability of the century’s two halves” is the main obstacle to interpreting the 20^th-century Europe in unity. Between 1914 and 1945, Europeans participated in two of the cruelest wars in the world’s history. Also, they had to survive the cases of political extremism and economic volatility. Furthermore, the German nation initiated a systematic genocide of the Jewish people. All of these aspects were bound to undermine the stability of the countries situated in Europe.

Meanwhile, the second part of the century was quite different. Europeans were forced to give up dominance in world affairs. However, at the same time, they were able to set up the grounds for economic growth, democracy, social welfare, and peaceful relationships with neighbors. While the events of the two parts of the century were disparate, it is not possible to view them separately since there was a causative-consecutive relation between them.

The most prominent characteristics at the 20^th century’s start were militarism, imperialism, and nationalism. The First and Second World Wars involved the majority of European countries, which led to considerable financial and human losses. The aftermath of World War I was the signing of the Versailles Treaty in 1919. After the Paris Peace Settlement, where the treaty was endorsed, the military and imperialistic ideas of several European countries became considerably limited. As a result, nationalistic ideas of such states as Italy, Germany, and some others emerged. These views evolved into fascism, which became the predecessor of World War II. Further, the aftermath of this war caused major misunderstandings between the opposite fighting parties, and the Cold War broke out between the Soviet Union and the USA, involving their allies. Since the development of contemporary European institutions was influenced by the events happening throughout the 20^th century to a great extent, it is necessary to analyze the aftermath of the Cold War keeping this fact in mind.

One of the prominent occurrences of the late 1980s–early 1990s was the striving for unity and cultural expansion among European states. First of all. It is relevant to note that these events became possible due to the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Because this disintegration happened after the end of the Cold War, it is viable to say that the course of the 20^th-century history was associated with such a result. In 1989, the whole world was surprised at the fall of the Soviet Union and the Communist Party’s loss of monopoly. In two-year time, the Soviet Union was broken apart into many separate independent states. What was different between these events and those occurring at the century’s beginning was their character: while the latter were military, the former were mostly peaceful.

However, whereas former Soviet Union members relished their independence, there were many problems demanding immediate solutions. One of such problematic issues was the low level of absence of the economic system and the poor development of international relations. Hence, the newly formed states, as well as Russia, were caught up in the conditions when the old economic system was already destroyed, and the new one was not yet created. Due to such terms, there was a great decrease in net income, and various reforms were accepted and canceled over a short time. The fall of the Soviet Empire gave way to a new wave of relations between Eastern and Western European countries. The word “Europe” “once again awakened enthusiasm,” particularly among the countries that had just become independent. New opportunities opened for these states’ democracy and freedom, and Europe became the symbol of such positive changes.

Along with hopeful strategies, people did not understand that the process of cultural expansion would not be easy. The newly formed European Union was the source of inspiration for Eastern countries and the guarantee of high quality of life for Westerners. However, caught up in “the euphoria and the historical acceleration,” citizens of different states did not realize that the European Union’s partnership would be rather uneven. The Berlin Wall was falsely considered as the main reason for the dissimilarities between Europeans. Meanwhile, nearly six decades of entirely different history had been experienced by people living on the opposite sides of the Wall. The Eastern part had been governed by a “tyrannical authority” whereas the Western part was under American guard that promised “freedom, democracy, and protection.” Therefore, people living on the opposite sides of the wall had different cultures and mentalities, sharing which became one of the opportunities at the end of the 20^th century.

Despite the increased opportunities for many countries that emerged by the end of the past century, there are many pessimistic views pertaining to the continent’s development. Specifically, economic relations in the European Union are reported to be in crisis. Europe’s ambitions are rather humble in comparison to the USA’s ones. One of the probable explanations is the balance of power theory. The application of this approach allows concluding that the members of the Union are concerned too much with other members’ possibilities and too little with their potential as a unity.

Finally, it is necessary to discuss the opportunities for cultural expansion and immigration that emerged at the end of the 20^th century. The main reason for such positive changes is the absence of major military actions in Europe. Even though the collapse of the Soviet Union brought about many problems, the 1990s marked a point when no considerable military campaigns were led in Europe. This fact is considered as “quite remarkable” and opens new windows of opportunities for people from different countries. Thus, there were more positive than negative implications of the events happening at the end of the 20^th century.

The legacy of the 20^th century cannot be viewed from one angle since the events spanning over that period were rather diverse. The characteristics of the century’s beginning had a profound effect on its development and ending. As a result of lessons learned from wars and harsh political regimes, European countries discovered new opportunities for trade, cultural exchange, and immigration. It is possible to say that the negative aspects had altered Europe and allowed it to meet positive changes.

Bibliography

Cox, Michael. “Why Did We Get the End of the Cold War Wrong?” The British Journal of Politics and International Relations 11, no. 2 (2009): 161–176.

Mearsheimer, John J. “Why Is Europe Peaceful Today?” European Political Science 9, no. 3 (2010): 387–397.

Paxton, Robert O., and Julie Hessler. Europe in the Twentieth Century. 5th ed. Boston, MA: Wadsworth, 2012.

Rosato, Sebastian. “Europe’s Troubles: Power Politics and the State of the European Project.” International Security 35, no. 4 (2011): 45–86.

Schneider, Peter. “The Other Europe.” Salmagundi 166–167 (2010): 22–37.

Heritage is not just about our past, it is also about our present and our future, and we recognize ourselves with these heritage sites and feel associated with them. For the last few decades, people from all walks of life like tourists, refugees, labor migrants, educationists are showing their deep interest and inclination towards these heritage sites. Whether from the pyramids of Egypt or royal palaces of kingship to the tombs and graves etc., they have attained the most important place in the social fabric of our life.

Global movements like the entry of the heritage monuments in the tourism sector, and along with that interest of private companies have raised many complex issues on the ownership rights of the heritage sites, which were always considered as a public domain and a national heritage.

Heritage sites almost all over the world are witness to the privatization process, which in turn is posing a threat and challenge to their national identity. It is rightly said, “As embodiments of narratives concerned with the belonging and ‘hereness’, heritage sites have become akin to ‘cathedrals of identity’—centers of worship, pilgrimage, and self-exploration for diverse groups”. (Adams 2005: 433) They are also now considered as the most important avenues of earning with different players in the tourism industry putting their stake. Many debates and controversies are surrounding different groups seeking to exert their economic and symbolic ownership over these heritage sites.

Many of the sites of great historical importance and most beautiful of all like Taj Mahal in India, Independence Hall in Philadelphia, Australia Great Barrier Reef, icy peaks, Hemlock forests of Alaska Glacier Bay along with the Cambodia’s Angkor Wat temple complex and other sites have now been designated as the World Heritage Sites and the right of the whole humanity. Though the state’s revenue increased with the entry of the private players yet it brought valuesvaluesamifications as well.

As expenditure involved is high in maintaining, conserving, interpreting, or excavating new heritage sites, governments of many places are inviting private companies to take over these tasks. In many places, public and private players are competing with each other for ownership rights. E.g. in India, The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has a responsibility to look after the heritage structures and monuments but in 2007, it was found that they were showing high-handedness in their approach. Instead of building the sites, they merely disfigured them. Their latest high-handedness approach was seen during the construction process of the cement portico just in front of the caves of Ajanta. Fortunately, the construction was stopped by protests from conservationists. But in the number of heritage sites, ASI had performed the conservation process without giving attention to the original design and materials. Their process of conservation led to the structures being weakened. With the opposition from the conservationists, ASI decided to forge a partnership with the private players and for this purpose, ASI signed a deal with the Steel Authority of India (SAIL) for restoration work of the monuments at Lodhi Garden in New Delhi. In the same way, the public and private partnerships had led to the restoration process of the Humayun Tomb at Delhi. (Mail 2007: Online). Though the partnership between the two has advantages yet it has its own set of disadvantages too. Lisa C. Breglia in her book Monumental Ambivalence: The Politics of Heritage presented ethnographic case studies of two archaeological sites in the Yucatan Peninsula- Chichen Itza and Chunchucmil to show how landholders, authorities of the Mexican state government, and foreign archaeologists are claiming the national heritage properties as their legal beneficiaries and how residents and laborers involved in excavating process are claiming their share towards these monuments.

Though no two heritages sites are the same yet share common problems like a “need for the delicate balance between the visitation and conservation. All are national flag carriers, symbols in some way of national culture and character. Most of them are the major tourist attractions of their country and some are powerfully evocative symbols of national identity, universally recognized. World Heritage Site is a fragile non-renewable resource, which has to be safeguarded both to maintain its authenticity and to preserve it for future generations.” (Smith 2003: 111) In such a situation, the participation of private players may not be a conducive solution. Most of the private players involved in the conservation process have their profit motives and they encourage the number of other related activities to flourish near the heritage sites like the opening the fast-food restaurants, or hotels. Such activities and also tourist vehicles create noise, sound, and air pollution, which ultimately not only destroys the sanctity of the place but also causes a slow degradation of the same. Commercialization of the site and area around it brings a change in the whole culture and social status of the place. In this whole process, citizens are left with very little say and are denied the respective duty they have towards the sites. Many areas of the world are gradually taking their tourism sector towards the consumer goods economy owing to the growth of the communication and transport network. The overall result has been acculturation, in other words, the complete change in the cultural behavior and thinking of resident citizens through their contact with another culture. The traditional cultures of even the isolated areas have borrowed the different characteristics and traits of the other cultures brought in by tourists taking us towards a homogenized world (Murphy 1995: 145).

However, in this scenario, millions of emigrants crave to assert their legacy over these heritage sites. Be it Maoris, Aborigines, or Native Americans, who still hold their ancestral traditions to their roots, are eager to grasp their memorials, which represent their past and retain their minority status. Though they are dispersed or diluted yet they are ascertaining their solidarity for their essentialist claims. Under the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA), federal agencies and institutes are required to return their cultural items found from their place to them. (Hopi Cultural Preservation Office: Online) These items are related to cultural patrimony, and of sacred and funerary importance. This act appears under the United States Federal Law, which was passed on 16^th November 1990. (Hopi Cultural Preservation Office: Online) United Nations has vested this authority to retain and maintain their ancestral items to the anointed chiefs and elders. But these rules only pertain to the traditional minorities who have unity in their purpose and action to maintain and retain their cultural heritage but this aspect is impractical in other places due to the controversy and debates between the private players and government. As they are adopting the diverse standards, the structure and the sanctity of the heritage sites are hanging on the razor’s edge. These reasons prompted western nations explicitly to initiate the World Heritage Convention to save the sites, as they believe these are not the property of just a few who are residing in that proximity but for the whole universe. Their views are explicitly contradictory to the tribes or indigenous population who have imposed restrictions on their ancestors’ property for the outsiders and even for their women and consider this policy as their sacred duty. In their duties to preserve the ancestral properties, the moral outcome is obvious, as women have to succumb to the dictates of the male members for their rights. They do not have any right towards their ancestral property, which tribal members have, such as the right to dispose of retain or maintain these products.

Warfare and civil discord between the Balkans and the Middle East led to the complete change in the fundamental convictions they had held for the last many years. Their culture, sites, and monuments became weapons and victims of war. These wars posed yet another challenge to our basic assumptions over the role we seek to play and wanted to play as ‘keepers of culture’. Controversies naturally arise when the sites are equally conceptualized as our national identity in the form of religious, cultural, educational, and aesthetic value. We as representatives of religion, culture, or institute visualize the site as our unique property ready to be explored, interpreted, and bequeathed by us only. Here the issue of “whose who or ours and theirs” predominates our consciousness level while giving the heritage sites a universal appeal loses ground. Here the universal mission comes in to increase the awareness and consciousness within us towards what our heritage sites exactly stand for, their real essence, and real importance in our lives. Heritage sites are not merely for interpretation of their historical version of archaeologists but also much more than that. The places fortunate to have heritage sites do not constitute only people residing currently there getting the status of citizens but also the influx of immigrants and emigrants who have lost the footholds of their lands yet in their mind and heart are still holding the traditional values they had left behind. Therefore, heritage sites do not represent merely the culture and religion of the place but also represent all sects and all breathing souls predominating on this earth. This calls for the universal appeal to make us reevaluate the way we should manage our culture and heritage sites.

The World Heritage Convention was signed in Paris on 16^th November 1972 as an agreement between 170 nations for the protection of many of the world’s best and priceless treasures. (Pederson 2002: 14) Every country or the State Party to the Convention feels its duty to preserve, protect and conserve its cultural and natural heritage sites. The main crux to bring heritage sites under the protective eyes of the World Heritage Convention is to give them a universal appeal and a belief that World Heritage sites belong to everyone and we have to preserve them for future generations. (Pederson 2002: 3) They developed the concept known as sustainable tourism to maintain the balance between the problems that can arise with the tourists and at the same time to always keep the sanctity of the site intact and make it presentable and attractive for tourists. Sustainable tourism not only helps in the restoration work through the increase in revenue but also becomes a medium for the protection and maintenance of the local population as well as for the conservation and restoration process.

Tourism provides many advantages, like revenue in the form of fees, concessions, and donations that could be used as funds for the above said activities. They can help in generating international support, with tour operators and chain of hotels contributing to the management of the site, helping in monitoring the same, and also in making financial contributions. Tourism also encourages cultural values and with the support of the local handicrafts initiates many economic activities. But as mentioned above, tourism brings in its own set of problems and its management is not only just time consuming but also demands clear policies, dealings with stakeholders, and a regular process of monitoring. According to the World Heritage forum, the activities of tourism needs environment impact assessments (EIAs) and methods to reduce their impacts to the minimum so that the culture, social and economic culture of the local citizens is not affected and they feel directly associated and responsible for the conservation, and maintenance of their cultural heritage. The convention also considers the government to “adopt a general policy which aims to give the cultural and natural heritage a function in the life of the community and to integrate the protection of that heritage into comprehensive planning programs”. (Rodwell 2007: 65) Their recommendation includes making plans at the local and national level, keeping watch on the growth and decline of the population, economic factors, and traffic projections, and also taking a number of measures to prevent any kind of disaster.

Another aspect of it is the right of interpretation of our heritage past to the citizens and customers. Here the difference between citizens and consumers needs to be noted. Though the interpretation pattern of both citizens and consumers are on similar lines yet differences come in the way citizens and consumers view the sites. These consumers are tourists who visit the sites either for entertainment or for knowing their cultural importance and historical significance.

The stories attached to the sites are enough motives for both the consumers and citizens to feel associated. These heritage sites are mainly the monuments or graves or just the rocks but each is replicating the story of ideology, culture, moral values, and universal love cherished and upheld by our ancestors. In a true sense, we merely do not feel just attached ourselves to these sites for just the sake of these priceless possessions but also to feel attached to our ancestors and their cultural and moral values. But unfortunately, issues of interpretation and cultural and ownership strives are changing the whole of our thinking process and the way we believe and feel associated with them.

Several studies have found the motive of majority of the visitors is merely entertainment and so as the attitude of the authorities concerned. Authorities have made these sites as a means of earning revenue making them not the heritage of citizens or heritage for customers but a place of entertainment, fun, and enjoyment for citizens and customers. There is a need to bring the change in outlook and overview of all associated with the sites and make them universal cultural heritage with the appeal of ideologies, moral values of love and brotherhood, and here the role of the public archaeological and interpretation comes in. The people should interpret the sites, not in the way of mere entertainment but receive and represent the sites for which they stand for.

Reference List

1. Adams, K.M. 2005. Public Interest Anthropology in Heritage Sites: Writing Culture and Righting Wrongs. International Journal of Heritage Studies, 11(5): 433-439.
2. Hopi Cultural Preservation Office. Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act. [Online]
3. Lowenthal, David. 2006. Heritage Wars. [Online] Web.
4. Mail, I. 2007. Need of private sector participation in restoring India’s heritage structure. [Online] Web.
5. Murphy, P.E. 1985. Tourism: A Community Approach. London: Methoen & Co Ltd
6. Pederson, A. 2002. Managing Tourism at World Heritage Sites: a Practical Manual for World Heritage Site Managers. [Online] Web.
7. Rodwell, D. 2007. Conservation and Sustainability in Historic Cities. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing.
8. Smith, M.K. 2003. Issues in Cultural Tourism Studies. London: Routledge

Introduction

I agree with the judgment of the historian that the social upheaval of the 1960s brought conservatism back into the political arena. While I believe that sixties protest movements produced great advances in civil rights, women’s liberation, and the general freeing-up of a culture that had been stiflingly conformist before the 1960s, the fact is that the New Left and the counterculture helped get Richard M. Nixon elected as president of the United States.

The protest movements

It is a terrible irony that the people who tried to make life better should have created the backlash that helped the Republic Party reestablish its dominance. The protest movements have deep roots but the New Left may be said to originate at Port Huron where a group of students met to found Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) and to draw up a manifesto declaring their demands for instant and radical change. As Mary Beth Norton says, “SDS sought nothing less than the revitalization of democracy by taking power from the corporations, the military, and the politicians and returning it to the people” (1003).

The Statement reflects the shock many of these students experienced when they left the suburbs to attend university and first discovered that there was poverty and injustice in America. It also reflects their political naivety in expecting the government to respond to their demands. It is this factor more than any other that led the protest movement to become increasingly frustrated and to resort to more attention-getting tactics culminating in the bombings by Weatherman which, in turn, led to the great backlash that swept the conservatives to power. The Free Speech Movement

The Free Speech Movement was organized two years after Pt. Huron, inspiring students on campuses throughout the country. Its members learned a great deal from the civil rights movement in the South where many of them spent their summers, and they brought this knowledge to their organizations. Their protests against racial injustice and the escalation of the war in Vietnam led to clashes with the police, which only fueled their revolutionary fervor. This led to the formation of a loose coalition grouped under the term the New Left which was united in the struggle against racism and the Vietnam War, as well as the hippie movement which chose to turn its back on the “moral bankruptcy and materialism” (1004) of mainstream society.

The hippie movement

Like the SDS, the hippie movement began peacefully and with high expectations of changing the world very shortly. The young people who “turned on, tuned in and dropped out” to flock to Haight-Ashbury intended to “redefine reality and create a more just and joyful society” (1004) through rock n’ roll, drugs, and love but soon after the summer of love of 1967 the hippie movement was destroyed by all the attention it got from the media, and the influx of lost souls it brought into the district. Middle-class parents were horrified by the sight of their children destroying their prospects and even their lives and began to question just how “permissive” society should be, to use a term later popularized by Vice President Spiro Agnew.

The civil rights movement

The civil rights movement followed the same gradient from peaceful protest to violent revolution. The high point of the civil rights movement, after decades of barely perceptible progress, came in August 1963 when Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. gave his memorable “I Have a Dream” speech before 250,000 people, black and white, during the March on Washington. When Lyndon B. Johnson succeeded the assassinated President John F. Kennedy, African Americans had every right to think that equal rights were within their reach. Johnson was committed to his idea of a Great Society in which civil rights were an integral part of the war against poverty.

Within months of taking office, Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 into law and a few months later established an Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, followed by the Voting Rights Act of 1965 (Norton 995). It would seem that King’s dream had come true; and yet it was during these years that black unrest caused the ghetto riots, radicalized the Students Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), and created the Black Panthers.

The reason for this is that reforms had had a Southern focus, according to Norton, while the problems in the North went unnoticed until the long hot summer riots brought them to the nation’s attention (909). Inspired by the revolutionary violence preached by Malcolm X and the black nationalism of the Black Panthers, African Americans in the ghettoes chose to take action rather than wait patiently for the reforms to take effect. The looting, the arson, and the violent clashes between rioters and police alarmed white America and added to the backlash.

Women’s Liberation movement

Women’s Liberation also progressed from a peaceful, reasonable movement to radical feminism during this time. Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique confined itself to demanding “equal rights in partnership with men,” but the National Organization for Women (NOW) was soon superseded by radical feminists who fought against “women’s economic and political inequality to sexual double standards and sex-role stereotypes” (Norton 1010).

Women who joined civil rights and other protest groups found themselves making coffee and providing sexual favors instead of making policy decisions (Norton 1010), and eventually the more radical among them began to formulate separatist ideas along the same lines as the radical civil rights groups. The resultant backlash led to a surge of anti-feminism among right-wing voters and a strong demand for a return to traditional values.

Demonstrations against the Vietnam War

For the “silent majority” of Americans, the sight of their children attending love-ins, of blacks setting fire to their neighborhoods, entering the California legislature with loaded shotguns, and attacking the police, was deeply disturbing. What unsettled them most, however, were the massive demonstrations against the Vietnam War which made it seem as though the country was in a civil war. The protest movement which had started as a peaceful attempt at persuading the government to withdraw from Vietnam became inflamed with every heavy-handed response on the part of the authorities.

Police brutality, counter-demonstrations by hard hats, and most of all the failure to change the government’s policy made the demonstrators look for more effective tactics, culminating in the antics of the Youth International Party (“Yippies”) who had traveled to Chicago to “embarrass the Democrats” (Norton 1007) during the 1968 Democratic Convention. The resultant street fight between protesters and police played right into the hands of the “law and order” candidate, Richard Nixon, all the more so since the Republican Convention in Miami was relatively untroubled.

Conclusion

After the pitched battle fought in front of the Chicago Hilton in full view of the delegates and the international media, many Americans decided they had had enough and began to look to Nixon to restore peace and unity to America. Nixon was elected by a slender margin over Hubert Humphreys, ending the hopes of social reform that Kennedy and Johnson had once engendered in people’s hearts. The backlash had taken its effect.

White voters, even those who had been sympathetic to social reform, decided that what the country needed most were stability and order. The combined vote for Nixon and the American Independent Party candidate, George Wallace, came to 57% (Norton 1009) while Hubert Humphrey, who was strongly identified with civil rights, got 35% of the white vote (Norton 1009). The New Left, by increasingly by-passing the political process, had alienated the people they most needed, and from Nixon’s inauguration on they became less and less effective until they ceased to be a factor in American politics.

Work Cited

Norton, Mary Beth et al. A People and a Nation: A History of the United States Vol. II: Since 1865. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1994.

The story of the Third World Liberation Front (TWLF) Strikes and its effect on today’s education system proves that progress towards more inclusive and impactful education is a marathon, not a race. Although the goal of the Third World Liberation Front to establish an independent third world college on campus was not realized at the height of this activist movement in 1969, the movement strongly influenced future movements and the legacy of ethnic studies. For this reason, it is important to study and analyze this movement and its impact on contemporary education.

Summary of the Readings

The strike was primarily led by the Asian American Political Association, which began at San Francisco State University and became the first Asian student group. Dissatisfied with the conditions of the San Francisco state education system in 1969, several Asian groups began calling for minority self-determination. The demands were quite extreme, as they called for establishing independent ethnic studies programs for racial minority groups in the TWLF, programs in which students would control both the faculty and the curriculum.

To force the university to solve this problem, these Asian minority groups decided they would have to take a series of steps to destroy the system and force unsympathetic students and faculty to face this problem. Before the strike began, many TWLF members in Berkeley gained protest experience by attending San Francisco State TWLF Strike events across the bay. The San Francisco State Strike was the main impetus and model for Berkeley TWLF. The model, in essence, was to use direct mass actions to close the campus to force the administration to come to terms with the strikers. Following the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King and the ensuing urban uprisings across America, TWLF strikers took a confrontational approach to disrupt campus operations.

Other minority groups saw the movement as an opportunity to make significant changes and joined forces to form a more powerful voice on campus. Sympathetic teachers and local residents also participated in these protests. These protests were so effective that even the American Federation of Teachers went on strike for several weeks. In the end, the whole country’s attention attracted attention, as the media began to cover the situation with great interest.

Chinese Americans who participated in the TWLF movements were members or affiliates of Intercollegiate Chinese for Social Action (ICSA) at San Francisco State College (SFSC) and Asian American Political Alliance (AAPA) at the University of California, Berkeley (UCB). While students on both campuses held similar goals, their focus areas differed. ICSA worked within the San Francisco Chinatown ethnic community, while AAPA was in a more dispersed pan-ethnic setting (San Francisco State College). San Francisco State President S.I. Hayakawa opposed the protests. It surprised many people since he was a Japanese American. He believed that the Asian Americans of that time were too paranoid about their position and that it was fashionable in those days to destroy the system and demand a coup. Conservatives such as Governor Ronald Reagan supported Hayakawa, although students did not recognize his views and autocratic style.

The TWLF Strike at San Francisco State College was more successful than that at Berkeley. The first school of ethnic studies in the nation was established and was eventually able to confer degrees in ethnic studies. On the other hand, UC Berkeley received budget allocations for a single Department of Ethnic Studies with subdivisions in Asian American, African American, Chicano, and Native American Studies. In many respects, the ending of the strike was more a stalemate than a final settlement.

Connection to Course Topics

Self-determination has played a key role in the mission of the TWLF. This idea called for schools to fight the systemic oppression caused by racism. Through self-determination students will decide what the study of their culture means to them and how it should be organized. It was clear to these students as daylight that education was more focused on the needs of businesses rather than the needs of the communities that TWLF students called home. Troubled times in the US and abroad have encouraged students to speak their minds loud and clear to the public. The effects of this movement can still be felt today, as it made a significant contribution to modern education.

Students and educators understand that with a more culturally diverse curriculum, people develop an empowering and socially dynamic mindset that they can use wherever they need in life. While these needs appear to have only recently emerged, the reality is that the struggle for a more relevant, non-white-dominated discourse has been going on in schools for decades. Proponents of ethnic studies consider the strikes of the Third World Liberation Front one of the first key events in this struggle. Multiracial solidarity was established by bringing together African American, Asian American, Native American, and Chicano students to form the Third World Liberation Front (TWLF) with the support of white student allies (Dong, 2020). The strike then changed academia, and its legacy influences how we look at history and social transformation today. In many ways, the TWLF and the resulting solidarity have allowed future generations to learn from the past to change the present.

Response to the Reading

The topic is exciting and close to me because I believe deeply in change and upheaval. It stimulates any society that becomes stagnant in daily life. People often do not notice or think about what minorities may experience and feel. Often they do this not intentionally but simply out of ignorance or unwillingness to know. Such movements give impetus to the development of society, draw attention to acute problems and really help to solve the problems of inequality. It is a long and complex process that cannot be solved after several years of protests. It sometimes picks up speed, then slows down, but it should never stop. If this process stops, then society has stopped developing and getting better, and regression most often begins when there is no progress.

The 1968 and 1969 World Strike in San Francisco has a special status for me. This event was important because it gave people the understanding that they could unite despite ethnic differences, garner the support of other minority groups and sympathizers, grab national attention, and motivate the institutional unit to respond. I learned about this event before, but I was amazed to see that the Third World Liberation Group had enough influence to force the unwilling status quo to confront the issue. I was delighted that these people took control of the situation without being silent, without letting the system stop them from believing in what they were doing. I believe that it is essential for everyone to know their history, even if it has nothing to do with their skin color or ethnicity: since events such as this strike affected us much more than we may think.

These strikes, taking place throughout history on college campuses, demonstrate the strength of solidarity and the power of students from different minorities. The message of the TWLF is that institutions will not oppress and silence people of color and will not take away students’ right to education. The impact of this powerful message and student struggles at the time can still be seen on campuses and educational opportunities for minority students today.

Reference

Dong, H. (2020). Power of the people won’t stop: legacy of the TWLF at UC Berkeley. Eastwind Books of Berkeley.

San Francisco State College. The Strike Explained. SF State College Strike Collection.

Nursing care should be sensitive to the cultural values of all groups. It should be sensitive to a person’s gender, race, social class, and sexual orientation as well as any disabilities the person may have (Daly S, Speedy S and Jackson D, 2004). The belief systems of clients should be respected at all times. Nurses encounter people from many cultural backgrounds and therefore they need to have the skills to professionally attend to clients from any culture (Andrews M and Boyle J, 2002). Nursing among people of Jewish and Korean heritage presents challenges in many areas like language, religious beliefs, cultural practices, and differences in perception of health care.

People of Asian heritage, including Koreans and Jews, are reserved and their social conduct is conservative. Due to this, they are known to engage in sexual intercourse late in life and have fewer partners throughout their life. They do not easily discuss issues to do with birth control or routine screening for women’s health. Nurses must therefore be sensitive to these issues when attending to clients of Korean heritage (Orshan S, 2008). Both Jews and Koreans practice the circumcision of boys. Every healthy Jewish male is circumcised on the eighth day after birth (Jacobs L, 1995). This practice is not done in a hospital. Nurses need to emphasize the need for such practices to be performed by trained personnel in a hospital setting.

Jewish culture has some dietary guidelines which may affect nursing practices where dietary counseling is necessary. Some foods are considered impure and are forbidden. These foods include pork, rabbit meat, shellfish, and combinations of meat and dairy products. Animals that do not chew the cud or do not have completely cloven hooves cannot be eaten. There are days on which Jews are not allowed to cook, like on the Sabbath. A person who plants a fruit tree cannot eat its fruit till after three years. These dietary laws may affect nursing practices among Jews. People of Korean heritage do not share in these dietary laws and hence will have fewer problems with dietary counseling (Roskies D, 1999).

In Korean culture, family units are very large and are considered to be of great importance. These families are dominated by men who are the heads of families. They should provide and make decisions for the family. This means that a woman does not make decisions without consulting their husbands. This affects nursing practices in that the man may not agree to interventions meant for the family or their wives. There is religious diversity among people of Korean heritage and this means that nurses should be aware of the belief systems of the people and respect them. The common religions include Christianity, Taoism, shamanism, Buddhism, and Confucianism (Grayson J, 2002). This religious diversity is not a problem among Jews since Judaism is the religion of almost all Jews.

Both the Jewish and Korean cultures have practices that affect health care provision and nursing practices. Religious beliefs are at the forefront in both cultures and they affect the people’s perception towards health care, their response to nursing practices, their understanding of diseases and may even affect the development of diseases (Jacobs L and Giarelli E, 2001). It is therefore very important that all health caregivers understand the culture of each client to enhance good and sensitive care.

Reference List

Andrews M and Boyle J, July 2002, Journal of Transcultural Nursing, Vol. 13 No. 3, 178-18, Sage Publications.

Daly S, Speedy S and Jackson D, 2004, contexts of nursing.

Grayson J H, 2002, Korea: a religious history, Journal of Asian Studies, 62, part 4, 1252-1253.

Jacobs L A and Giarelli E, 2001, Jewish culture, health belief systems and genetic risk for cancer, Nursing forum, 36, 2, 5-12.

Jacobs L, 1995, Jewish religion: a companion, oxford university press.

Roskies D G, 1999, against the apocalypse: responses to catastrophe in modern Jewish culture.

History & Values and worldview

History

• The discovery of America;
• European immigration to America;
• The Spanish;
• The English;
• The French;
• The Dutch;
• The Swedish;
• The German;
• The Scottish;
• The Irish.

Values and worldview

• Individualism;
• Free speech;
• Freedom of choice;
• Independence;
• Self-reliance;
• Confidence.

The history of European Americans roots back to time when first immigrants came to the American continent. Initially, the new land was expected to give profit. However, later, it became home for people who escaped their native countries because of religious and political prosecution (“European immigration,” 2017).

People who settled on American land shared similar values and worldview. Thus, they supported the principles of individualism, free speech, independence, confidence, openness, individual responsibility, etc. (Purnell, 2014).

Language and communication patterns & Art and other expressive forms

Language and communication patterns

• Widely-spread English language;
• Voice louder compared to other cultures;
• Ready to share personal information;
• Direct eye contact;
• Orientation on future.

Art and other expressive forms

• Art traditions follow European patterns;
• The birth of mass culture;
• Assimilation of European traditions with Native American.

Although there is no official language in the United States, the majority of population including European Americans speak English. Other languages popular within this population group are Spanish, French, and German. European Americans tend to be expressive and more loud than other cultures. Another specific feature in communication is their openness and readiness to share personal information. An important communication peculiarity is that Americans expect to keep a direct eye contact to show they are attentive and interested.

Norms and rules, lifestyle characteristics, relationship patterns, rituals

• Greeting someone for the first time with extending the right hand;
• Punctuality valued both in business and daily life;
• Common way to refer a person by the given name;
• Only close friends or relatives are expected to touch each other;
• Egalitarian family relationships;
• Children are great value;
• Highly encouraged autonomy in children and teenagers (Purnell, 2014).

The degree of assimilation or marginalization from mainstream society

• High degree of assimilation;
• Identification as Americans disregarding ethnic roots;
• Development of European-American culture;
• Great impact of British cultural traditions;
• Development of specific popular quisine.

Health behavior and practices

• Focus on health promotion and wellness;
• Increase in personal responsibility;
• High treatment compliance;
• Support organ donation;
• Application of advanced directives;
• Interest in folk therapies;
• Successful rehabilitation of people with disabilities.

Differential approaches needed by health care professionals

• Great attention to privacy;
• Attention to low-touch culture;
• Importance of direct eye contact;
• Addressing people as Mr., Mrs., Miss, Ms., or another appropriate title on first meeting;
• Full disclosure of health information to the patient.

References

European Immigration. (2017). Web.

Purnell, L. D. (2014). Guide to culturally competent health care (3rd ed.). Philadelphia, PA: F.A. Davis Company.

Introduction

Australia is perhaps one of the countries with many heritage sites in the world today. These are both national and world heritage sites. The national heritage sites are significant to the country as a whole and represent an important aspect of the country’s historical background. On the other hand, world heritage sites in Australia are significant both to the country and to the world as a whole. The latter are sites that have been declared as world heritage sites by UNESCO.

The world heritage sites in Australia include Great Barrier Reef which is regarded as the largest in the world (Hamilton & Schladow 2005). It measures about 2011 kilometres in length and 72 kilometres across (Hamilton & Schladow 2005). Other world heritage sites include Kakadu National Park, Willandra Lakes Region and Tasmanian Wilderness.

The latter covers about 1/5 of Tasmania (Hamilton & Schladow 2005). A large swathe of this wilderness is composed of pristine forest cover. Most of the fauna and flora found within this wilderness is not found anywhere else in the world.

Lord Howe Island Group, Uluru- Kata Tjuta National Park and Gondwana Rainforests of Australia are other world heritage sites in this country. Gondwana Rainforests were formerly known as the Australian Eastern Rainforest Reserves (Hamilton & Schladow 2005). The rainforests are made up of 7 distinct clusters of rainforest sites which are to be found on the east coast (Hamilton & Schladow 2005).

The above are just some of the world heritage sites in this country. There are others such as Wet Tropics of Queensland, Shark Bay in Western Australia among others. With such an impressive collection of world heritage sites in a country the size of Australia, it is understandable why many people regard Australia as a world heritage site in her own right.

National heritage sites include Jordan River Levee, HMS Sirius shipwreck among others. Prospect Reservoir is such one national heritage site in this country. The reservoir has continued to serve the country for more than 120 years. Despite being more than a hundred years old, the reservoir is still intact and continues to attract the attention of architects and engineers from around the world.

This report is going to look at Prospect Reservoir as a national heritage site in Australia. The author will write the report with the international visitor as the target audience. Several aspects of the reservoir will be looked into. These include a historical background of the site, significance of the site, how the site has changed over the years among others.

Prospect Reservoir: Historical Background

One cannot look at the history of Prospect Reservoir without looking at that of the aborigines and the European settlers around this area. This is given the fact that the history of the two is inexplicably intertwined. The aborigines and the European settlers cannot be alienated from the history of Prospect Reservoir.

The History of the Aborigines and European Settlers

According to the Office of Environment and Heritage [herein referred to as OEH] (2011), the area on which Prospect Reservoir sits was formerly under the control of the aborigines. The Eastern Creek and the Prospect Creek were especially attractive locations for aboriginal camping. It was only in the year 1789 that the first European settler set foot in this area.

Prospect Hill is regarded as Sydney’s largest mass of igneous rock which made it the perfect choice for the construction of the reservoir (OEH 2011). The rock is located at the centre of Cumberland Plain and it is the dominant feature in the region.

The aborigines resisted the occupation of their land by the European settlers. This led to an open conflict between the two parties. One of the most popular leaders of this resistance on the side of the aborigines was Pemulwuy from the Bidjigal clan (OEH 2011). After his death in the year 1802, the resistance tapered off. The conflict was eventually resolved in the year 1805 when the two sides came to an agreement (OEH 2011). The area was put under agriculture from the year 1806 to the year 1888 when the reservoir was constructed.

The History of Prospect Reservoir

The history of this reservoir can be traced back to the year 1867 (OEH 2011). This was the year that the Governor of New South Wales formed a commission to look into the issue of supply of water in the city of Sydney (OEH 2011). The commission came up with recommendations in the year 1869. It was recommended that construction of a dam should begin on the Upper Nepean Scheme. The scheme was made up of two diversion weirs.

These were located at Pheasant’s Nest and Broughton’s Pass in the catchment area (Hamilton & Schladow 2005). It was assumed that the force of gravity will be critical in feeding the water from the canal into a reservoir that was to be constructed at Prospect.

The proposed water system was to become the city’s fourth source of water (OEH 2011). The other three were Tank Stream, Busby’s Bore (OEH 2011) and the Botany which was also referred to as Lachlan Swamps. The reservoir was the handiwork of the Public Works Department of the New South Wales (OEH 2011). The reservoir was constructed during the 1880s and became operational in the year 1888.

A man credited with this fete was the Engineer in Chief of the Habours and Rivers Branch in the department (OEH 2011). This was Edward Orpen Moriarty who lived between 1858 and 1888. There is one outstanding aspect of the Prospect Reservoir which can be conceptualised as one of its most distinctive feature. This is the diversion of Nepean River downstream where it meets the Avon and Cordeaux Rivers (Hamilton & Schladow 2005).

The Peasant’s Nest weir is another outstanding feature of this reservoir. This is located near Wilton Township (Hamilton & Schladow 2005). The weir takes the water via a seven- kilometre- long cavern that joins the Cataract River (OEH 2011) at Broughton’s Pass. This is close to Appin Township through which another set of weirs takes the water via a fifty eight kilometres’ complex of channels and aqueducts.

According to Hamilton & Schladow (2005), the weir’s system was not designed for water storage. This being the case, it was found that the weirs should flow into Prospect Creek where a dam was to be constructed. This dam was Prospect Reservoir which came into completion in the year 1888 as earlier mentioned in this paper. The reservoir was designed in such a way that it was able to store all the water flowing from the weirs and other inlets designed by the engineers and architects of that time.

Prospect Reservoir: How has it changed Over the Years?

It is important to note that several changes have taken place around Prospect Reservoir over the years. The changes were necessary for various reasons. One major reason is to ensure that the reservoir remained viable and capable of supplying water to the growing population of Sydney.

Secondly, it was also important to ensure that the reservoir does not collapse endangering the livelihoods of many people who rely on it. This being the case, rehabilitation of the reservoir has resulted into visible changes in this national heritage site over the years. Here, the author will look at some of these changes.

According to OEH (2011), extensive maintenance works were carried out in the period between 1893 and 1916. The major aim of these maintenance works was “…to correct slumps in the upstream face (of the reservoir)” (OEH 2011: p. 6). In the year 1960, the Warragamba Dam was commissioned and connected to Prospect Reservoir.

This was aimed at improving water storage for Sydney city. In the year 1966, another pipeline was commissioned to connect Prospect Reservoir with Warragamba (OEH 2011). This increased the volume of water that could be supplied to Sydney city and its environs.

There was another phase of major works on the reservoir which took place between the years 1979 and 1980. This was aimed at strengthening the walls of the reservoir given the fact that it was already handling large volumes of water than it was designed for.

The maintenance works involved raising the volume of water that could be handled or stored on the downstream end of the reservoir (OEH 2011). Further strengthening of the upstream end of the reservoir was to be commissioned by Sydney Water Corporation in the year 1997.

Another important feature of this national heritage site is the Prospect Water Filtration Plant. This was constructed in the year 1996 to further improve water supply in and around the city. The plant made it possible to take raw water directly from Warragamba and Upper Nepean without necessarily taking it through Prospect Reservoir (OEH 2011).

It is noted that the filtration plant was designed in such a way that it could get its water directly from Prospect in case the need arose. The Prospect Water Filtration Plant is regarded as one of the largest in the world.

Other changes that have taken place in and around Prospect Reservoir include the construction of what OEH (2011) refers to as the scour/ outlet system. The Lower Canal of this system was however closed in the 1980s (OEH 2011). Since then, the system has been used solely to scour and drain the Prospect Reservoir. The aim here is to uphold the safety of the reservoir.

Conclusion: Significance of Prospect Reservoir

The significance of Prospect Reservoir as a national heritage site cannot be downplayed. To start with, the reservoir plays a very critical role in supplying water to Sydney and the surrounding areas.

The immediate catchment area of this water storage facility is covered with vegetation which is composed of native bush land (OEH 2011). The vegetation has made many people regard the reservoir as a national heritage site worth preserving.

It is Prospect Reservoir which has made it possible to conserve the bush land which has come to be categorised as Cumberland Plain Woodland (OEH 2011). This is given the fact that this region has been designated as a protected area making it possible to conserve the fauna and flora.

The region hosts more than 50 native species of plants. Additionally, the area is home to many endangered animals which are not found anywhere else in the world. These are animals such as eastern grey kangaroos (OEH 2011), echidnas and wombats (Hamilton & Schladow 2005).

This report analysed several aspects touching on Prospect Reservoir in New South Wales, Australia. The reservoir which is located about 35 kilometres from the capital city of Sydney was analysed in terms of its historical background, changes that have taken place there and the significance of the site.

References

Hamilton, DP & Schladow, G 2005, “Controlling the indirect effects of flow diversions on water quality in an Australian reservoir,” Environment International, 21(5), 583-590.

Office of Environment and Heritage 2011, Prospect Reservoir and surrounding area. Web.

Introduction

The Bedouin tribes have been romanticized in the literature that represents them as an essence of nomadic ways and customs, an entirely unexplored group of strange people. However, with the course of time, instead of the definition of a lifestyle, the term “Bedouin” became the determinant of an identity (Cole 237). Today, a Bedouin is the living epitome of tradition. Despite the fact that the Bedouin villages in the 21^st century scarcely remain as a tourist attraction, there are many Bedouin descendants, and the Bedouin customs in housing, trading, eating, and clothing still linger. I am going to speak about a traditional and the most basic piece of garment used by Saudi Bedouins: the aba, or abaya.

Analysis

The aba or abaya is defined as a piece of outer clothing. It is stated that, in Saudi Bedouin culture, the aba is worn mostly by men. However, women can see seen wearing the garment as well. Most commonly, the aba looks like a gown without sleeves, buttons, or belts. That means, it is worn on top of all other clothes and is not closed over the body. The form and shape of the aba are common for a wide part of the Middle East; with Bedouins, it is very popular. The aba can be worn by women as well as men, and it is practically equal in size and shape to those of men. Bedouin tribes dwelling in different areas of Saudi Arabia have diverse traditions concerning this piece of garment. In the Eastern regions, the aba is produced out of wool, and the material has a striped pattern in black or brown and white. The colors are plain since wearing bright colors is the prerogative of the notable and rich. These usually have their abas in red or green, richly embroidered with precious golden or silver thread in the upper half of the garment. Nomad tribes in the North wear their abas black, which is a rare color among other tribes (Algar par. 1-4).

The aba has many uses among the Bedouin. It is a loose garment, which means that it can be deployed to a variety of functions. For instance, the aba can serve as a blanket or sheet and as a pillow, when folded. Considering that the Bedouin made their living by trade, one can easily see a Bedouin wrapping their goods in the aba and carrying it as a bag or turning it into some kind of a sunshade. The abas is suitable for wearing all year round. The abas woven of camel wool is very warm and can serve as a winter overcoat. Those made of a finer material are used in warm seasons (Algar par. 5).

Today, a significant change in attitudes towards traditional Bedouin garments can be noticed, especially in women. People of Qatar, for instance, are the descendants of Bedouin tribes dwelling the central and eastern regions of Saudi Arabia. It is stated that older Qatari women still wear their abas as well as other traditional garments, if only more colorful than they used to be. Since the 1980s, Qatari women were seen wearing the abas over modern clothes, i.e., loose gowns. In 1997, Qatar has opened its first shopping mall. Thus Western clothing has become popular with the Qatari female population. Another significant change in the Qatari society was that women started working while at the same time seeking to keep their customs and avoid harassment from the conservative male population. More emancipate women openly fight for their rights to choose the way they dress and look. As a result, the contemporary Qatari aba comes in various and more convenient shapes than it used to (Goto 22-24).

Conclusion

The change of attitudes towards traditional garments is very useful for a clearer understanding of the processes that take place in the Saudi Bedouin society. I have said that a Bedouin, especially a Bedouin woman, nowadays is a representation of tradition, and it is true. The volition to preserve the traditions of womanhood, femininity, and beauty triggers the perseverance of abas among Qatari women. At the same time, the Western styles and ways are gradually and persistently penetrating the lifestyle of contemporary Bedouins. They become more independent and individualistic, they acknowledge that men dictating women how to dress and look is a violation of women’s rights. Consequently, the abas, as well as other traditional clothing items, e.g., hijab, experience significant changes in design and come in looser and more convenient forms. Thus, the aba is a crucial piece of garment that means very much for Qatari women. On the one hand, the aba worn with other traditional clothes is a symbol of national identity and belonging to renowned Bedouin culture, both within their homeland and abroad (Fields 58). On the other hand, Qatari women are making use of the traditional aba, changing its design to their liking and convenience to demonstrate their individualism, distinguish themselves in the society they belong to, and embrace the everlasting struggle for female rights.

Works Cited

Algar, Hamid. “ABĀ.” Encyclopaedia Iranica. Encyclopaedia Iranica, 2011. Web.

Cole, Donald Powell. “Where Have the Bedouin Gone?” Anthropological Quarterly 76.2 (2003): 235-267. Print.

Fields, Rona. Against Violence Against Women: The Case for Gender as a Protected Class, Basingstoke, United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014. Print.

Goto, Manami. “Attitudinal change towards traditional attire among Qatari women over one generation.” Qatar University QSpace. Qspace Institutional Repository, 2015. Web.

People often think that being of Italian descent means that I am good at cooking, eat a lot and tend to walk around saying “I will make you an offer you can’t refuse”. False stereotypes and references to the Godfather series aside, being an Italian goes hand in hand with a rich tradition of religion and culture that spans centuries. From the rise of the Roman Empire to the creation of modern-day Italy, you cannot help but think of where we as Italians have come from, what different paths our ancestors took for us to be here today and what potential future could be on the horizon for the next generations of Italians.

It is this anticipation for what may come that has driven me towards pursuing a career in medicine. Did you know that the first medical school in Europe, the School of Salerno, was located in Italy? That Italian doctor Giovanni Battista Morgagni was the founder of Pathological anatomy? It is these little tidbits of knowledge about the contributions of Italians to the field of medicine that truly fascinated me since it showed just how much our culture has contributed to the foundation of the modern medical world (Buonanno 123).

While it is true that the latest developments in modern day medicine now come large corporations and Universities with corporate funding, the fact remains that much of what can be seen in modern day hospitals can be attributed to the contributions of early Italian medical pioneers. Strangely enough, despite the contributions that Italians have made to the field of medicine, it has taken quite some time for people of Italian descent to break into the field of medicine in the U.S. This is despite the fact that Italians have been known for centuries are great inventors, thinkers, and practitioners of medicine.

For example, Salvino degli Armati (born in 1258) is widely considered as the potential inventers of eyeglasses, Alessandro Volta (born in 1745) created the first prototype of the electric batteries we use in many devices today, and Giovanni Caselli was one of the original inventors of the ancestor of the fax machines that were widely used prior to the popularization of the internet (Belluscio 228). These are only some of the dozens of Italian inventors, thinkers, philosophers and artists that contributed immensely towards shaping the world as we know it today. The quintessential Italian thinker is one that is creative, inventive, possesses a deep faith in God and creates due to the deep-seated belief that to hold back is to deny the world of the gifts and talents that God has given them us.

The low rate of career penetration for Italian-Americans in the field of medicine is in part due to a combination of false stereotyping, belief that other ethnicities are simply better in the field of medicine, and a distinct lack of initial opportunities Italian-Americans. While Italians were some of the first migrants into the U.S. during the early 1900s, they were coming here in order to flee from rampant poverty in Italy at the time.

As a result, many Italian migrants did not have significant amounts of monetary assets leading many towards taking industrial and construction related jobs (Riccio 161). Unfortunately, this correlation between Italians and the aforementioned jobs stuck resulting in the development of a stereotype that Italians are the best for labor related work (Shor 685). This meant that Italians attempting to advance into various professional fields were given limited opportunities since it was thought that they did not have the capability to match other more “deserving” ethnicities (Meyer 176).

This state of affairs continued till the early 1960s where, due to anti-discrimination laws as well as the creation of easier access to state and private funding, Italian-Americans were able to start entering into new professionals outside of those that they were previously shoehorned into (Topp 39).

It is based on this history of Italian-Americans that I decided to enter into the medical field since not only do I want to prove that we as a culture are more than what others perceive us to be, but that we have contributed immensely towards the development of modern day medicine and that these developments will continue well into future if I have anything to say about it. I will continue to strive and focus on becoming someone that the world will remember so that future Italian-Americans can point to me in their history books and say that I am someone that they will strive to emulate.

In fact, I believe that what is written in history is a great way of seeing how particular cultures will continue and evolve in the future. For example, the Italian people and culture as we know it today evolved from the ancient Roman civilization. I find this connection truly fascinating since the developments created by the Romans helped to create much of the modern day world. From the use of aqueducts to the creation of tax laws, social laws and a wide assortment of developments in medicine, art and science. The influence of the Roman civilization helped to shape the world into what it is today and I can’t help but think that it is our blood to change the world just as the ancient Romans did before us.

My belief in how history is our sculptor and we are its material was further piqued when I read about the life of Skipio Africanus, known to be one of the greatest generals who ever lived due to this numerous accomplishments and defeat of Hannibal. While Skipio was born into what can be defined as a moderately well-off family, he became a successful general through hard work and the belief that people should be treated decently and with respect.

This ideology extended all the way into this career as a general where he developed a reputation for fairness and mercy to his enemies. It is based on the life of Scipio that I developed the idea that if I want to be someone that people would look up to, I need to be able to have morals that are unquestionable, a reputation that shows my willingness to help others, and the mental fortitude to carry all my goals out till the end.

As I enter into this new chapter of my life where I will be developing who I am as a person, I begin to see that being an Italian and being a Catholic are intertwined since I have faith that the lord our God will guide me in what I must do to achieve my dreams and be the inspiration for others to achieve theirs as well.

Works Cited

Belluscio, Steven J. “Leaving Little Italy: Essaying Italian American Culture.” Modern Fiction Studies 52.1 (2006): 228. Print.

Buonanno, Michael. “Italian Folk: Vernacular Culture In Italian-American Lives.” Journal Of American Ethnic History 32.2 (2013): 123. Print.

Meyer, Gerald. “Italian Anarchism In America: Its Accomplishments, Its Limitations.” Science & Society 79.2 (2015): 176.Print.

Riccio, Anthony V. “Oral History, Oral Culture, And Italian Americans.” Oral History Review 39.1 (2012): 160-162. Print.

Shor, Francis. “Those Without A Country: The Political Culture Of Italian American Syndicalists (Book).” Journal Of American History 90.2 (2003): 685-686. Print.

Topp, Michael Miller. “The Transnationalism Of The Italian-American Left: The Lawrence Strike Of 1912 And The Italian..” Journal Of American Ethnic History 17.1 (1997): 39. Print.

In any culture of the world, clothing and attire is attributed with essential meaning unique for each individual culture. One of the most essential attributes of clothing is that it determines a person’s identity. Indeed, the way a person dresses might say a lot about their geographic and historical background, as well as social and religious stance. In cultures that value tradition, bonds between clothing and culture are the strongest. In Islamic culture, for one, it is possible to estimate a person’s origins and values by the way they are dressed.

Location and climate as well as tradition and culture, determined largely by Prophet Mohammad’s teachings, have laid their imprint on the clothes, both men’s and women’s. Climatically, a flowing garment is the mist optimal solution; culturally, non-compromisingly long attire is the most suitable for both sexes as a tribute to the Holy Book. Also, long and loose clothes are convenient for everyday use: one can walk, sit, and work moving the limbs without constraint that some Western clothes bring. In addition, such clothing can be easily transformed and used for a wide array of purposes.

The piece of clothing that appears to satisfy all those cultural and practical needs is the aba or abaya. It is the most basic piece of garment that harkens back to Arab nomads. Highly traditional and convenient, it is still in use to-date, as well as other sorts of attire with which it is usually worn together. It signifies a person originating from Islamic culture both within Saudi Arabia and outside it, although it cannot be worn by everyone. In Iran, wearing the aba has become strictly the prerogative of the clergy (Algar par. 1).

In Saudi Arabia, on the other hand, it is mostly worn by women – especially by Qatari women who tend to regard the aba as an accessory of identity. The reasons they wear the aba might be, for example, to demonstrate their devotion to traditional values of womanhood, femininity, and beauty as described in the Holy Book. Also, the aba is worn as a tribute to tradition of the nation that Qatari descend from (Roche, Roche, and Saidi 134). However, national identity notwithstanding, the attitudes towards wearing traditional clothing in Islamic culture are undergoing significant changes, today. Thus, the following paper is aimed at exploration and interpretation of the perception of traditional clothing historically and in contemporary Islamic culture, particularly the history and perception of the abaya today, as Qatari women exemplify.

The aba or abaya is a piece of outer clothing that has gained the most of its popularity among the Bedouin tribes. The Bedouin have been romanticized in literature that represents them as an essence of nomadic ways and customs, an entirely unexplored group of strange people. However, with the course of time, instead of the definition of a lifestyle, the term “Bedouin” became the determinant of an identity (Cole 237). Today, a Bedouin is the living epitome of tradition. Despite the fact that the Bedouin villages in the 21st century scarcely remain as a tourist attraction, there are many Bedouin descendants. Qatar, for one, is populated with some of the descendants of the most widely-known Bedouin tribe (244). Consequently, the Bedouin customs in housing, trading, eating, and clothing still linger.

As to the clothing, it is stated that, in Saudi Bedouin culture, the aba was worn mostly by men. However, women could be seen wearing the garment as well. Most commonly, the Bedouin aba looked like a gown without sleeves, buttons, or belts. Not designed to be buttoned or belted, it used to be worn on top of all other clothes. The form and shape of the aba was common for a wide part of Middle East; with Bedouins, it was indeed very popular. Bedouin tribes dwelling in different areas of Saudi Arabia had diverse traditions concerning this piece of garment. In the Eastern regions, the aba was produced out of wool, and the material had a striped pattern in black or brown and white.

The colors were plain since wearing bright colors was the prerogative of the notable and rich. These usually had their abas in red or green, richly embroidered with precious golden or silver thread in the upper half of the garment. Nomad tribes in the North wore their abas black, which was a rare color among other tribes (Algar par. 1-4). The aba had many uses among the Bedouin. It is a loose garment, which means that it could be deployed to a variety of functions in everyday nomadic life. For instance, for an average Bedouin, the aba could serve as a blanket or sheet and as a pillow, when folded. Considering that the Bedouin made their living by trade, one can easily see a Bedouin wrapping their goods in the aba and carrying it as a bag or turning it into some kind of a sunshade. The Bedouin abas were suitable for wearing all year round. The abas woven of camel wool were very warm and could serve as a winter overcoat. Those made of a finer material were used in warm seasons (Algar par. 5).

As said, the Bedouin tradition is slowly fading away these days. Nevertheless, the clothing tradition is preserved, although the attitudes toward it is changing, especially in women. People of Qatar, for instance, are the descendants of Bedouin tribes dwelling the central and eastern regions of Saudi Arabia. Also, being a small country, Qatar is very protective of its traditions in art, religion, and clothing. It is stated that older Qatari women still wear their traditional garments; the younger also have them in their wardrobes, if only more colorful than they used to be. Wahabi Islam is a common practice among Qatari people. The meaning of it is that they are mainly devoted to the earliest interpretations of the Prophet’s teachings – including Surah 23:31.

In this part of the Qur’an, women are expected to wear modest clothing so that their chastity is preserved (Lindholm, “Invisible No More” 1). Some women, indeed, regard the aba as a cover only. Before the oil boom, they wore their abas black, consisting of two square pieces of cloth wrapped over the body and covering the head. The decorations were also black, with gold embroidery signifying only the upper class (2). This tradition was used throughout the 20^th century for political purposes. Both men and women – but especially women – switched their everyday clothing for more traditional ones to reflect their political stance.

In the 1970s, for instance, female population of Iran wore their hijabs to protest against the shah’s ruling; Palestinian male population wears kufiyahs and flag colors to show their devotion for their nation (Roche, Roche, and Saidi 136). But, political concerns aside, black color of the aba is, just as any artifact in Islamic culture, surrounded by legends; particularly, a black aba has been poeticized as a symbol of a woman’s purity. Indeed, such inconspicuousness was sufficient for displaying the regional identity as well as practicing religion that Qatari women value.

However, the situation has changed in several aspects. Since 1980s, Qatari women were seen wearing the abas over modern clothes, i.e., loose gowns. In 1997, Qatar has opened its first shopping mall, with Western advertising displaying the fashions and images of “other” women. Globalization facilitated the leakage of fashion trends into the Arabic culture, which is one of the reasons Western clothing has become popular with the Qatari female population. Another significant change in the Qatari society was that women started working while at the same time seeking to keep their customs and avoid harassment from the conservative male population. More emancipate women openly fight for their rights to choose the way they dress and look. As a result, the contemporary Qatari aba comes in various and more convenient shapes than it used to (Goto 22-24).

The variety of forms and designs that the contemporary aba has today reflects its value for Qatari women as a symbol of change in their roles and ways (Lindholm, “A material culture assessment” n. pag.). The materials, for ones, have changed from thick cotton to silk or fine polyester. The shape goes further than the basic square: most commonly, it is tailored in T-shape or A-shape with wide sleeves and oval neck. Currently, the designs allow buttons, loops, and brooches to close the slits that the traditional aba did not have in the first place.

Considering that the aba is worn over other clothes, the slits can partially disclose the owner’s dress when she walks. Another version of the aba consists of a single piece of cloth largely overlapping on the rims. Basically, the cloth cannot be closed but nothing is visible from down under due to these overlapping rims. Also, to compliment the tradition, the aba can have the form closest to the Al-Wahabi direction, consisting of two square pieces of cloth. Finally, there is a version that can be regarded as the most courageous one, with seams that fit the cloth to the figure, thus outlining the body (Lindholm, “A material culture assessment” n. pag.).

The change of attitudes towards traditional garments is very useful for clearer understanding of the processes that take place in the Saudi Bedouin society. As it was said, a Bedouin, especially a Bedouin woman, nowadays is a representation of tradition, and it is true. The volition to preserve the traditions of womanhood, femininity, and beauty triggers the perseverance of abas among Qatari women. Of course, there is quite a controversy regarding the usage of Western style by Saudi women. Sleeveless tops and slim-fit jackets as well as skinny jeans and short skirts are believed to be not quite suitable for a virtuous woman. At the same time, the Western styles and ways are gradually and persistently penetrating the lifestyle of Qatari women.

Women become more independent and individualistic, they acknowledge that men dictating women how to dress and look is a violation of women’s rights (Fields 58). Thus, it seems that the women in Qatar are put to face the controversy not only when interacting with the opposite sex but also within themselves. While the Western culture symbolizes newness, freedom of choice and emancipation, the aba and other traditional clothes refer to traditional values of integrity, righteousness, and discipline. The solution that the Qatari women have been offered seems the most optimal one. With the centuries-old clothing tradition reframed, the abas, as well as other traditional clothing items, e.g., hijab or niqab, experience significant changes in design and come in looser and more convenient forms. With all the new models that were mentioned above, women can cherish their values and express their individuality.

To sum it up, the aba used to be a very important garment for the Saudi Arabian peoples as well as it is now. For the Bedouin, it was a cover and a handy tool that could be transformed to serve a multitude of purposes. Currently, it is a crucial piece of garment that means very much for Qatari women: it is an artifact of culture shaped by the Prophet’s teachings and practical usage, and the importance of it is hard to overestimate. On the one hand, the aba worn with other traditional clothes is a symbol of national identity and belonging to renowned Bedouin culture, both within their homeland and abroad. On the other hand, Qatari women are making use of the traditional aba, changing its design to their liking and convenience to demonstrate their individualism, embrace the everlasting struggle for female rights, and distinguish themselves in the society they belong to.

Works Cited

Algar, Hamid. “ABĀ.” Encyclopaedia Iranica. Encyclopaedia Iranica. Web.

Cole, Donald Powell. “Where Have the Bedouin Gone?” Anthropological Quarterly 76.2 (2003): 235-267. Print.

Fields, Rona. Against Violence Against Women: The Case for Gender as a Protected Class, Basingstoke, United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014. Print.

Goto, Manami. “Attitudinal change towards traditional attire among Qatari women over one generation.” Qatar University QSpace. Qspace Institutional Repository, 2015. Web.

Lindholm, Christina. “A material culture assessment of the changing abayas of Qatar 1908 to 2008.” Diss. University of Brighton, 2012. Print.

Lindholm, Christina. “Invisible No More: The Embellished Abaya in Qatar.” Textile Society of America 12^th Biennial Symposium Proceedings, University of Nebraska, 6-9 October 2010. Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 2010. Print.

Roche, Thomas, Erin Roche, and Ahmed Al Saidi. “Interwoven: Women’s Dress Practices and Identity on the Arabian Peninsula.” International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences 6.10 (2012): 133-143.