Tumaḍir bint ʿAmr ibn al-Ḥarth ibn al-Sharid al-Sulamiyah, better known under the name Al-Khansa’ (“the snub-nose” or gazelle (Boucquey 158), was a distinctive Arabic poet who lived during the pre-Islamic period Jahiliyyah (in Islam, Jahiliyyah was defined as the “state of ignorance of the guidance from God” (Rubenstein 19). Jahili poetry is an amazing phenomenon, not only in terms of Arabic literature but in terms of world literature and culture. This statement owes to the two factors; first, is that Jahili poems were not part of the folklore, that is, they had a single, identifiable author (Aulestia 45), and so today we know the masters who had woven those pearl strands of muallaks and qasidas. And secondly, is that this poetry is purely authentic. It would be wrong to say it is completely independent of the influences of, say, Aramaic, Persian, and Greek poetics. Traces of these traditions can be found, provided there is thorough research. However, the maʿani and al-faz tropes, which were defined later in 5th century by the Basran philologist Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi or simply Al-Khalil in his al-’arud study (Hamdouni Alami 209), written by such lyricists as Imru’ al-Qais, Al-Shanfara, Tarafa, Al-Muhalhil, Zuhayr bin Abi Sulma, Lebid, Antarah ibn Shaddad, an-Nabiga ad-Dubyani, Aisha and Al-Khansa’, were outstandingly original.
Al-Khansa’s Life amid the Desert
Al-Khansa is considered one of the greatest Arabic poetesses of the classical period. Her poetic heritage is particularly valuable due to the fact that she lived on the brink of the two epochs, the pagan Arabian civilization and the freshly converted Islamic world. Of all the aforesaid, Al-Khansa’ became a “much-imitated model for later generations of Arabic women poets” (Boucquey 160).
She was born in 590 C.E. in Nejd, “a diverse region of uplands, small plateaux, scarps, broad valleys and dry river gaps” (Fisher 498), inhabited by many tribes. She grew up in a wealthy family; her father Amir was an influential man. Al-Khansa’s clan, ‘Al ash-Sharid, was “the most famous among the Banu Sulaym” tribes (Oseni par.3). Since tribal wars were a frequent occasion, it was in a tribal battle in 612 that her brother Mu’awiya was killed. Al-Khansa could not cope with the grief and craved revenge. She induced her younger brother Sakhr to wreak vengeance, but he paid his life to fulfill this promise. To a large extent, the death of her most beloved brother Sakhr defined Al-Khansa’s poetic style known as ritha, or mourning elegy. According to Boucquey, ritha was a particularly important genre in pre-Islamic Arabic poetry, which generally celebrated military prowess and courage (159). An example of ritha can be seen in this elegiac extract:
Verily, Sakhr if you have made my eyes shed tears You long brought me mirth I had tears for you among wailing women I had the most reason to be the one wailing I incited you on the battle When you were alive But who can avert the invincible death Though (they say) weeping over the killed is improper I think crying for you is the best of the pleasant deeds. (Pendergast and Pendergast 28)
Her laments dedicated to her brothers widely circulated among the Arab world and made her famous. The poetry recitation performed by Al-Khansa was filled with great energy and reminded of shamanism. She won in various poetry contests, including at the annual gathering of poets at the ‘Ukaz market, which was attended by the Holy Prophet. Muhammad was “so impressed with her recitation that he made her repeat several lines over and over” (Boucquey 159). Though she used to refuse the dominion of other men, Al-Khansa converted to Islam along with her tribe and became a fervent neophyte, defender of the new faith. She raised her four sons, Yazid, Muʿawiyah, ʿAmr, and ʿAmrah, in the tradition of Mujahidin. They all died in the Battle of Qadisiyah. Al-Khansa did not grieve; she was proud of her sons, who died in the name of Islam.
Traits of Jahili Poetry
Although Al-Khansa’s verses were unique in their sincerity, they shared certain common traits with the rest of the works by fellow authors. According to Irwin, the most common feature of Jahili poetry is its fatalism: “The theme of fated doom amongst the Arabs does not start with the Qur’an and the preaching of Islam, for it was already a pervasive feature of Jahili poetry” (75). Jahili poets invented their own poetic language conceivable to all tribes from Yemen in the south to Al-Sham in the north of the Arabian Peninsula. It did not differ much from the dialects but was very convenient for writing poetry. While being unsuitable for communication, it was a prosodically perfect means for singing and reciting verses. In Qur’an, this language is defined as clear and accessible to all.
Conclusion
Al-Khansa can rightfully be called the jewel in the crown of the early Islamic Poetry; a prophesier of consanguinity, sincerity and faith, whose work presents a profound heritage for modern Arabic female writers. Her literary remains, along with that of other Jahili poets, are greatly appreciated by Islamic scholars as cultural conservation, which gives a hint into the early Islamic Arab world.
References
Aulestia, Gorka. The Basque Poetic Tradition, Reno: University of Nevada Press, 2000. Print.
Boucquey, Thierry, and Marie Josephine Diamond. Encyclopedia Of World Writers, New York: Facts on File, 2005. Print.
Fisher, W. B. The Middle East (Routledge Revivals), Hoboken: Taylor and Francis, 2013. Print.
Hamdouni Alami, Mohammed. Art And Architecture In The Islamic Tradition, London: I.B. Tauris, 2011. Print
Oseni, Z.I. The Poetic Life of Tumadir Al-Khansa’ Bint ‘Amr. DOC file. Web.
Pendergast, S. and Pendergast, T. Reference Guide To World Literature, Detroit: St. James Press, 2003. Print.
Rubenstein, Richard L. Jihad And Genocide, Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2010. Print.
The ability to connect with the roots of one’s culture and embrace the richness of one’s cultural heritage is one of the most fulfilling and emotionally enthralling experiences. However, due to the centuries of slavery, having been torn away from their country and forced to live in an entirely foreign environment, African American people have been experiencing a completely unique challenge of reconnecting with the history and cultural baggage from which they have been thoroughly divorced for a couple of hundreds of years. The poem titled “Heritage” and written by Countie Cullen ventures into the realm that has become both personal and collective trauma of African American people, examining the role of Africa and its culture in the lives of the descendants of African slaves.
The theme of being lost is one of the most powerful and complex issues that Cullen explores in his poem. Involving a deeply emotional experience and establishing the need to process centuries of cultural distance, the poem shows the clear lack of direction in the search for cultural identity. As a result, Africa remains a symbol that is both distant and representative of the longing for the profound cultural connection: “One three centuries removed/From the scenes his fathers loved,/Spice grove, cinnamon tree,/What is Africa to me?” (Cullen, 1992, lines 60-63). The resounding question at the end of the stanza above I repeated throughout the poem, marking its key emotional beats, and signifying the urge for the emotional catharsis that the reconnection with the historical and cultural roots of the African America community will bring. However, as the question continues throughout the poem, it becomes clear that the author does not intend to answer it, leaving the journey of self-discovery to the reader. The lack of clear answer reinforces the feeling of irreplaceable loss, restating the main theme and emphasizing the sociocultural significance of the issue.
The distance between the cultural roots of African Americans and their current cultural perceptions and ideas is emphasized throughout the poem with the help of colorful descriptions of picturesque African landscapes and the elements of its environment: “Africa? A book one thumbs/Listlessly, till slumber comes./Unremembered are her bats/Circling through the night, her cats” (Cullen, 1922, lines 31-34). Similarly, the description of the artifacts belonging to the African culture leave the impression of a large distance between the present-day African American cultural environment and the African roots that produced it: “Quaint, outlandish heathen gods/Black men fashion out of rods” (Cullen. 1922, lines 85-86). The description of the artworks presenting African culture sound mysterious and alien to the reader, which reinforces the sense of vast distance that needs to be covered for the current African American mindset to approach that of African people. Specifically, the term “heathen gods’ ‘ as the umbrella for the deities that are worshipped in African cultures demonstrates explicitly the distance between an average African American person and his or her African counterpart (Cullen, 1922, line 85). Whereas the gods in question are central to the culture and beliefs of African people, they represent an entirely empty image and message to African American residents. Therefore, the physical distance between the two continents is stretched even further by the distance in the cultural perceptions, beliefs, and philosophies.
The theme of grief and loss is interspersed with other emotions that stem from the overwhelming sense of despair that comes with the realization of being severed from the very roots of one’s culture. For example the anger that comes from the feeling of helplessness at the sight of the abandoned culture is raised in the poem. Namely, Cullen mentions: “Mortal grief compels, while touches/Quick and hot, of anger, rise” (Cullen, 1922, lines 112-113). Remarkably, the feeling of anger depicted in the specified lines does not evoke the idea of a powerful and destructive force that comes from the strength within. Instead, it instills the impression of helplessness and the anger that comes from it, as well as from the fear of being unable to ever return to the place that one could claim to be one’s home.
At the same time, the anger described in the poem in no way indicates the presence of weakness or the lack of resilience. Quite the contrary, the poet explains that the inner strength that inspires him to continue his fight and seek for the lost connection to the Africa cultural legacy lies in the ability to size control over his emotions and embrace the, instead: “Quench my pride and cool my blood,/Lest I perish in the flood./Lest a hidden ember set/Timber that I thought was wet” (Cullen, 1922, lines 119-122).
However, Cullen dos not leave his readers with the false sense of restored security; instead, he prefers to offer them the bitter truth and the further reconciliation with their loss. The fact that Cullen does not wish to lull his audience into the idea that they can magically rediscover their self despite the generations of cultural loss can be proven by the reiterated refrain of the poem. Opening and concluding it with the question, “What is Africa to me?,” Cullen conveys the idea that the specified question remains unanswered (Cullen, 1922, line 1; Cullen, 1922, line 63). Moreover, the poet encourages the audience to ask themselves this question, continuing the course of cultural exploration that Cullen has started. Thus, the author conveys the idea that cultural healing can become a possibility even for those cultures that have been affected by an intergenerational trauma, the ripples of which are still seen in the sociocultural context of the present-day American community. Bound together by the theme-word of loss, every line in the poem servers not only to bring the specified issue to the attention of a broader audience, but also to encompass the possibilities for healing and reconnection with the African legacy on a deeper, personal level.
By pointing to the presence of disconnect between the African cultural heritage and the identity of present-day African American people, Cullen emphasizes the gravity of the generational collective trauma, which also overlaps with a personal one. As a result of the specified exploration, the chance to heal and embrace the cultural roots emerges for African American readers. Cullen’s poignant and powerful poem appeals to the feeling of alienation and the sense of being lost that a significant part of the modern African American community feels when trying to reconnect with the culture of their ancestors. As a result, the sense of wistfulness that pierces one through when reading the poem creates premises for thorough contemplation of the effects that slavery and the colonial politics have had on the lives of present-day African American community members. Inspiring and thought-provoking, “heritage” opens the cultural discourse that needs to be had for African American people to reconcile with their collective trauma and approach the cultural heritage of which they have been deprived so long and so unfairly.
Sappho of the island Lesbos’ creative heritage remains a classic example of lyric poetry. She is part of nine canonical lyrics of Ancient Greece, alongside Ibycus, Alcman, Stesichorus, Pindar, Anacreon, Simonides, Bacchylides, and Alcaeus. Her poems’ topics were mostly colorful and variegated and had deep descriptions of her feelings. Its main advantage is intense passion, expressed with extreme simplicity and brightness. She uses comparisons to express her personal feelings about beauty, love, passion, and the aesthetics of the human body, regardless of gender.
My favorite poem from Sappho is Fragment 31 because of the celebration of love as a feeling it demonstrates. I like that she is sensual and delicate in her strong feelings. In the middle of the poem, Sappho focuses on her love experience. This piece of art starts from the man’s equation with gods, but the main character is the woman sitting opposite him. She compares looking at this woman as if her “tongue breaks and thin / fire is racing under the skin” (Sappho, lines 9-10). The narrator is so overwhelmed by the feeling of attraction that she slowly loses her senses. I appreciate the elegant way she describes it because that is how everyone feels when truly falling in love.
Metaphors and similes, with the addition of hyperbole, are the literary elements Sappho uses almost in every line of the poem to express complicated feelings inside of her. It is written in Sapphic stanzas named after her, consisting of two hendecasyllabic lines and another line with five extra syllables. The author applies a melodramatic tone to show her position. Assonance and alliteration are also used in words like “lovely laughing”, “sweet speaking”, and “a person of poverty” (Sappho, 4-5, 17 lines). The Fragment 31 by Sappho is a masterpiece that celebrates being in love and demonstrates the pain of inner feelings because of unrequited love.
The short story “Everyday Use” by Alice Walker is a multilayered piece of writing, but its central idea revolves around the problem of Afro-American heritage. The author portrays the conflict between Mrs. Johnson – the narrator – and her younger daughter Maggie on the one side and Mrs. Johnson’s older daughter Dee – on the other. At the heart of the dispute lies the different perception of how one should appreciate his/her historical roots. In this regard, the current essay seeks to analyze what are the differences between Maggie’s/Mrs. Johnson’s and Wangero’s views on heritage. Additionally, this paper tries to explain the reasons why Dee’s attitudes contrast with those of other family members.
The Metaphor Behind Name Change
As soon as Dee arrives at her mother’s house, the reader understands that there is something different about Mrs. Johnson’s older daughter. She greets her family members with the phrase “Wa-su-zo-Tean-o!” which means “good morning” in one of the Ugandan languages (Elmore 25). Minutes later, it is also revealed that Dee changed her name to Wangero. To explain such a decision, Wangero claims that “she[Dee] ‘s dead, I couldn’t bear it any longer, being named after the people who oppress me” (Walker). However, Mrs. Johnson opposes that Dee was named after her (Mrs. Johnson’s) sister Dicie who, in turn, inherited that name from Grandma Dee. The narrator could continue tracing back the origin of the name to the times of the Civil War but does not tell this to her older daughter. This scene depicts the first or minor conflict between Dee/Wangero and her family, although it was not explicit.
Through such a small clash, Walker draws the first difference between characters’ perceptions of historical heritage. The author wants to show that Wangero’s desire to reunite with her original roots leads to the alienation from the cultural background of her ancestors in the United States. By claiming that “she’s dead,” Dee metaphorically dies for her family (Yang 365). On the contrary, Mrs. Johnson seems not very concerned with her pre-slavery heritage greatly, but she treasures the more recent traditions of her people. Therefore, the author maintains that by denying the impact of the oppression period on the African culture in the U.S., people may lose the important part of their heritage.
Everyday Use vs. Some Day Use
The second or major conflict happens because of the old quilts and other family relics that Wangero/Dee wants to take from her house to organize an artistic display. When Mrs. Johnson says that she promised to give quilts to Maggie, Wangero exclaims, “Maggie can’t appreciate these quilts!” (Walker). Indeed, from Dee’s perspective, the quilts and hand-made churn and dash are the objects that should be preserved for current and future generations. Conversely, Maggie and her mother want to keep those quilts for younger daughter’s personal use. For them, these objects are important as they evoke memories concerning their long-gone family members.
Through the major and central conflict of the story, Alice Walker formulates her main argument that heritage’s true appreciation is based on its everyday use. In this regard, while for Dee, the relics of her people are objects that can be enjoyed only during special occasions, Maggie represents the historical and cultural continuance with traditions of her ancestors. Understanding that Mrs. Johnson says, “God knows I been saving ’em for long enough with nobody using ’em. I hope she will!” (Walker). Also, similarly to the main hero, the author hopes that Afro-Americans would start appreciating their culture not by displaying it on special occasions but by following their parents’ and grandparents’ traditions daily.
Factors That May Have Shaped Wanegro’s Views
Finally, after understanding the difference between characters’ perceptions of heritage, it is necessary to discuss why Wangero’s views differ compared to Mrs. Johnson and Maggie. Although the author does not answer this question directly, some possible explanations can still be extracted from the text. First of all, Wangero seemingly lives in the city while her sister and mother reside in a rural area and, thus, adopted the lifestyle of townsfolk (Sadeq and Al-Badawi 158). Thus, probably, instead of learning how to make a quilt herself, she spends her free time in cinemas, bars, or museums. For this reason, the ‘everyday use’ of heritage may actually be burdensome for her. However, on the flip side, she may still desire to preserve her culture and traditions and, thus, try to connect with her roots through other means.
The other reason may lie in the psychological characteristics of Mrs. Johnson’s older daughter. For instance, at the beginning of the story, the narrator indicates that “Dee wanted nice things. A yellow organdy dress to wear to her graduation from high school; black pumps to match a green suit she’d made from an old suit somebody gave me” (Walker). As a result, it can be hypothesized that Wanegro has always sought to be different from others. Therefore, when she moved to college, where there were many other girls as stylish and as clever as her, she started seeking uniqueness in her roots.
Conclusion
In summary, the current essay discussed the differences between Mrs. Johnson’s/Maggie’s and Dee’s views on heritage. It was found that Wangero tried to deny the American part of her heritage while for Mrs. Johnson for Maggie, the latter is associated with the family and traditions and, thus, is very personal. Also, it was stated that for a mother and a younger daughter, the culture was for ‘everyday use’, whereas Dee would rather appreciate it only during some special times. Moreover, the paper presented two reasons why Wangero’s perceptions of heritage differed from attitudes of other family members, namely the influence of the city life and personal characteristics.
Works Cited
Elmore, Raheem Terrell Rashawn. Cultural Trauma’s Influence On Representations Of African American Identity In Alice Walker’s “Everyday Use”. 2019. University of Dayton, Master’s Thesis.
Sadeq, Ala Eddin, and Mohammed Al-Badawi. “Epiphanic Awakenings in Raymond Carver’s Cathedral and Alice Walker’s Everyday Use.” Advances in Language and Literary Studies, vol. 7, no. 3, 2016, pp. 157-160.
Yang, Xinyu. “Study on Black Woman Spirituality in Alice Walker’s Everyday Use.” Proceedings of the 2020 International Conference on Language, Communication and Culture Studies (ICLCCS 2020), 2020. Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research. Edited by Wadim Striełkowski et al. Vol. 537, Atlantis Press, 2021.
Indeed, Shakespeare’s work remains relevant 400 years after his death. The plays by Shakespeare are relatable to present people and situations we recognize in the present day. Characters and themes utilized by Shakespeare have an emotional reality that transcends time. Aside from Shakespeare’s teachings about ourselves and humanity, he invented numerous words and quotes that are still in use today. Considering Shakespeare’s substantial influence on English and literature, he is undoubtedly still relevant.
First, Shakespeare’s work is universal and timeless. He was masterful at decorating his stories with themes and characters that readers of all time can relate to (Yuldashevna et al. 494). Major themes employed in Shakespeare’s work, such as love or hate, life, and death, have become more significant than ever. For instance, his famous play Romeo and Juliet with a theme of love is cordial to many today. Shakespeare’s play’s themes and characters are timeless, making him relevant today.
Shakespeare had a profound influence on modern English and literature. He invented numerous English words and coined quotes and phrases regularly used in the English language. Paradoxically, compared to the original English, Shakespeare is more understandable today (Rossiter 4). Shakespeare used personalized language before it subsequently became established in English. Therefore, Shakespeare is regularly quoted in English.
Finally, the exquisite plays and corresponding renditions by Shakespeare are still known in modern-day society. Notably, most of Shakespeare’s plays hold great moral values and messages (Niaz et al. 39). Following his rigid work, Shakespeare’s brand remains influential, with his likeness still used by theatres and booksellers. His work was captivating and hilarious, hence relished by many in modern society.
Ultimately, Shakespeare’s work is not limited by time. Relatable characters and themes weave the stories in Shakespeare’s plays. Moreover, during his time, Shakespeare developed many English phrases, words, and quotes that are still in use. Above all, the quality of Shakespeare’s work is outstanding, with great moral and educational values appreciated by modern audiences.
History of any country can be characterized by many controversial events and issues. Japan is no exception as the country’s 20th century’s policies concerning other nations still raise many questions. Hashima Island is one of the reminders of such controversies in history. The island bears two meanings as it is both a symbol of the industrial development of the country and the site of exploitation of Korean people who became victims of Japanese imperialism (Kasemets 99).
The recent debate on the inclusion of the island in the list of world heritage sites reveals the controversy. Interestingly, the outcome of the debate shows the contemporary people’s attitude towards such events that took place in the 20th century. This paper includes insights into the history of the island and provides a brief analysis of the significance of the site as well as the debate on the development of the human society in general and Asian societies in particular.
Historical Background
The rapid industrialization that took place at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century helped Japan transform from a feudal society to highly industrial and become one of the most developed countries. This industrial empowerment contributed to the development of imperialistic policies that characterize the Meiji period (McCurry par. 2). Japan invaded the Korean peninsula and introduced rather harsh policies that resulted in the hard labor of Korean people (Kim and Reynolds par. 5). Hashima Island was one of the sites where this exploitation could be easily traced.
The island had been uninhabited until the end of the 19th century. In 1890, Mitsubishi purchased Hashima island when coal was found there (Davidov 154). Several “high rise apartment complexes” were built to accommodate miners and their families (Davidov 154). People of different backgrounds worked there including forced laborers. Thus, it has been estimated that 800 Koreans worked there for one year only (1944-1945) (Bo-eun par. 5).
It is possible to assume that thousands of Koreans had to work there in the first part of the 20th century. The corporation tried to receive as much profit as possible and, hence, the population density was unprecedented. For example, in “its peak of production” the island had the “highest population density ever recorded” (Davidov 154). It is clear that such a small island could barely host all those workers.
The living conditions were quite specific. On the one hand, the apartments were very small as the major goal was to accommodate as many workers as possible. For instance, the population of the island was 83,500 people/km2 in 1959 (Kasemets 98). The workers had to live in certain isolation as they could rarely leave the island. On the other hand, the island had a hospital, school, sports facilities, bathhouse, cinema and graveyard (McCurry 27). More so, the apartments had the latest electrical appliances and the bills for electricity were very reasonable (1 yen per month) (McCurry 27).
However, the perks associated with living settings could not outweigh the harsh and often inhumane working conditions. For instance, the depths of some mines reached 1,000 meters. Seawater often seeped into the mines and workers were exposed to numerous skin infections (Bo-eun par. 7). The safety regulations at that period were almost non-existent, and laborers on Hashima Island had to work in very dangerous settings. Such hazardous gases as methane often accumulated and explosions were rather frequent (Bo-eun par. 8). It is necessary to stress that Korean, as well as Chinese workers, were assigned to work in the most toxic spots. The temperatures underground were very high and sometimes simply unbearable, which can be still observed as the mines’ roofs caved due to the specific conditions (Bo-eun par. 9).
There are numerous attempts of escapes, which is another evidence of the horrible conditions people had to work in. Moreover, after the Nagasaki bombing, miners from Hashima Island were sent to clean up the territory (Bo-eun par. 9). Many people were exposed to significant levels of radiation and developed various chronic disorders or even died. Nonetheless, even without atomic bombs, the inhumane working conditions resulted in numerous fatalities and caused the development of serious chronic disorders in laborers.
It is necessary to stress that Koreans were placed in a specifically harsh working environment. As has been mentioned above, Korean laborers often had to work in the most toxic sections. Apart from that, they were treated as second-class workers and discriminated all the time (McCurry 15). Numerous survivors tell stories about this discrimination as they want to make sure that people remember the horrible events that took place on the island.
In the second part of the 20th century, however, coal started losing its significance and became replaced by such energy sources as oil or natural gas. The coal mining industry started declining, which resulted in the closure of numerous mines. The facilities on Hashima Island also lost its profitability, and the company decided to shut the project down in 1974 (Davidov 154). The island was abandoned completely within three months (Kasemets 98). Clearly, all the buildings were abandoned and are now in the organic decay. In 2001, the island was handed over to local authorities (Bo-eun par. 10).
At present, the island is a tourist hot spot. Different people find different things when visiting the island. Many people see it as an illustration of the period of industrialization, others regarded it as a ghost of imperialism while some want to see the location where one of the Bond films was set (Schneider par. 6-7). Apart from being a popular touristic destination, the island is still a subject of certain controversy.
Contemporary Issues
The Japanese government placed a bid for the island’s inclusion in the UNESCO World Heritage Sites list in 2009. One of the arguments to make the island a site of the historical significance was the fact that it was “home to one of the first-ever residential structure to be made from reinforced concrete” (Synenko 176). Another reason for inclusion was articulated by Shinzo Abe, the Japanese prime minister who noted that Hashima could be regarded as an illustration of the country’s technological progress (Kim and Reynolds par. 6). This view is quite popular among Japanese people due to a number of reasons.
On the one hand, the mines produced significant amounts of fossil fuels that fostered the development of Japanese industries. The effective industrialization made the country one of the key players in the global political arena. The country also became a significant military force that had a considerable political influence on other nations in the region. On the other hand, the island itself was an illustration of the technological progress. As has been mentioned above, the laborers’ apartments were equipped with the latest electric appliances. The urban space was also developed quite wisely and in accordance with trends that still exist in the world (Kasemets 99). The island is also a symbol of the wise use of resources and the background of the country’s evolution into one of the most developed nations.
However, the South Korean government strongly opposed the island’s inclusion in the list of world heritage sites. Koreans stress that the use of forced labor of 60,000 Koreans during the period between 1910 and 1945 made the island inappropriate for the world heritage status (McCurry Japan Sites Get World Heritage Status par. 3). It has been proved that many Koreans were brought to Hashima island against their will.
However, according to Koreans, Japanese officials are still reluctant to draw people’s attention to this fact. Korean officials stress that insignificant attention has been paid to the investigation of the events of that period, and many facts are still concealed. The Korean government sees the island as a symbol of the unprecedented exploitation and Japanese imperialistic policies that led to the deaths of many Koreans. Notably, Korean officials do not mind the inclusion of Hashima island per se, but they stress that it is the Japanese government’s responsibility to tell the entire truth about the island and the price people paid for the technological progress of the country (McCurry par. 17).
It is noteworthy that the reluctance of the South Korean government to let the place become a part of the world heritage is the issue concerning compensations. The Japanese government stresses that the country has been paying compensations to survivors. The Japanese officials emphasize that the country paid all the necessary compensations as a portion of $800 million “reparations package” that was agreed and reflected in the treaties of 1965 (McCurry Japan Sites Get World Heritage Status par. 9).
Nevertheless, the former workers still go to courts to make companies compensate for their exploitation. People try to receive the unpaid amount of money and an apology from the conglomerates (McCurry par. 25). At the same time, some of the former laborers state that they see the island as the symbol of their struggle. They note that they had really bad times, but the work on the island made them stronger, which helped them in the following years (McCurry par. 30).
The issue was resolved (or at least partially resolved) in 2015. Japanese officials declared their readiness to undertake certain measures that will develop “an understanding that there were a large number of Koreans and others who were brought against their will and forced to work under harsh conditions in the 1940s at some of the sites” (as quoted in Kim and Reynolds par. 2).
The foreign ministry of South Korea was satisfied with this statement and the Japanese government’s commitment to acknowledge the crimes of the past. At the same time, this cannot be seen as a complete solution to the problem as many issues are still in place. Compensations and the issues concerning sex slaves are still disputable, and countries, as well as individuals, are trying to find answers to these questions (Kim and Reynolds par. 10). Some Korean officials are still distrustful as they do not believe the Japanese government will publicize all the information concerning forced labor (Kim and Reynolds par. 9). Nevertheless, it is clear that countries are moving in the right direction and will be able to find solutions.
Significance
The case concerning the issue between Japan and Kore is very illustrative and has considerable significance. It helps understand the latest trends that are taking place in society. Thus, it is clear that people are willing to preserve their history and understanding of their past. Japan wants to celebrate its technological progress that enabled the country to be one of the most powerful nations in the 21st century. Koreans also want to make people know about their tragic past. They want other nations to acknowledge the events that contributed to the division of the nation into two countries.
At the same time, it is also clear that countries are still reluctant to shed light on the crimes of their ancestors. It took six years for Japan to acknowledge some facts concerning the crimes of the past. The country did not want to shed light on and draw people’s attention to the imperialistic policies the country adopted in the 19th and 20th centuries. Japanese officials chose to pay some amount of compensation and try to forget about the disgraceful past.
Nonetheless, the decision made shows that contemporary society is more open and is ready to boldly speak about dark pages of its history. Of course, it is rather untimely to state that Japan is ready to provide all the information concerning the exploitation of Koreans. According to Japanese officials’ statements, they are committed to sharing only some information and some facts concerning the use of forced labor. However, the shift in people’s minds is evident, and there are chances that the government will provide more information on various policies.
There is another important outcome of the deal the two governments made. The inclusion of Hashima island to the world heritage list is an example of the way old disagreements can be resolved. Many issues contribute to the tensed relations between Japan and South Korea. One of these issues has been resolved, and there are high chances that other issues can be diminished. The modern nations are trying to forget about hostility and develop proper relations. Clearly, this does not mean that crimes of the past should be forgotten. However, tension can be overcome through acknowledgment and forgiveness.
Conclusion
In conclusion, it is possible to note that Hashima island was a symbol for Japanese and Korean people. However, the island had different meanings for the two nations. For the Japanese, it is a symbol of progress and development while it is a symbol of oppression and exploitation for the Koreans. The island’s inclusion into the list of World Heritage Sites is a sign of the shift in people’s worldview. It is clear that people are ready to acknowledge mistakes of the past and find ways to overcome tensions. This is a positive trend as it may result in the development of the true global society where nations effectively collaborate. Of course, there are still many things to do, and there are still forces that are against such an approach. Therefore, people of each country should make sure they are open and ready to change.
Works Cited
Bo-eun, Kim. “Hashima – Forgotten Island of Tragedy.” The Korean Times. 2012. Web.
Davidov, Veronica. “Abandoned Environments: Producing New Systems of Value Through Urban Exploration.” The Anthropology of Postindustrialism: Ethnographies of Disconnection. Ed. Ismael Vaccaro, Krista Harper and Seth Murray. New York: Routledge, 2015. 147-166. Print.
Kasemets, Kadri. “Affect, Rupture and Heritage on Hashima Island, Japan.” Ruptured Landscapes: Landscape, Identity and Social Change. Ed. Helen Soovali-Sepping, Hugo Reinert and Jonathan Miles-Watson. New York: Springer, 2015. 97-111. Print.
Kim, Sam and Isabel Reynolds. “Japan Wins UNESCO Recognition After Yielding to South Korea.” Bloomberg Business. 2015. Web.
McCurry, Justin. “Battleship Island – A Symbol of Japan’s Progress or Reminder of Its Dark History.” The Guardian. 2015. Web.
“Japan Sites Get World Heritage Status After Forced Labour Acknowledgement.” The Guardian. 2015. Web.
Schneider, Kate. “Inside Japan’s Abandoned Ghost Island of Hashima.” News.come. 2013. Web.
Synenko, Joshua. “Geospatial detritus: Mapping Urban Abandonment.” Global Change: Urban Imaginaries of Waste, Excess, and Abandonment. Ed. Christoph Lindner and Miriam Meissner. New York: Routledge, 2016. 165-181. Print.
The Caribbean Islands are internationally known for hosting some of the most diverse people and cultures on the globe. However, the rich heritage of the Caribbean Islands is the result of a long and complex history of colonization, which gave the region its unique identity. However, a notable attribute of the Caribbean population is that a majority of individuals are dominantly black and do not hesitate to identify with the African continent. It is reasonable to conclude that most individuals in the Caribbean associate with Africa and its cultures since they cherish and acknowledge their forefathers, shipped from the continent to the Caribbean by Europeans as slaves.
From 1662 to 1807, Britain brought more than three million Africans to the Caribbean Islands to work for White settlers in plantations. The settlement of Africans in the Caribbean caused a significant shift in population demographics and adopted cultures. Since the slaves hardly interacted with the natives at first, they created songs, dances, and chants to express their struggles and experiences in the plantations. However, these communities grew into extensive populations who helped shape the unique culture of individuals in the Caribbean Island (Terrell, 2017). Thus, the Caribbean consciousness should resonate and identify with Africa even after the 20th century because many people on the islands trace their roots back to Africa.
Before the Europeans set foot in the Caribbean, native communities, comprised of about 750,000 people, occupied its vast lands. Unfortunately, explorers exposed the area’s rich and promising land to colonizers, who established territories and divided the region into nations that grew to become dominated by slaves and black communities. Consequently, the material and tangible link between individuals in the Caribbean Islands and African origins encourages their eccentric associations with Africa, since they perceive the continent as their Motherland.
Reference
Terrell, A. M. (2017). Themes of Blackness: Commonality and Unity in Selected African Heritage Literature. Drew University.
The Maya site of Copan is one of the most important monuments of civilization. In this place, in the 16th century, Altar Q was discovered, which is a rectangular sculpture consisting of stone blocks. Around the perimeter, the stones are approximately one meter long and are the main components of the sculpture (Hutnick, 2020). In addition, on top lies a square block on which text is carved. The altar rests on four cylindrical legs, which were previously inscribed with the names of kings, but were lost due to natural disasters. The material of the monument is volcanic tuff, which is mined during a volcanic eruption.
Moreover, the monument is of historical importance and allows one to trace the royal dynasty of the Maya civilization. There are 16 figures carved on the altar, which reflect the reigning kings of different periods. Almost all representatives of the ruling class sit on glyphs with their names. Thus, the beholder immediately understands which king is it. This reflects another important significance of the monument erected by the Mayan dynasty (Hutnic, 2020).
First of all, it carries a historical significance and conveys to the descendants the image of civilization at the time of the ruling kings. However, the altar can be seen as an element of admiration for the central authority. In ancient times, it was believed that power was elected by a higher power and kings were its deputies on earth. Thus, Altar Q was of fundamental importance for civilization. With the help of the monument, they passed on the history of their state to their descendants. In addition, for the modern population, the altar serves as a legacy and evidence of the social stratification of society among the Maya.
Reference
Hutnick, A. (2020). Copan Altar Q: Network of Narratives Depiction of Kings [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Pennsylvania.
The Spanish presence in what is now known as the American Southwest is notably different from that in the Valley of Mexico. The colonists maintained a well-organized and robust presence in the former Aztec empire, subduing and nearly exterminating the native people. However, in the Southwest, they coexisted with aboriginals, although they still assumed a position of superiority and oppressed the Indian population. The Native Americans were afforded a significant degree of freedom, which allowed them to form their own communities and even to revolt against Spanish rule. This post will discuss the reasons behind the difference in the presence of the European settlers in the two locations.
The variance in wealth between the two locations may be the primary reason behind the amounts of attention devoted to the two areas. The lands of the Aztecs were extremely rich in terms of gold and silver, while the Southwest failed to live up to the expectations of the Spanish (Anderson and Chamberlain 2008, 28-31). The lands still had significant resources that could be claimed and used, but the lack of the massive wealth displayed in the Mexico Valley turned people off. They preferred to take the opportunity to become reach exploiting the yet-unclaimed resources of the Aztec territories, leading to massively disproportionate migration rates.
However, the Southwest had its own resources, and the Spanish who lived there were concerned over other matters. The initial expedition by de Coronado was a failure that met with significant hostility from the Native Americans due to the behavior of its members (de Nájera et al. 1904, 236). Furthermore, the opposition continued after the Spanish conquered the tribes, culminating in the Pueblo Revolt of 1680 (Boyer et al. 2016, 79). Even in times of peace, the colonists did not dominate the natives entirely, and the two groups became interlinked instead of fostering a one-sided relationship (Brown 2004, 490-491). The constant danger kept the numbers of willing emigrants low enough that they could never feel safe.
The culture of the Valley of Mexico was dominated by the Spanish because they were interested in its wealth and had mostly conquered or eliminated the resident Aztecs. However, the situation was different in the Southwest, as the territory attracted significantly fewer colonists due to its worse prospects. While the migrants subjugated the resident Native Americans, they remained in large numbers and harbored hostile sentiments. In addition, the threat of invasion by other tribes from yet-unexplored territories beyond the Southwest kept the Europeans concerned. As such, their hold on the area was considerably looser, and the natives of the land had significantly more freedom as long as they did not openly antagonize the Spanish.
Catholic Christianity and Native Americans
The adoption of Catholic Christianity by Native Americans was characterized by a significant degree of mutation and adaptation. Indians accepted the religion but incorporated many of the elements of their old beliefs into the rituals. The missionaries did not approve of the practice or follow the example of the aboriginals, but they accepted this alteration of their doctrine. The situation presents a logical inconsistency with the history of intolerance that characterizes European Christianity. This post attempts to explain the reasons why Native Americans refused to accept Catholicism in a more than superficial manner as well as why the European priests tolerated such technical heresies.
The primary reason why Christianity was not accepted by the Indians in its entirety is the inability of the missionaries to convey it to everyone. There were too many different ethnic groups in New Spain and too few ministers to address them all, and some groups had not been visited until the eighteenth century (Griffiths 2017, 114). The priests did not have enough human resources and time to convince every tribe of Native Americans to convert fully, especially in light of the overall negative relationship between their people and the Pueblos. As such, they had to accept that the Indians would practice a flawed version of the religion and keep exercising their rites alongside it.
Some orders, such as the Jesuits, chose to limit the scope of their missionary work and to concentrate on creating sustainable missions in the new land. They believed that the creation of a stable community with abundant food and advanced knowledge would attract natives, who would learn about Christianity alongside matters of more immediate importance. However, the cultural divide led to misunderstandings, which limited the ability of the missionaries to enact changes in the nearby communities (Truett 2004, 311-312). Native Americans used a practical approach and incorporated the new knowledge into their traditional lifestyles while paying lip service to the religious conceptions by observing them alongside old customs.
Ultimately, the low adoption rate of Christianity was caused by insufficient efforts to promote it among the natives. There were not enough priests to convince the Indians to abandon their original religions, and the two groups often refused to try to understand each other. In addition, the difficulties of living in a new land often reflected on the ability of the missionaries to utilize their superior knowledge adversely or to accept the emergence of new ideas. As such, Native Americans used the new crops and animals provided by the Christians for their own purposes and adopted a semblance of Christianity to maintain good relationships with their benefactors without significantly changing their traditions.
Bibliography
Anderson, Gary Clayton, and Kathleen P. Chamberlain. 2008. Power and promise: The changing American West. New York: Pearson Longman.
Boyer, Paul S., Clifford E. Clark Jr., Karen Halttunen, Joseph E. Kett, Neal Salisbury, Harvard Sitkoff, Nancy Woloch, and Andrew Rieser. 2016. The enduring vision: A history of the American people. Boston: Cengage Learning.
Brown, Tracy. 2004. Tradition and change in eighteenth-century Pueblo Indian communities. Journal of the Southwest 46, no. 3: 463-500.
de Nájera, Pedro de C., George P. Winship, Francisco V. de Coronado, Antonio de Mendoza, and Juan Camilo Jaramillo. 1904. The Journey of Coronado, 1540-1542: From the City of Mexico to the Grand Canyon of the Colorado and the Buffalo Plains of Texas, Kansas and Nebraska. New York, A. S. Barnes & Co.
Griffith, Nicholas. 2017. Sacred Dialogues: Christianity and native religions in the Colonial Americas 1492-1700. Nicholas Griffiths.
Truett, Samuel. 2004. The ghosts of frontiers past: Making and unmaking space in the borderlands. Journal of the Southwest 46, no. 2: 309-50.
On June 30th, 1997, after 157 years of British colonial rule in Hong Kong, it’s important to review the British administration’s legacy in Hong Kong. It will be quite naïve for one to resort to any one-dimensional blanket conclusion or to outline any specific sweeping approval or condemnation o the diverse record of the British rule in Hong Kong. It is equally risky to only review the achievements in the last days of the British rule and use such review to restructure or substitute for the full span of the British rule as its finest moment in Hong Kong.
A much more informed and also balanced evaluation of British historical deeds should be appreciated in its fuller perspective of the real inputs and outputs of the British administrative system in modeling development in Hong Kong the life of Hong Kong people in the course of entire British rule. (Chan, 1990)
Outline the of the paper
This paper will therefore take a critical look at the legacy of the British rule in Hong Kong from two different viewpoints, one according to the viewpoint of the Hong Kong people and another viewpoint will be according to the British populace. When analyzing the British legacy in Hong Kong, it will be prudent to appreciate the past British deeds in their contribution to the current state of Hong Kong, it will be equally vital to pinpoint the misdeeds of the past British administration in Hong Kong and their present effects.
Today Hong Kong is globally renowned as an outstanding example of a liberal community with a lively economy, where its entire population of over six million people enjoys their liberty and opportunity. As such, the British rulers can in reality claim substantial credit. As depicted by Christopher Pattern, the final British governor in Hong Kong, four main contributions of the British to Hong Kong’s success, are; rule of law; civil service; economic freedom, and lastly democratization. These will be the main points that will be reviewed to articulate the correct British legacy from the Hong viewpoint. From the British point of view, the paper will examine a general overview, Proposals, from 1945 to 1952, the 1980s views, and effects of the Policies and the British Legacy. Finally basing on the above outline the paper will then make a conclusion on both viewpoints. (Chan, 1997)
Rule of law
The rule of law has been celebrated a lot by the British as a “present” that it gave to Hong Kong; this includes the common law legal system from Britain that has an independent neutral judiciary that supposedly delivered fair justice to everyone. To a lot of people in Hong Kong conservation of this legal structure is of high significance to the “high level of independent” that HKSAR (Hong Kong Special Administrative Region) ought to enjoy. Whereas a lot of the makeup and establishments in Hong Kong’s legal structure are considered as essentially sound and efficiently working, the main flaw is the legal language of English.
Up to recent times, all court procedures in civil and criminal litigations were being held in English. Though English is the official language, it is not the mother tongue or daily usage language for most native people, who are mainly Cantonese speakers. Presently, residents have to speak English so as to be entitled to jury service. This plays a big role in the composition of the jury and renders it considerably out-of-way with modern ideas regarding the function of trial by jury. (Chan, 1990)
Another concern is the inadequate and late start progress regarding bilingual (Chinese and English) codification. A fraction of the problem begins with the legal system personnel. The bodies of justice still are expatriate-dominated in the judiciary and the legal department. The efforts of the government in localization of the judiciary system has had limited outcome. Localization of the common law needs long-term and far-reaching reforms that could give strength to the rule of law through making the whole legal structure more in step to socio-cultural and demographic realities and also the increasing human rights awareness of the native Chinese population. (Chan, 1990)
In addition, British legal heritage in Hong Kong also exhibits perilous historical violations which set a bad example for the future. The bulky piles of prejudiced legislation (mainly racially founded, anti-Chinese laws enacted by appointed lawmakers) and draconian, prejudiced (anti-grassroots) court judgments are bad examples of decency and fairness. Besides, the administrative and legislative bodies have a quite weak division of power, having insufficient checks and balances.
Before 1985, when not directly voted seats were set up into the Legco (Legislative Council) the British administration was able to enact laws through a submissive legislature made up of appointed legislature members, and government officials having a majority up to 1976. Therefore one can state that the British colonial regime frequently functioned within the rule of law since it had all-time be able to alter the law via appointed legislature.
On the other hand, the executive arm could all the time claim a legal foundation for any particular act that it desired to undertake. And if the administration didn’t desire to look for the endorsement of Legco, it could then resort to the “Emergency Regulations Ordinance of 1922” that permitted imprisonment with no trial and several other breaches of acts of human rights. So far such actions were considered completely legal. (Ming, 1997)
Since “the Emergency Power Ordinance” still is on the statute books, although all other regulations had been revoked by 1985, the serious danger is that the HKSAR administration could use it as did the British colonial government. Besides the British administration’s own unlawful official actions ought not to be forgotten. Such unlawful acts included film censorship devoid of suitable legal authority, character assassination, and extra-official maneuvers to weaken or obstruct the path of justice (for example London’s executive intrusion with the Hong Kong lawful procedure in the Chinese government airplane case in 1950).
Such intrusions amounted to the gross mockery of the rule of law and pursuit of justice. A lot of humiliating occurrences, ranging from grave criminal acts by the legal workforce to doubtful conduct and ineptitude, have marred efficient legal administration, which has resulted in a tarnished reputation of the legal system. (Ming, 1997)
The rule of law is certainly a primary British legacy for Hong Kong, and also it is correctly popularly viewed as such. Nevertheless, it is essential to be reminded of the important gaps and lapses in the common law legal structure as it was practiced by the British colonial administration. A lot of effort is still required to restructure and cure its defects and also inadequacies so as it achieves its own stated objective of giving the people of Hong Kong a true justice system. (Ming, 1997)
Civil Service
Civil service was the main backbone of British colonial rule in Hong Kong, supposing the British custom of an executive-led administration is to become a lot more highlighted in the HKSAR administration, civil service administrative will then remain a very powerful political body. (Ming, 1997)
Though a lot has been said regarding Hong Kong’s civil service structure as extremely professional, competent, reasonably free from grave corruption, and politically neutral this can be just a partially true reflection of the latest realities. Specifically since, at least up to the mid-80s’ Hong Kong’s sovereignty settlement and beginning of democratization, was many times termed as an “administrative state” or as “bureaucratic polity” which practiced “administrative absorption of politics.” local authority and political control were dominated by the civil service administrator or bureaucrats.
As such, the civil service body, in particular the senior rank, did dominate the course of policy formulating, decision-making, implementing, and management. Having such a high concentration of tasks and power at its disposal, the civil service also cultivated and continued its own bureaucratic traditions of elitism and at times arrogance at the cost of public responsiveness and accountability. This partially explains the reason the higher civil service rank still is ill-adjusted to the mounting demands for open administration and public accountability and also fresh inputs from politicians who are elected and political parties and or pressure groups in regard to the policy process. (Abbas, 1999)
Through 1997- decolonization also sped up civil service localization, it should be ironic that the localization process that is required because of the previous discrimination, is presently being claimed by the British as its achievement. Indeed civil service localization was not the main concern until 1984 following the signing of the Sino-British Joint Declaration raises solemn doubts concerning the British administration’s commitment to a truly expert and balanced approach to personnel policy and administration in its governance. At the moment, the administration’s localization actions are successfully being challenged in court through several expatriate civil employees under the Bill of Rights. (Ming, 1997)
Up to the early 90s, the civil service’s high ranks were mainly dominated by British executives, and though they were little in number (around 3,000 out of over 150,000 in the 80s), numerous serious shortcomings were thus revealed as underlined below. Up to the 80s, these expatriate officers, though little in number, were basically concentrated at the peak and very high ranks of the civil service hierarchy and managed the very important processes such as recruitment, job assignment, supervision, appraisal, and promotion of the subordinates, the bulk of whom were native Chinese.
The top-heavy planned concentration of British expatriates having a lot of power, authority, control, and also policy-making functions really distorted this supposedly civil service system of Hong Kong into awfully British government machinery, therefore undermining Hong Kong’s local independence. (Flowerdew, 1997)
The most obvious failure of the Hong Kong civil service structure under expatriate management was the superior bureaucrats’ absence of any feeling of the responsibility of the administration in regard to the unavoidable concern of the 1997 sovereignty retrocession. An absence of a guiding principle for political transition made Hong Kong civil servants not well prepared and also confused in relation to how to respond to political issues.
The state of affairs was worsened by the Sino-British disagreement brought about by Governor Patten’s electoral reforms in 1992 that politicized the higher civil servants and needed them to support a policy that was not acceptable to Beijing. This tendency undermined the British colonial state’s latest endorsement of the “political neutrality” of the civil service, possibly for pre-empting the public perception so as to hold off future PRC efforts to politicize the HKSAR civil service.
These democratization attempts also added more pressure on the superior bureaucrats as the salesperson’s policies of government to a Legco that had elected members. This latest public function made the then Financial Secretary Macleod accept that “we have increasingly become a quasi- politician”. (Ming, 1997)
Lastly, since Governor MacLehose saw it essential in 1974 to establish the autonomous Commission against Corruption reflected the presence of extensive corruption among nearly all ranks and sections of the civil service system. Public disapproval and a tarnished worldwide image enforced the administration to act, however even at that moment MacLehose was forced to grant a common amnesty to the whole police force in the infamous police defiance against the Commission in 1977. This is a big indicator of how extensive corruption had worn public confidence in the honesty, fairness, and competence of the civil service in the 70s.
Regrettably, corruption among civil servants has been growing recently. The civil service top rank’s custom of administrative superiority and colonial totalitarianism has made it ill-modified to the 1985-97 periods of democratization and governmental analysis. Maybe, the localized administration should have a lot of common bearing with the fresh HKSAR elites to create a more democratic and responsive civil society. (Tzong-biau, 1998)
Economic Freedom with Limited Government
Economic freedom and limited government is another British government contribution to Hong Kong that is much talked about. After the Second World War period, British colonial officials then stressed “positive non-interventionism” as British guiding aspect in economic policy, assisting to improve Hong Kong to its outstanding economic center status. A lot of time it is stated that free trade and also a free port are major factors for the economy, through combining low taxation, a really open market, free movement of information technology/capital, and the lowest amount of regulation and official bureaucracy has brought about a substantial opportunity for the private segment to maximize profit. In real meaning, the economic miracle of Hong Kong appears to be a direct outcome of the official minimalist approach. (Tzong-biau, 1998)
A careful assessment of the historical evidence, nonetheless, discloses an intrusive regime whose acts did not always adhere to its projected liberal pretense. Though free trade remains the landmark of Hong Kong’s economy, the British colonial administration has endlessly played a crucial and direct role as a very important economic member. Moreover its control of precious resources, the administration’s control of the pertinent lawful, political, and social bodies and procedures also indirectly models the way the economy behaves and community development. However, it can be argued that the constant projection of “positive non-intervention legend,” in spite of a very diverse reality presently, serves a number of purposes.
This official stand was a valuable enticement to the global business community. It stressed free trade, very low tax, and limitless opportunity for free ventures as a result of the lack of regulation and also administration interference so as to attract more investments in Hong Kong. Locally, limited administration with a liberal pretense intended to minimize the British colonial state’s task as a dynamic, provider, protector, and promoter of numerous community needs. (Jones, 1997)
One can also argue that the legend of liberal economic policies did also serve the function of white-washing questionable, unjust government practices. On the contra of the perfect of free trade and open market system, the British colonial establishment resorted to biased and monopolistic dealings which constituted interventionist acts. Good cases include the compulsory use of British motor vehicles that were the only franchised public bus companies up to 1983, and the monopoly standing awarded to a British university and college degrees and British gotten specialized qualifications for educational, professional and also business reasons. Under this background, the most destructive legacy was the unashamedly pro-business partiality in the British government’s decision-making. (Jones, 1997)
Whereas on the body can deny the outstanding economic development and growing wealth in Hong Kong between the 1970s- 1990s under British rule (having a GDP per capita grow from US$686 in 1966 to US$23,200 in 1996). The for-business, positive non-involvement legacy of the government at the end left behind a startling socio-economic unbalanced on the day of British colonial departure. And also left behind the striking GDP figures which widen the income gap among the very-rich and the masses, with 650,000 people being reported to live under the poverty level.
In spite of increasing the budget’s allocation in welfare support, the British administration was unable to solve the survival predicaments of the needy and poor efficiently. Thus, free trade and free ventures with an open market for much of Hong Kong colonial history didn’t always imply just trade and equal business opportunity; the colonial regime interfered to favor British and large business interests at the cost of fair play and a level playing ground for all the economic players despite their class or race. (Jones, 1997)
Democracy
Possibly the most unfortunate inadequacy of the British colonial existence in Hong Kong is its insufficient efforts in bringing democracy. The very truth that British administration-sponsored democratization only surfaced in 1984 after Joint Declaration, appeared to rationalize China’s disapproval and brought into question the intentions and potentially troubling outcomes of the British last-minute change of mind to democratize Hong Kong precisely on the day of their leaving. Certainly, the British to clarify and validate why they did not make an earlier commitment to democratization Hong Kong in the first 140 years of their running of Hong Kong.
However, it is still valuable to briefly review the numerous missed opportunities, intentional nonactions, and also anti-democratic maneuvers of the British colonial administration. This ought to serve as a required balance to whichever self-congratulatory interpretation of democratic development under British rule. (Ming, 1997)
Though one can find Christopher Pattern to be the highly energetic governor among the rest of the British governors in promoting democratic reforms, the number of democratic reform-based governors is really short. Among other governors who tried in bringing democracy to Hong Kong were Mark Young (1941, 1946-47) and also Edward Yaounde (1982-86). The irony is that these two governors implemented some democratic measures only after pressure from the local grassroots and also the Chinese communist party united front. (Ming, 1997)
After the War British policies for partial democratic reform were put aside by an unconcerned Governor Grantham in conjunction with the British colonial tycoon privileged who picked British appointees, who were certainly not rightful representatives of native majority interests. Through the use of the alleged threat of Chinese Communist victory in1949 and the 1950-53 Korean War as excuses, the British colonialist-tycoon elite alliance, with the backing of Whitehall under the rule of the Conservatives, did derail this first effort at democratization.
It can be pointed out that those local elite members appointed to the Legco and Exco were too eager to save guard their own privileges and glorious positions against any opening of political participation. It wasn’t any absence of far-sighted thoughts and workable proposals which under-laid the British administration’s intentional rejection, suspension, and derailment of democratization up to the 1980s, by using as an excuse state of affairs outside Hong Kong, particularly the China Factor. (Ming, 1997)
Supposing Governor Patten was really honest in his democratization drive, he should then highly regret his predecessor’s failure in not laying down the groundwork for the Hong Kong democratic system with a prior, fuller-scale, and more unreserved advancement of democratic political tradition, institutions, and procedures.
When Whitehall and Governor Patten criticize the not democratic and not representative composition of the “HKSAR Preparatory and Selection Committees” for being awesomely filled with their professional-circle allies and tycoons, the British ought not to be too unkind in their disapproval of Beijing’s liking for plutocracy as HKSAR political leadership as numerous of their targets of disapproval were started and nurtured by British colonial privileged political class. As such, British colonialism is comprehensively implicated as an accomplice to China’s hindrance of democracy in Hong Kong. (Knight, 1999)
British views on the legacy of their administration in Hong Kong
General overview
This study thus looks at the British viewpoint of the legacy of their colonial administration of Hong Kong from the reflection of those proposals up to the retrocession period. It is important to note that there wasn’t a single viewpoint of the British at any particular time. Thus in referring to “a British viewpoint” it is, hence, important to differentiate between a constituency-based viewpoint and a composite viewpoint of the British legacy. This study covers the views of the British legacy created by what are possibly the most significant British constituencies. (Lau, 1999)
The legacy of the British administration of Hong Kong, observed from many of the population in Britain, is mainly shaped by the characteristics of the colony on the day of retrocession. This can be noted as being in big contrast regarding the views of many Chinese observers and the Chinese communist party (CCP) The British favor highlight individual freedoms, rule of law, independence of the judiciary system, the effectiveness of government, business competitiveness, the excellent status in global trade, the containment of corruption, high quality of engineering infrastructure, and the improvement in health and welfare provision as critical characteristics of their legacy. (Knight, 1999)
On the other hand, the Chinese counterparts are most likely to look back to the bad previous years of national dishonor and imperialist mistreatment, keen to put the attention of all the patriots on the historical importance of reunification. Amid the British populations with a particular interest in Hong Kong, consisting of individual, governmental, corporate, and communal views, hardly any, if any, will venture in acknowledging aspects of the initial 100 years of British l rule as a qualitatively lasting section of British legacy.
This is possible as expected as the Chinese stress the negative sides of the British history of Hong Kong. All the two sides remain restless to assert the moral high position and to evade disconcerting or painful realities. However, there were some singular accomplishments in government, education, infrastructure, health, and hygiene services from the beginning of the century afterward. Lots of these achievements laid a base for the exceptional accomplishments which, comprised part of the British legacy. (Lau, 1999)
Proposals, from 1945 to 1952
The first Postwar view of the British government of Hong Kong’s future was outlined in 1945. A committee was formed from the members of a planning division composing of Hong Kong officials present in London as Japan invaded in 1941, jointly with the China Association members in London and also Colonial Office officials. The common aim is to ensure Hong Kong, like any other colony, ought to enjoy constitutional progression.
The result, duly expressed by Sir Mark Young (the Governor) in 1946 when the civil regime was reinstated, envisioned the setting-up of a very autonomous Municipal Council to run and increase the restricted function of the Urban Council. The council was to be 30 members’ team with, 15 Chinese and 15 non-Chinese, while twenty would be directly elected. The Colonial Office officials thought that the proposals were a suitable and adequate means of moving on constitutional advance. However, they feared that the planned reforms might not please their political masters. Back in Hong Kong, the proposal was not positively received. The proposal eventually did not work as it was rejected by both the governor and the Hong Kong community. (Tzong-biau, 1998)
All attempts to include the local indirect running of the affairs of Hong Kong were overtaken by various events until in May 1951 when a scheme by the conservatives to increase the local’s participation in the running of their affairs were again unexpectedly, through, the unofficial members of the Legco and Executive Council (Exco) in Hong Kong, on behalf of local elites, prevailed on the then Governor to persuade the British government to halt the scheme.
British agreed and an announcement to halt the scheme was then made in October 1952, under a reason that time was ill-timed for major constitutional progress. It remained so in the British view up to the mid-1980s. This record of five different sets of unimplemented proposals for the advancement of constitutional in Hong Kong is enlightening mainly for what is exposed by the intricate reasons given at every stage for and also against the proposals. (Tzong-biau, 1998)
The 1980s
In the 1980s the state of affairs had changed very much. One significant change was the extent of uncertainty concerning Hong Kong’s future as bestowed by the Joint Declaration. Another change was an approach of progressive reform by the PRC government under the Deng Xiaoping leadership. Yet again another alteration was the prospects for the easing of tension across the Taiwan Strait. Hong Kong was all every respect; economic, social and political advanced in comparison earlier day.
It is against this backdrop, that the British leadership in Hong Kong came under increasing pressure from representatives of an articulate, educated, and professionally greatly successful indigenous middle class to bring in democratic reforms in the arrangement of the representational regime. They felt that the practice of traditional change had been completely exploited. The call was for advancement towards direct elections to the Legco. From the British viewpoint, they felt that time was not yet ripe for such changes. However, the British over the next years yield to the demands of direct election and provided them and other democratic reforms. (Tzong-biau, 1998)
Effects of the Policies and the British Legacy
To sum up the final review of the British legacy during the British administration of Hong Kong, The first aspect, approved by all constituencies, is an economic improvement. Britain, the policy of intentionally excluding partisan politics had made it possible for Hong Kong to focus on economic growth. After the British relaxing the policy, the economic basics remained unaffected.
The second aspect is that in spite of Chinese opposition, the three policies initiated through Sir David Wilson to create stabilization in Hong Kong and reinstate confidence all worked to the advantage of the HKSAR. Reforms were undertaken by the British in the last years of their rule also created the basis for a more democratic Hong Kong. In Britain, the view was to allow the little democratic process to save guard the interest of the British people in the colony. (Tzong-biau, 1998)
Conclusion
Hong Kong’s 156 years of British rule is seen to have left an ineffaceable approval for the British legacy of rule of law, personal rights, and restricted government. Whereas British rule in Hong Kong was not perfect, principally concerning political rights, and though corruption was put under control in the 70s through the establishment of the autonomous Commission against corruption, complete property rights and financial freedoms mainly existed and continue to prevail.
The beauty of the lawful society of Hong Kong’s and the implementation of economic rights, mainly when contrasted to China, kept a steady flow of illegal immigrants who risked their lives and limb to get to Hong Kong. It is true that economic power, democracy, limited government, and sound civil service are some of the legacy left by the British. On the other hand it is worth noting that some of today’s ills were planted by the British bad culture and misrule of Hong Kong.
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