The purpose of this memorandum is to compare the two views of education and healthcare expressed in the ideas by Rebecca Rogers (2000) and Elizabeth Crepeau (2000) in their scholarly articles. The major point of both articles is that the role of the person with special needs, either a student or a patient, is often underestimated and even ignored. Both authors try to challenge this perception of education and healthcare processes.
Thus, based on the ideas expressed by Rogers (2000) and Crepeau (2000) both researchers can be placed on two initial points of the suggested 3.1 continuum as they both present the things factually and consider them critically not only criticizing the existing approach but offering solutions of their own. However, Rogers (2000) is more critical in her suggesting the “critical discourse analysis” (p. 213) of the wrong points about the topic of the article. Crepeau (2000) offers more neutral perspective trying to focus on the role of techniques used by the healthcare workers discussed without assessing them in the first lines of the article as Rogers (2000) does. Moreover, Rogers (2000) is more radical and openly feminist in her ideas (p. 218) about education and the role of students with special needs, especially females, in it.
Basically, there is no way to formulate the feminist views more clearly and there is no need to do it. Neither is there the need to filter ideas expressed by Rogers (2000) and Crepeau (2000) through ecological or system-oriented perspective and purity and clarity of views is the highest value of both articles considered.
References
Crepau, E. B. (2000). Reconstructing Gloria: A narrative analysis of team meetings. Qualitative Health Research, 10(6), 766-787.
Rogers, R. (2000). Through the eyes of the institution: A critical discourse analysis of decision making in two special education meetings. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 33(2), 213-237.
Schram, T. H. (2006). Conceptualizing and proposing qualitative research. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.
Shank, G. D. (2006). Qualitative research: A personal skills approach. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.
The literature review seeks to support the proposed solution to the research problem. The proposed research question is: what is the role of knowledge, behaviors, and attitudes of the healthcare providers in reducing healthcare disparities? The only solution to decreasing healthcare disparities amongst the minorities is to improve the knowledge, behavior, and attitudes of the healthcare workers. Researchers such as Hammarlund et al. (2017), Marshall et al. (2017), and Terndrup et al. (2019) illustrate how well-informed healthcare workers uphold their knowledge, behavior, and attitude in reducing health disparities amongst all patients.
Educational knowledge and behavioral interventions improve the attitudes of resident physicians towards healthcare provision. Hammarlund et al. (2017) state that graduate medical training barely covers healthcare disparities. The physicians graduate and proceed to facilitate healthcare without adequate knowledge about the existing healthcare disparities. The study focused on the difference between resident practitioners with knowledge about health disparities and those without the knowledge. According to the findings, after a month of training about health disparities, the trainees showed positive behavior, and attitude and had more knowledge about how to reduce health differences. The conclusion is that healthcare providers need education about existing healthcare inequalities to offer equal services.
Medical students need to undergo cultural competency training in their undergraduate courses. Most U.S. medical schools require the institutions to include cultural competency education in their learning but only a few schools add the program. According to McElfish et al. (2017), medical schools need innovation programs that combine learning objectives with community trends. In their research, the authors engaged health professionals in such activities as educational seminars and community-based learning to expose them to the reality of healthcare discrepancies (McElfish et al., 2017). The study showed that the trained physicians found the need to change the state of healthcare.
Training residential physicians on how to deliver care to people with diverse cultures are significant. Marshall et al. (2017) provide that learning how to associate with patients from a different culture is crucial to delivering adequate care. The study concluded that training the physicians about the existing health gap amongst the minorities is not enough if they are not educated about how to associate with different cultures.
Assessing healthcare inequality knowledge is critical to reducing the gap, especially in groups with diverse cultures. According to Dupras et al. (2020), assessments of health disparities education are rarely conducted in health institutions. An assessment indicates the existing gaps in learning about the medical gap and solutions are provided. Learning about a health concept helps improve the providers’ knowledge, practice, and confidence (Cooper et al., 2017). A study showed that improving knowledge about dental care helps pediatrics offer better care to patients. The concept of the study is that medical professionals require training about healthcare discrepancies to know how to control the gap.
Conclusion
Physician training concerning healthcare disparities is crucial to reducing the continued health gap. Their training will not only benefit the minority groups but also special people like LGBTQ+ who also experience healthcare inequality. Cultural competency training is also significant in reducing the healthcare gap amongst various ethnic groups. Medical professionals also need to learn about the emerging community affairs in their programs to be impacted with knowledge of care. Attitude adjustment required knowledge and behavior interventions provided by training.
Dupras, D. M., Wieland, M. L., Halvorsen, A. J., Maldonado, M., Willett, L. L., & Harris, L. (2020). Assessment of training in health disparities in US internal medicine residency programs. JAMA Network Open, 3(8), 1-9. Web.
Implicit biases involve associations outside conscious awareness that lead to a negative evaluation of a person on the basis of irrelevant characteristics such as race or gender” (Hurst & FitzGerald, 2017).
Researchers claim that this problem is based upon the subconscious conclusions people make from their previous observations, even if they would never say them out loud. Recently, I have run into a series of articles on the examination of implicit racial bias in the modern US healthcare system. For this reason, I decided to dwell upon this topic and find some precedents in support of this idea. The purpose of this presentation is to examine the demonstration of implicit racial bias in the US healthcare system as well as to provide some case study examples on the topic.
Implicit bias relevance
Topic discussion on various TV shows / educational platforms.
“Black community don’t know postpartum” (NPR, 2019).
Many people claim that the study of healthcare access inequity in terms of medical anthropology is no longer relevant due to the fact that it is nowadays equal regardless of all social affiliation. However, there are still a lot of researchers who examine the topic of biased patient-doctor relationship even though the issue is not as evident as previously. The question of implicit racial prejudice is also discussed on popular late-night shows such as Late Week Tonight with John Oliver and popular educational platforms such as TEDx. John Oliver, a popular TV host, devoted a part of his night show episode to the discussion of the issue of sex and race in the context of the modern healthcare system. After watching this episode, I decided to do personal research in order to find proof of the implicit bias existence.
It did not take a long time to find articles and news about racial prejudice in the medical sphere. The first piece of news, presented by National Public Radio, dwelled upon the idea that according to the statistics, African-American women are more likely to suffer from postpartum depression. However, they are afraid to publicly confess that something bothers them because both society and medical representatives believe that African-American women are stronger and should not be influenced by such things as depression. Moreover, the women themselves are put under such an implicit social pressure that they feel they do not have the right to become vulnerable. Some of the interviewees even mentioned that they did not want to admit the fact of having a postpartum because they thought their children might be taken away from them.
Racial implicit bias concerns doctors as well
Some African American doctors experience double-takes when they first meet patients:
“I notice the look on their face when I first meet them that says, ‘this isn’t who I was expecting to see’” (Medical Economics, 2019).
At first, it may seem that racial bias concerns mostly patients and people’s assumptions about their lifestyle, which may cause a certain health condition. However, a recent article in Medical Economics stated that doctors could experience such an attitude too. For example, James Ellzy, a family physician, claims that he often notices the dissonance his patients experience when they first meet him. Although implicit bias is not as dangerous for society as the actual discrimination, it may cause a lot of inconvenience in terms of the patient-doctor relationship. For that reason, I decided to create a case study from both the patient’s and doctor’s perspective to find out how people should act once they experience implicit prejudice towards others.
Case Study Structure
The introduction of the case participants.
The case brief scenery.
The definition of a biases present in the case.
Biases examination:
define the patterns of participants’ behavior.
define how to act in a real situation.
The structure of the case study consists of several parts. First of all, we should provide the recipient with all the details about the case, including the healthcare establishment and brief background information about the case participants. Then, we should single out the issue a case study is going to solve. In terms of this presentation, the main problem is the experience of implicit bias towards either doctor or patient. Once all the study details are provided, students should define how the given case is correlated with the main idea of the presentation. Then, finally, they should examine the behavior of case participants and, with the help of critical analysis, single out the best way of behavior in such real-life situations.
Case Study Scenario
John
28 years old;
Male;
Single;
African-American, born and raised in the US;
Freelance web-designer;
Complains of severe headaches.
John is a 28-year-old African-American single male, born and raised in the US. He works as a freelance web-designer and, thus, has a rather sedentary lifestyle. Recently, John started noticing that his headache was becoming more and more severe with each day, so he decided to visit a physician. John has recently moved to the city from his hometown, and he has not been to the hospital yet. He made an appointment in the state healthcare facility, and his physician turned out to be Katherine, a 40-year-old white female. During the first appointment, Katherine did not take any interest in John’s lifestyle details. Instead, she appointed a series of tests and inquired about the patient’s attitude towards alcohol and other substances, which could potentially damage the brain.
Katherine
40 years old;
White female;
Shows no interest of the patient’s lifestyle.
Kevin
37 years old;
White male;
Gets to know the patient, examines his lifestyle.
The further examination showed that John was suffering from migraines, which appeared due to constant stress and the time spent in front of the computer screen. He was prescribed a series of medicine, and he was advised to take a few days off for the medicine to take effect faster. For a few months, the headache was gone, and John came back to work overload and constant stress. The migraine eventually started once more, and he needed to see a doctor. However, John decided to see another specialist who appeared to be a 37-year-old white male, Kevin. Kevin made a detailed patient’s examination, figured out the information about his daily routine and work schedules. After the check-up, he appointed an exhaustive treatment plan regarding all the details of John’s lifestyle. He also explained John the implications that may arise in case of treatment ignorance. After that, John took his health conditions seriously, and his migraine did not bother him for a long time.
Case Study Analysis
“If doctor views the patient simply as a black woman, the possibility that the doctor’s implicit bias will be activated is much greater than if she’s seen as Mrs. Brown, a retired school teacher and mother of four children” (Medical Economics, 2019).
Being provided with all the details of the case study, we may now dwell upon the analysis of its constituents. First of all, the study should be analyzed separately in terms of John’s interaction with both doctors. The first analysis block will concern Katherine’s attitude towards the patients. Although there was no open racism during the appointment, it was evident the doctor was subconsciously influenced by some generally accepted implicit racial bias. In such a way, the doctor perceives the patient as a representative of a particular social group instead of treating him as an individual. In this case, a doctor needs to get to know his patient better rather than make assumptions based on previous experience or generally accepted beliefs. As John did not have proper communication with the physician, he decided to ask for help from other specialists with whom he would feel comfortable.
“Most educational interventions designed to reduce implicit bias appear to use a two-step approach that includes (a) making the students aware of their implicit biases, and (b) providing instruction on strategies they can use to either reduce the activation of implicit associations, or control how those associations influence judgment and behavior” (Zestcott, Blair, & Stone(2016))
Another analysis block concerning Kevin’s attitude towards the patient is the answer to the question of how Katherine should have acted in this situation. Instead of being influenced by own prejudice, he figured out the facts about John that made him an individual. According to specialists, in order to learn how to perform such an attitude towards patients, doctors should become aware that they have an implicit bias in the first place. With this knowledge, they can already control their thoughts and eradicate or ignore them while interacting with the patient.
Case Study Relevance
Connection between implicit racial bias and medical anthropology.
Overall tendency of prejudice eradication.
Tolerance and education interrelations.
The case study provided above is closely connected to the notion of medical anthropology. As the medical anthropology deals with the interrelation of medicine and its cultural aspects of implementation, community culture and community relations are also relevant for the study (Baer, & Singer, 2012). Implicit racial bias is a phenomenon that concerns even culturally aware US citizens. The research is also extremely relevant in terms of today’s society because showing no prejudice towards others is now an indicator of people’s awareness and education. Applied medical anthropology, thus, should pay more attention to this issue. Even though implicit racial bias is something integrated into our minds and cannot be eradicated, people should be aware of its presence so they can accept having bias and not let it control their behavior.
Conclusions
Implicit bias is a common current issue.
Implicit racial bias does not always have a negative connotation.
Prejudiced people are deprived of personality.
Both doctors and patients should learn to identify bias.
To sum everything up, implicit bias in medicine is the feeling of prejudice or stereotypical assumptions people make towards both doctors and patients according to their gender, race, or appearance. Implicit racial bias is a common issue in the context of US healthcare systems. Although these race-based assumptions are not always harmful, they nevertheless deprive people of their individuality and judge them from the whole racial group’s perspective. Hence, it can potentially damage the quality of healthcare provided. In order not to let this issue deteriorate the overall medical system, both patients and doctors should we aware of its existence. They would then pay attention to such implicit prejudice in case it starts to subconsciously make decisions instead of them.
Last Week Tonight with John Oliver: Bias in Medicine. (2019). Web.
Singer, M., & Baer, H. (2012). Introducing medical anthropology: A discipline in action, 2nd edition. Lanham, Maryland: AltaMira Press.
Zestcott, C. A., Blair, I. V., & Stone, J. (2016). Examining the presence, consequences, and reduction of implicit bias in health care: A narrative review. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 19(4), 528–542.
Risks involve physical, emotional, and psychological harm.
Care providers’ service delivery is affected.
Leads to negative healthcare outcomes.
According to the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), workplace violence includes all violent acts directed towards healthcare providers including physical assault or threat of assault in the course of performing their duties (Sharp, 2015). Such acts may involve threatening gestures, verbal threats, puling hair, spitting, hitting, and all other forms of physical aggression. Therefore, healthcare providers face the risk of physical, emotional, and psychological harm from work-related violence. Some healthcare workers have also reported sexual harassment, which is a form of violence. The mode of perpetration might be direct or indirect. Ultimately, the victims of this violence may suffer from physical injuries, depression, or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Phillips, 2016). These consequences affect the way care providers deliver services to patients, thus leading to negative health outcomes.
Nursing Professional Bodies
ANA notes that workplace violence in healthcare sector is on the rise.
Violence cases increase by 25 percent annually.
Causes are diverse.
Need for mitigation measures.
According to the American Nursing Association (ANA) (2015), workplace violence among healthcare providers in the US has been increasing consistently over the years. In 2014, the International Association for Healthcare Security and Safety carried out a study and found that violence among healthcare providers increases by about 25 percent annually (Smith, 2016). The causes of this form of violence are diverse including the rising number patients, increased wait times, few hospitals, and shortage of care providers among other problems. Therefore, there is a need to come up with mitigation measures to ensure that healthcare providers are protected from such violence and prepared to deal with any cases that may come up.
Theoretical Model and Stakeholders
Education and prevention training in education programs and healthcare facilities.
Healthcare workers would be prepared to address the problem.
Stakeholders : – patients, care providers, and facilities.
Patients will get quality service.
Hospitals will avoid negative care outcomes.
One of the theoretical or regulatory models that would be applicable to the passage of HR 5223 is the requirement to integrate education and prevention training into education programs and healthcare facilities. This requirement would ensure that healthcare providers are prepared, both tactically and emotionally, to deal with workplace violence, if it arises. Some of the stakeholders who will benefit from the passage of HR 5223 include healthcare workers, patients, and care facilities. Healthcare workers will profit by being adequately prepared to handle such cases without affecting their capacity to deliver quality and timely care. Patients will also gain because they would be handled professionally and receive good care despite directing violence towards their care providers. Care facilities would benefit by avoiding negative care outcomes and costs that may be a result of workers facing violence in the workplace.
Barriers
Profit-driven business models;
Weak and ambiguous law enforcement and social services approaches;
Lack of action from the management;
Overcoming the barriers:
Violence prevention increases profitability;
Avail necessary resources;
Management to take responsibility.
One of the main barriers to the passage of HR 5223 is profit-driven business models that most hospitals use. Therefore, the proposal to introduce training programs to counter workplace violence may be rejected because it would be costly for the facilities. Another barrier is the weak and ambiguous law enforcement and social services approaches, especially when dealing with people with mental illness. The third barrier is lack of action from the management even after violence cases are reported. To deal with the first barrier, hospital management should be sensitized to acknowledge that workplace violence influences customer satisfaction, turnover rates, and productivity. Therefore, adopting HR 5223 may increase profitability. For the second barrier, public policymakers should avail the necessary resources needed to resolve the problem of workplace violence. The third barrier could be addressed by urging the management to act on the reported cases of violence failure to which the victims may escalate the issue to the regulatory bodies.
References
ANA. (2015). Incivility, bullying, and workplace violence. Web.
Phillips, J. P. (2016). Workplace violence against health care workers in the United States. New England Journal of Medicine,374(17),1661-1669.
Sharp, M. T. (2015). Workplace violence: Assessing risk, promoting safety. Nursing Made Incredibly Easy, 13(1), 42-49.
Smith, T. A. (2016). What every healthcare facility should do now to reduce the potential for workplace violence. Journal of Healthcare Protection Management, 32(1), 41-47.
The majority of modern societies have moved past the stereotypical gender roles. However, women have been given a subordinate status due to an inevitable implication of their natural inferiority embedded into male-dominated society. Health gaps, which are associated with such determinants of health as race, class, and wealth, still influence the quality of care provided to the population (Sultana, 2010). Gender has been a less visible contributor to health gaps; however, women are less likely to have their pain treated while their symptoms may not be taken as seriously as those reported by men (Sultana, 2010). These issues reflect the deeply-embedded principles of the patriarchy, pointing to the lacking attention to the health concerns of women. For women, who are continuously exposed to the structures rooted in the male domination, encounters of gender bias in healthcare represent a core issue. The main challenge that women continue being exposed to in modern society is the lack of attention to their health needs due to the male-oriented healthcare system (Koebele & Bimonte-Nelson, 2016). Such as a system does not consider the unique needs and challenges that women encounter on their health journeys. As mentioned by Rotenstein (2018), many women going through menopause, both in general practice and in specialist clinics, have neen misdiagnosed as having depression and given antidepressants by their general practitioners.
Little research has been done on the impact of a male-dominated society on women’s health. The gender roles that are being imposed on women can often be daunting as women are seen responsible for childbearing and taking care of their families while men are the patriarchs of their families and provide for them (Sultana, 2010). Thus, when women encounter such issues as menopause, they are seen as no longer valuable due to their inability to give birth (Horwitz, 2006). In the healthcare context, menopause has been predominantly addressed from the standpoint of hormonal treatment that does not go beyond prescription medication (Lobo, 2013). Other changes, including emotional, are often disregarded due to women being seen as fragile or unserious when reporting their symptoms. Also, misdiagnosis takes place due to the limited understanding of the natural rhythms and fluctuations in reproductive biology, especially during menopause (Koebele & Bimonte-Nelson, 2016). Thus, there is a high need to study the impact of the male-dominated culture on both physical and mental health of women.
Applying the feminist perspective is imperative for revealing the disbalance that exists in the current sphere of health and the lack of attention to the adverse consequences that women experience. As a response to the longstanding tradition of diminishing women’s denigration and abuse in the name of science, many feminist theorists have stated that the path toward equality lies in the denial of biologically based differences between sexes and a focus on the social construction of gender (Kuruvilla & Jacob, 2019). The problem is imperative to study because gender determines the levels of control men and women have over socioeconomic influences of their mental health, their position in society, status, and the exposure to the risks that contribute to psychological complications (Kuruvilla & Jacob, 2019). What is problematic is that such theoretical frameworks as evolutionary psychology explained the elevation of the role of men as an inevitable consequence of evolution, which strengthens male domination that reinforces the idea of women’s inferiority.
Statement of the Problem
The problem to be addressed by this study is the inability of male dominated medicine to appropriately diagnose women with menopause due to the lack of understanding of how the female body works and changes over time. Although equal numbers of men and women graduate from medical school, only a small fraction of female physicians become medical leaders that could work on improving female population health (Rotenstein, 2018). For instance, menopausal women may be misdiagnosed with other conditions, including mental illness, as healthcare providers fail to consider the implications of the hormonal changes in the female body. The quintessential feminine experience associated with menopause has always been viewed medically through a masculine lens (Sharma, 2019). Also, the area of health care has mainly been overlooking the gender-specific issues when preventing or treating common disease, failing to address the most important risk factors, such as sex and gender (Sharma, 2019). Thus, if healthcare is ineffective in addressing the differences associated with physical health, the sphere of mental health related to the socially integrated principles of the patriarchy, is also greatly challenged.
The current male-dominated structure that exists in modern society is a keystone in the societal structure, and it is not something that can be solved within a short timeframe. Therefore, this means that the nuances that come with gender roles and masculine-feminine expectations would continue to persist, and the mental health of those groups who remain oppressed would deteriorate (Sharma, 2019). Due to the limitatios in the ways in which healthcare addresses the health needs of the opposing genders, there is the need to understand the power and privilege that is given to one group, which limits the capacity of healthcare providers to offer relevant care to patients whose biological needs have long been overlooled.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this qualitative phenomenology study is to explore the impact of the male-dominated social structures on the health of women who have received care for their menopause diagnosis and the issues that they have encountered during the process. The social structures that exist today elevate the role and the experiences of the male gender. Women are placed in this context and have to deal with their secondary role, proposed to be a result of natural selection and evolutionary environmental factors (Liesen, 2012). Health issues that stem from gender inequality find no support in the sphere of healthcare, which has demonstrated gender bias and the lack of gender awareness (Verdonk, Benschop, de Haes, & Largo-Janssen, 2009).
The problem of care associated with menopause is especially relevant to consider as the history of male-dominated culture has always rejected the process as important to address. For example, the menopausal stage can manifest itself through dozens and hundreds of symptoms, which may last long-term. However, the symptoms are often vague and amorphous and are mistaken for such conditions as mood swings, anxiety, fatigue, allergies, weight gain, and others (Newson, 2017). The fact that the hormonal changes can lead to the symptoms that women experience is overlooked and leads to potential misdiagnosis, which is associated with deteriorating health. As a response to menopause, hormone replacement therapy is often prescribed as the key medical intervention to stabilize estrogen and progesterone levels in a woman’s body (Gersak, Gersak, & Turcin, 2018). Although, such an approach has its risk, and much of the topic is understudied despite the potentially adverse effects on the body. Add to this the wildly fluctuating hormones during menopause, hormone replacement continues to receive mixed results.
Because of the mentioned limitations, this study will involve the experiences of women who encounter gender inequality in their everyday lives to connect them to health issues that may potentially arise as a result of those experiences, such as the challenges associated with menopause and the associated misdiagnosis. Some patients presenting with heart palpitations have been referred to cardiologists while those with urinary symptoms have been referred to urologists, although their age and accompanying menopause symptoms were disregarded (Newson, 2017). Therefore, the symptoms associated with menopause are disregarded as not important and not deserving the attention of the male-dominated sphere of healthcare. With the help of a qualitative approach toward data collection, it is possible to draw from the standpoint of women without pre-established themes or expectations. Approximately 20-30 participants will be recruited through a social media advertisements on Instagram and Facebook groups for menopausal women. As suggested by Vasileiou, Barnett, Thorpe, and Young (2018), studies involving individuals interviews should include no more than 50 participants to ensure the appropriate management of the analytical task’s complexity. The research sites will depend on convenience for the researcher and the participants; a negotiation prior to the interview will take place regarding this issue. It is likely that the researcher will meet with interviewees one-on-one in person or though Skype.
Theoretical or Conceptual Framework
The role of feminist theory is highly relevant to this study because of its attempts to describe and explain how gender systems work, including considerations of normative and ethical issues, such as whether the arrangements established in society are fair (Berle, 2004). Feminism goes against traditional philosophical frameworks with new ways of addressing problems that affect humanity, encouraging the replacement of the dominant male-led structures with systems that focus on equal rights, fairness, and justice. Based on the principles laid out by radical libertarian feminists, the system of patriarchy within which women feel oppressed and limited in their freedoms should be abolished entirely to reach positive outcomes related the freedom to make choices on their health, such as sexual and reproductive rights. This issue is especially relevant in the context of this proposal because radical libertarian feminism suggests that the root of all female oppression is associated with women’s ability to bear children (Berle, 2004). Researchers have traced connections between the decreased mental health of women undergoing the challenges of motherhood, such as post-partum disorder that leads to further complications that require serious intervention. The pressure placed on women regarding their decisions of bearing children can cause significant mental distress, and the radial libertarian feminism implies that the social structures that facilitate such pressure should be abolished.
Applying evolutionary psychology to the current proposal and disputing its principles is important for understanding the emergence of gender roles and their influence on the lives of individuals. Criticism of the theoretical framework is necessary to illustrate the adverse impact of evolutionary psychology approaches, which will also be applied to the current study, on shaping the male-dominated structures and contributing to gender inequality. Evolutionary psychology has defended gender roles and the subsequent inequalities that stem from them as innate, thus insisting that females and males have differentiated strategies of mating (Crane-Seeber& Crane, 2010). Forces of evolution would encourage men to ‘spread their seeds’ through any means possible while women were expected to find dominant mates to ensure the survival of their progeny. It is a standard approach of evolutionary psychology to engage in the inference of genetic selection of specific behaviors and gender-associated personality traits occurs from Darwinian selection and psychological surveys (Zietsch, de Candia, & Keller, 2015). In addition, the arguments of the theory have also been supported by comparing humans to other species, thus underlining the role of alpha males and the submissiveness of females, which illustrates patriarchal assumptions within animal behaviors.
The juxtaposition of feminist theory and evolutionary psychology is expected to illustrate the formation of thought that encouraged the prevalence of male-dominated thought in society. It is notable that evolutionary psychologists have responded to the criticism of their theory by suggesting that the variability in most human traits of behavior does not challenge human nature, which is innate and universal due to shared and functionally specialized cognitive adaptations that can encourage the formation of unique and different life experiences (Crane-Seeber& Crane, 2010). Nevertheless, evolutionary psychology suggests that there is a genetic basis for the history of gender domination. The feminist theory aims to challenge these ideas and calls for the normalization of equality within gender identity. The genetic basis for the domination of males of females supported by evolutionary psychology led to the difference in expectations from males and females.. At the same time with limiting the agency of women along with their creativity, the male domination rooted in the genetic relations led to violence against men who do not repress or brutalize women (Crane-Seeber& Crane, 2010).
The framework guided the research decisions by pointing out the existence of male-dominated relations that developed as a result of the genetic background require the participation of both men and women as well as their acceptance of gendered binaries, the domination of males, the repression of feminine in males as well as the repression of the masculine in females. Because of the risks to develop psychological issues as a result of oppression of females in a male-dominated society, as suggested by feminist theory, a problem and purpose statement were formed. Research questions also heavily relied on the discussed theoretical frameworks as they point to the limitations in the current studies on the topic.
Nature of the Study
The current study aims to approach the issue at hand from the standpoint of phenomenology. Therefore, non-numerical data will be collected to interpret relevant meanings from the collected data to help understand the problem through the study of the target population. In the mental health field, qualitative research has been widely used because of the capacity to focus on descriptive case studies that would contribute to the understanding of the problem at hand. In addition, descriptive phenomenology is appropriate for the current study because of the focus on the social underpinnings of mental health issues, which is the relationship between male-dominated structures and women’s mental health. The techniques for the data collection will include semi-structured interviews that will offer qualitative data to be interpreted in further analysis. The strategy of data analysis is expected to be inductive and based on decsctiptive phenomenology principles (Palinkas, 2015). The qualitative method implemented in this study is expected to be especially useful within the context of the first stages of research because of the capacity to acquire a baseline understanding of the issue. Moreover, since already available research is highly limited, qualitative research will enable the exploration of women’s experiences with mental health within the male-dominated culture. By conducting a qualitative study initially, it would be possible to conduct quantitative research on a similar topic to broaden the scope of the study and contribute to the scientific foundation of social studies and mental health services research.
Study participants are engaged in qualitative research to provide their perspectives on the issue at hand. First-hand experiences of women will reveal the key problems that women experience within the male-dominated setting. The qualitative approach is among the tools that would allow people to speak their minds and express personal opinions instead of conforming to terms and categories that would be imposed on them on others (Jamshed, 2015). Eliciting the perspectives of real participants in the study will serve as a means of enhancing the validity of data that is being collected, which would allow the investigator to compare their personal perceptions of reality with the perceptions of study participants (Palinkas, 2015). Depending on the experiences of research subjects, it is possible to reveal the different ways in which the male domination influences the mental health of women. While some experiences may be negative, illustrating significant oppression of women, other experiences may show no relationship between mental health and the social environment that is predominantly male-dominated.
Thematic analysis represents the core data analysis framework that could be used in the current qualitative research. Such analysis would involve the carrying out of a rigorous review of transcripts and other documents containing the data collected in the course of the study (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Codes will be assigned to the emergent or already established topics. However, it is important to have a holistic perspective on the current study. This perspective will require the investigator to reach beyond the enumerations of themes that emerge in the course of the study to provide a bigger picture to reach a more comprehensive understanding of their meanings, role, relationships, as well as paying specific attention to the context. The analysis is expected to reveal the broader picture of mental health experiences of women living in the context of a male-dominated society.
Research Questions
The research questions for the current study are associated with discovering the effects of male domination on the well-being of women in the sphere of health care. The focus on health is important as the exploration of the theoretical frameworks showed that the male-dominated structurers developed over time to include the characteristics of oppressive structures that diminished the roles of women to childbearing. Thus, there is a need to reflect on the struggles that women face as a result of the structures, with the focus on the limitations in the treatment and diagnosis of the menopause. The research questions are the following:
How does the medicine in male-dominated culture influence women’s health?
What are the challenges of misdiagnosis and improper health management in regard to menopausal symptoms?
How do women navigate the identified healthcare challenges?
Significance of the Study
There is a lack of attention given to women’s health issues within the male-dominated structures, with relevant research that applies to this study focusing primarily on health in general rather than specific limitations, such as menopause diagnosis and treatment. According to Sharma (2019), who studied the application of feminist theory to medical education, there is still not enough understanding and potential applications of feminist theory within the sphere of women’s health. In addition, according to Sharma (2019), the overall approach to gender within medical education was associated with handling gender in isolation from other forms of oppression when it is needed to conceptualize issues that are relevant to gender as more inclusive of other discrimination forms. Thus, as the medical field does not cover problems gender-related as a means for overcoming the challenges that women may face, there is a need to study the issue in further detail, adding to the body of research, which is limited at this time.
The health crisis among women, which has been widely reported, is a challenge that remains unaddressed. According to Hall (2018), women’s health problems are overlooked due to the inconsistency of care, as well as the lack of research and attention to the adverse psychological effects associated with being a woman. For example, the psychological and long-term physical influence of the contraceptive pill remains under-researched despite the fact that the production of a male version was halted for the reasons of the adverse impact on mental health (Hall, 2018). In regards to menopause, both specialized and generalized practice settings are ill-equipped to effectively diagnose the condition as well as recommend sustainable and appropriate treatment that would alleviate the burden of hormonal changes on the body (Newson, 2017). The evidence pointing to the inequality in approaches to the health of women and men shows that the signs of oppression are present while the body of research on the problem is insignificant. The research will also illustrate the disparities embedded in the male-dominated system that prevent gender-sensitive health care from being effective. In most instances, gender-sensitive medicine focuses on women’s health during pregnancy (Regitz-Zagrosek, 2012).
The knowledge acquired with the help of the current research is expected to result in positive changes in the care for women with menopause as well as women overall. The analysis of women’s experiences with menopause-related care in male-dominated healthcare will result in the increased awareness that the population faces on the part of providers. In addition, women with menopause will get to know the perspectives of other individuals in the same position as them, which can foster a sense of solidarity and collaboration to challenge the status quo. Since there is limited research on the identified issue, this study could be regarded as basis for future studies.
For the sphere of health care overall, the study will help overcome the limitations in practice that have been caused by the lack of training and the understanding of the challenges that women face in diagnosis. It will also be empowering for women to learn that the barriers in health that they have faced would be addressed through further research and ongoing practitioner education. For families, the study can be helpful for getting an understanding of critical roles that women play in family dynamics as well as to which extent they rely on external support within the male-dominanted structure.
Definitions of Key Terms
Term 1. Femininity. A set of attributes, roles, and behaviors usually attributed to women and girls from the sociologic perspective (Little, 2014).
Term 2. Gender equality is defined as the state of equal ease of access to resources and opportunities for both genders, including decision-making and participation (Liesen, 2013). It challenges the ideas set forth by the patriarchy that elevates the role of one gender over the other (Liesen, 2013). The term relates to the current proposal to introduce the principles of equality as solutions to the identified problem.
Summary
The oppression and discrimination that is embedded in the principles of the male-dominated society influence the lives of women and can have a potentially adverse influence on their general health and well-being. The issue to be addressed by this study is the inability of male dominated medicine to appropriately diagnose women with the menopause due to the lack of understanding of how the female body changes. The impact of male-dominated social structures on the health of women who have received care for their menopause diagnosis will be studied in-depth through the phenomenological research standpoint.
Evolutionary psychology has provided longstanding support for the domination of the male gender and the submissiveness of the female gender. However, a radical libertarian feminist framework will be used to oppose the principles of evolutionary psychology to underline the ways in which the male-dominated system oppresses women through the limitations of their freedoms, including sexual and reproductive choices. Therefore, the study will engage real-life participants into qualitative data collection to allow them to reflect on their experiences with health in the male-dominated world to find common themes and patterns, which would point to the wider picture of the problem.
References
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Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101.
Crane-Seeber, J., & Crane, B. (2010). Contesting essentialist theories of patriarchal relations: Evolutionary psychology and the denial of history. The Journal of Men’s Studies, 18(3), 218-237.
Gersak, K., Gersak, Z., & Turcin, A. (2018). Reproductive aging: Perimenopause and psychopathological symptoms. Web.
Hall, H. (2018). We don’t need to ask why young women are suffering mental health problems – it’s a direct result of the patriarchy. Independent. Web.
Hotwitz, M. (2006). Man-made menopause. Undergraduate Research Symposium, 19. Web.
Jamshed S. (2014). Qualitative research method-interviewing and observation. Journal of Basic and Clinical Pharmacy, 5(4), 87-88.
Koebele, S. V., & Bimonte-Nelson, H. A. (2016). Modeling menopause: The utility of rodents in translational behavioral endocrinology research. Maturitas, 87, 5-17.
Kuruvilla, A., & Jacob, K. (2019). Culture and women’s mental health. In P. Chandra et al. (Eds.). Mental health and illness of women (pp. 1-12). Springer.
Liesen, L. (2013). Feminists need to look beyond evolutionary psychology for insights into human reproductive strategies. Sex Roles, 69, 484-490.
Little, W. (2014). Introduction to sociology. BC Campus Open Ed.
Lobo, A. (2013). Where are we 10 years after women’s health initiative? Journal of Clinical Endocry nology and Metabolism, 98(5), 1771-1780.
Newson, L. (2017). My personal experience of the menopause. British Journal of General Practice, 67(656), 125.
Palinkas L. A. (2014). Qualitative and mixed methods in mental health services and implementation research. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology: The Official Journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53, 43(6), 851-861.
Regitz-Zagrosek, V. (2012). Sec and gender differences in health. EMBO Reports, 13(7), 596-603.
Rotenstein, L. (2018). Fixing the gender imbalance in health care leadership. Web.
Sharma, M. (2019). Applying feminist theory to medical education. Lances, 393, 570-787.
Sultana, A. (2010). Patriarchy and women’s subordination: A theoretical analysis. The Arts Faculty Journal, 2020, 1-18.
Vasileiou, K., Barnett, J., Thorpe, S., & Young, T. (2018). Characterizing and justifying sample size sufficiency in interview-based studies: Systematic analysis of qualitative health research over 15-year period. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 18(148). Web.
Verdonk, P., Benschop, Y., de Haes, H., & Largo-Janssen, T. (2009). From gender bias to gender awareness in medical education. Advances in Health Science Education, 14, 135-152.
Zietsch, B. P., de Candia, T. R., & Keller, M. C. (2015). Evolutionary behavioral genetics. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 2, 73-80.
The Healthcare industry comprises of institutions that offer health services to the citizens. Such institutions include nursing homes, hospitals and healthcare facilities found in homes among other institutions. The operation of the institutions is either facilitated by the government or by the private sector.
They are served by individuals who specialize in various areas of health. This enhances good health among the citizens of any given country. The healthcare industry is a social institution due to the fact that it is in the institutions where many people with various health complications meet. A social institution is basically defined by interactions among different people.
In hospitals and other health institutions, there are different workers like nurses and their assistants who spend reasonable time attending to patients. Nurses socialize with the patients as they try to find out their problems. Socialization is vital for them since it serves as an effective way through which they get accurate health information from the patients.
This information is used to administer the necessary treatment procedures. Socialization that occurs in healthcare facilities plays a significant role in helping patients with mental problems to recover. Other patients visit healthcare institutions with serious problems like stroke and other problems based on family matters. Doctors possess specialized training that helps them to talk with such patients until they recover.
As social institutions, healthcare facilities function a bit differently from other private and public institutions. For instance, there is a remarkable difference when their operation is compared with that of public schools. Schools are governed by strict rules that must be followed by students. However, this is not the case with healthcare facilities. Their operations basically focus on building relationships with the societal members through the healthcare services they offer them.
In addition to the importance of socialization in healthcare institutions, the healthcare industry applies an individual social philosophy that guides workers as they execute their duties. The focus of the industry is to gather information from healthcare institutions in totality and make comparisons that facilitate decision making. The industry’s commitment is provision of the best healthcare services to improve the lives of people. Therefore, the fact that the healthcare industry is a social institution cannot be denied.
Working in the healthcare industry is usually a demanding and challenging experience. This is because healthcare workers are expected to be compassionate individuals who can handle patients with love and care until they recover. As a result, many demands are placed on them with regard to certification and their education.
Concerning education, they have to undergo intensive training to ensure that they are fully qualified. The required qualifications for an individual to be accepted in institutions that offer healthcare training are usually higher than those required in other fields. During the training period, healthcare workers are exposed to a lot of practical experiences that fully equip them with the necessary skills before they begin practicing.
After they achieve the desired qualifications, healthcare workers are required to obtain certification from relevant government departments.
This is usually done to ensure that unqualified healthcare workers do not pose as competent health workers. Health issues are sensitive matters that should not be compromised, thus the importance of having certified healthcare providers. In some instances, people with intentions of making money in the wrong way open clinics although they lack the expertise required to provide the right healthcare services.
The need to have all healthcare providers certified prevents the society from dangers that arise from unqualified personnel who pose as qualified healthcare workers. This is because healthcare industry is social in nature and its main aim is to provide the best healthcare services for the societal members.
Since the healthcare industry is such an important industry in the society, numerous improvements should be made to ensure that the society is well supported in terms of healthcare. The first improvement that should be made in healthcare institutions is to equip them with the latest technology.
Healthcare institutions require sophisticated equipment in order to facilitate diagnosis of patient’s problems and offer support to those who require it. This is an important improvement in healthcare institutions since doctors and nurses are able to save lives and provide the best services to patients.
The second improvement that should be made in healthcare institutions is to employ enough healthcare workers. Healthcare institutions are meant to serve the members of the society. Sometimes, the number of patients who require medical attention outnumbers the number of healthcare workers available. In such situations, patients who require urgent attention go through a lot of suffering while others die. With adequate healthcare workers, the capacity of healthcare institutions to provide satisfactory services is increased.
The third improvement that should be done in healthcare institutions is to provide enough funding. This is the obligation of the government since it is mandated to provide healthcare facilities for the citizens. With enough funding, healthcare facilities are able to purchase medicine and other necessities required to provide the best healthcare to patients.
Modern day healthcare practices incorporate significant use of ultrasound. The general application of ultrasound aims to perform diagnosis and is brought into common use in the clinical practice of cardiology. Ultrasound imaging is also often referred to as sonograph and is a technique that is brought into use to acquire images of the body using extremely high-frequency sound waves (Hofer, 1999). Being of an extensively high frequency, the sound waves come as inaudible to the human ear and are generally within the range of 2MHz to 12MHz.
In layman terms, the principles behind the functioning of ultrasound are the same as those behind every functioning of bats and seagoing fishermen. The entire idea revolves around sound waves. Upon striking an object, sound waves tend to bounce back into the direction from where they were emitted. Through careful and accurate analysis of the echo waves returning to the source of the emission, elements on the object’s location can be ascertained.
These elements include those such as the object’s size, consistency, shape and even the form within which the object is in, i.e., solid-liquid or plasma. Ultrasound, therefore, comes in as a highly significant instrument for the measurement of the appearance and the development of human tissue that forms organs and also of vessels in an attempt to detect active or benign tumours. The instrument performing the emission of the sound waves and the recording of their bouncing back is referred to as the transducer and the medical practitioner generally gently presses the transducer against the skin of the subject after having applied a water-based gel to serve as a medium between the transducer and the individual’s body that can be relied upon to force out any air bubbles or pockets (Duck, Baker, & Starritt, 1998).
The recorder in the transducer continues to record even the most minor of alterations in direction and pitch of the echoed high-frequency sound waves as they enter the body and bounce back towards the transducer over tissue, fluids and internal organs.
Ultrasound is brought into use commonly since it does not make use of radiations and therefore is safe for use in cases involving pregnancy and other sensitive medical conditions. Ultrasound is brought into use for the specific purpose of monitoring through imagery, the development of embryos and fetuses.
The use of means other than ionizing radiations is an attribute of Ultrasound that makes it a preferred means of body imagery and it is for the same reason that it has remained active and in prevailing use in the face of developing technology (Duck, Baker, & Starritt, 1998). However, there have been indications that the free radicals of ultrasound may indeed be having implications on the subject being subjected to the ultrasound. The foremost biological implications of ultrasound include effects such as damage to chromosomes caused as a result of interference with DNA.
Studies carried out to observe the implications of ultrasound in the biological perspective indicated that sister chromatid exchanges may undergo a significant increase as a result of being exposed to ultrasounds and other researchers have indicated that there is no implication that exposure to ultrasound waves can have on subjects. The body of literature present on the subject can therefore be surmised to incorporate a high degree of contradiction and uncertainty (Andreassi, 2004).
This paper shall attempt to contribute to this body of literature by performing an elaborative study of the literature and to acquire an understanding of the physics background of ultrasound as well as the mechanisms of interaction that occur in biological tissues. The paper shall also give regard to the applications of ultrasound in medicine and biology before concluding. The paper shall attempt to highlight the productivity that ultrasound provides and shall evaluate the positive and negative characteristics of the implementation of ultrasound on patients.
Physics behind Ultrasound
It is important to note that sound waves brought into use in modern day ultrasound applications are based on highly complex acoustic structures and that this complexity of structure is further increased when the sound waves are propagated to pass through complex tissue structures. In terms of their physics, the spatial resolution of the ultrasound acoustic waves is maintained at a length that spans less than a singular millimetre. The velocity may lie anywhere between 1450m/s to 1600m/s and the wavelength may be present in anywhere between 0.15mm to as far as 0.75mm (Hofer, 1999).
The symmetry of the sound waves transmitted is of the utmost importance in the application of ultrasound and modern day ultrasound machines bring phased arrays into use to ensure symmetry. Also, any discussion on ultrasound, its applications and its implications will be incomplete without an overview of the properties of tissues that make them responsive to ultrasound. Ultrasound images are generally formed as a result of the impedance, scattering, attenuation and absorption of sound waves. Tissues generally tend to emit a plane sound wave as a result of absorption and scattering phenomena.
The process that constitutes the creation, intensification and implosion of cavity bubbles is perhaps the central element because of which biological implications take place as a result of the application of ultrasound. The imploded collapse of the cavity and the high temperature developed causes radical heating and cooling rates to take place. Energy interacts with matter in a unique form in the application of ultrasound and the resulting ultrasonic irradiation is one that causes the generation of a scenario so complex that the resulting consequences incorporate the development of sonochemistry (Duck, Baker, & Starritt, 1998).
It is imperative to note at this point that this process of heating and cooling occurs at extremely fast speeds and the conditions created in the implosion of cavities are nothing less than extraordinary when considered along with the fact that the surrounding conditions are relatively cold.
Not only is ultrasound being brought into use in the administration of drugs, therapy and treatment to patients but is also being brought into use in the development of biomaterials. Ultrasound technology is being brought into use to develop non-aqueous micro-capsules that are fundamentally liquid-filled and are small enough to successfully be administered in the circulatory system. Once administered, these micro-capsules assist in the performance of sonography in the process of drug-delivering.
Mechanisms of interaction with biological tissue and resulting bio-effects
Ultrasound, when subjected to an individual, generally constitutes compression and expansion cycles that continue to deliver a positive/negative expression in alternating combination. As a result, the molecules on which the waves exert a force with attempts to pull the molecules apart and then push them together (Aljarboua, 2008). Therefore, the negative cycle of each pulse introduces a cavity into the molecules. Since the human body fundamentally constitutes pure liquids, the tensile strengths are generally quite high and they attempt to exert a force for the prevention of the creation of cavities.
However, the gases trapped within the body tissues serve to bring about a decrease in the tensile strength and allow the ultrasound waves to create gaps and conjunctions during their subjection. As a result, the gases are eventually channelled out of their pockets and the molecule eventually reaches a size that is no other than critical (Aljarboua, 2008). At a time like this, the subjection of ultrasound in high intensity or the continuous subjection of a low-intensity ultrasound can cause the weakened molecule to implode.
As the process continues, the absorption capacity of the cavity created by the release of the gases begins to rise until it reaches a critical state, shortly after which it implodes. This implosion causes a number of unusual chemical reactions to take place within the proximity of the imploded cavity (Aljarboua, 2008). An exceptionally high temperature can be created as a result of the implosion and the pressure may increase just as extensively during the implosion. Fluid is generally sent at high speeds causing small particles to be propelled at just as high and exceptional speeds.
A common implication as a result of this activity is that changes in cell suspension are observed (Aljarboua, 2008). Research has indicated that a relationship exists between the implosion of cavities as a result of ultrasound and the suspended fluid of the cell in which the implosion took place. The heat produced is usually dissipated in the body’s regular circulation system and can even be brought into productive and therapeutic uses if it is controlled.
It is of the utmost importance to highlight at this point that in functions such as lithotripsy and the like, the application of ultrasound becomes a highly sensitive matter and is applied concerning the degree of sustenance of the patient. In cases where anaesthesia is not an available option because of any reason, the patient cannot be subjected to a high degree of a pulse. If the patient is subjected to a degree of a pulse of the ultrasound waves that is more than the patient’s actual degree of bearing, there may be implications such as the detection of blood in the urine or the sensation of a hard blow being delivered to the region where the intensity of the ultrasound was over-applied.
The effects of ultrasound can be broadly classified to fall into two categories. the primary effects of ultrasound are those that include cavitation, sound pressure and absorption. Small bubbles may form as a result of the ultrasound in the event of the termination of the cohesion forces between intermolecular forces (Kellermayer, 2009). The sound pressure may cause the subjection of directed pressure on the object being subjected to the pressure in a manner such that the pressure experienced by the object is in direct proportionality to the intensity of the ultrasound. A third primary implication that may take place as a result of ultrasound application is absorption in which an increase in temperature is caused as a result of the absorption of energy on the part of the molecule. The rate of absorption in this case relies on the distance travelled and frequency.
The secondary effects are relatively complex and incorporate mechanical, chemical and biological implications. The cleansing and dispersing effect may be observed if the particles begin to resonate exceedingly. If the cleansing effect does not take place, a dispersing effect may occur. The chemical implications of the application of ultrasound include the incidence of reactions such as condensation of iodine or oxidation. The biological implications include more diverse effects such as the development of scenarios incorporating fungicidal, bactericidal and other complex effects.
Applications of Ultrasound in Medicine & Biology
Ultrasound technology is brought into a wide array of uses in medical science and treatment. Abdominal ultrasound is commonly used to detect abdominal irregularities as well as pelvic abnormalities, vaginal ultrasound, pelvic abnormalities and rectal ultrasound.
Equally commonly exercised applications of ultrasound include the use of high-energy pulses of ultrasound to break down gall bladder stones and kidney stones to a size where they can easily pass through the human body during urination. This process is commonly referred to as lithotripsy which is a method that has been in use since the early 1980s (Andreassi, 2004). Using this method, the stone present in the gall bladder or the kidney is subject to ultrasonic pulses at a rate that may reach 120 pulses to the minute in certain cases. The stone is subjected to these pulses until it is reduced to nothing more than a powder form.
Magnetic Resonance Guided Focused Ultrasound is yet another biological application of ultrasound in which it is brought into use with Magnetic Resonance Imaging. The process incorporates the use of ultrasound constituting an extensively high frequency and is used to treat benign tumours. A similar use is in the delivery of chemotherapy to cancer cells in the brain. Acoustic Targeted Drug Delivery is perhaps one of the most incredible uses of ultrasound where ultrasound is brought into use in its high-frequency form to purposely excite the matrix of the tissue in an attempt to increase its level of permeability to drug treatment.
The blood brain barrier is also regulated in certain cases to increase the efficiency of drug delivery. Bone growth is also stimulated by making use of exceptionally low-intensity ultrasound waves. This treatment gives ultrasound a position of drug administration assistance. Other forms of surgery in which ultrasound can assist include liposuction and lipectomy as well as in acoustophoresis which employs low range ultrasound in an attempt to carry out separation and manipulation activities on biological cells and micro-particles.
It can be understood therefore that ultrasound has taken on the role of a position of a biological instrument where it is now used not only as a form of surgery but is also as a supplementing passive role in the administration of drugs.
“Ultrasound has been a late starter in its application to medicine. Even during the period of vigorous growth in applying physics to medical problems which Val Mayneord and his contemporaries experienced following the war, ultrasound still had a somewhat secondary place to the innovations in nuclear medicine, diagnostic radiology and radiotherapy” (Duck, Baker, & Starritt, 1998).
Robotics has now been combined with modern day ultrasound technology to make ultrasound all the more effective and efficient. An ultrasound probe is affixed at the end of a robotic arm which is controlled by a computer operator. The operator manoeuvres the arm to position the probe directly above the patient’s body at any point or location he wishes. The computer continues to take input from the ultrasound imagery which is communicated to the operator who makes decisions regarding the intensity of the ultrasound sound waves and the area to subject to ultrasound imagery.
There are two forms of application through which modern day ultrasound is used. The first is the Doppler ultrasound through which the Doppler Effect is made use. The fundamental working behind the ultrasound as per the Doppler effect is through the understanding that when an object in motion reflects ultrasound, the echo frequency undergoes a change and eventually becomes higher if the object under observation is in movement that is directed towards the receiver (Radiological Society of North America, Inc., 2009). However, the response takes on an inverse property if the object under observation is moving in a direction that is opposite to that of the receiver.
By monitoring the changes in the echo frequency, a clear understanding of the speed of the object can be acquired. The Doppler Effect allows the monitoring of activity inside the human body (Radiological Society of North America, Inc., 2009). Common applications of ultrasound on the principles of the Doppler Effect include those such as the examination of blood speed in the human heart. Different colours can be brought into use to depict different speeds of blood flow. This allows the identification of cardiac diseases.
Another form of ultrasound application brought into use is 3D Ultrasound Imaging. 3D Ultrasound Imaging by combining standard 2D ultrasound technology with advanced computer innovation. The examiner in this case takes consecutive 2D images of the subject which are compiled in the computer in a form such that a computer-generated 3D image is created. This particular technology allows medical practitioners to acquire detailed pictures of the insides of the human body (Radiological Society of North America, Inc., 2009). Cysts and other similar defects come forth clearly in 3D imaging and continuous application of this 3D imaging technology allows the observation of the steady development of internal growths.
The ultrasound technique in itself is noninvasive and is, therefore, one that is generally considered to be quite painless by patients. Considering its ease of use, it comes as no surprise that it has become a less expensive form of diagnostic imaging methods as compared to others such as MRIs and X-Rays. No ionizing radiations are brought into use and the fact that the sound waves are highly sensitive to tissues allows a clear picture of the tissue to be developed. The imaging in the case of Ultrasound in this regard may exceed the result that would have been acquired through an X-Ray in the same circumstance (Kellermayer, 2009).
To date, there have been no negative implications reported for diagnostic ultrasound and it is therefore repeated frequently to acquire an understanding of the development of the patient’s internal condition. Monitoring of the fetus is perhaps the most common use in which ultrasound technology is brought about in this regard. Combined with computer innovation, modern day ultrasound implementation now allows real-time imaging to be carried out. This attribute is not merely used for diagnostic purposes but is also supplemented in its use with needle aspiration and needle biopsies.
Research performed in early 2006 indicated that even though ultrasound is a highly effective and frequently used technique of monitoring the internal dimensions of the human body through imaging, it may still be far more premature than modern day healthcare practices give them credit to be. The research addressed the vast body of literature that has as yet been able to ascertain the authenticity of the neutrality of the implications of ultrasound (Bello, 2006).
According to the research, in almost all the research that has been carried out to validate this hypothesis, there has been a significant degree of reliance placed on the theories relating to the functionality and development of human organs. This comes forth as a highly significant limitation since the in-utero time frames of the tastes are kept significantly small. The research suggested that the performance of these tests should span periods being measured in days if they are to be effectively conducted.
Conclusion
The research carried out in the above paragraphs was one that was aimed at the development of a comprehensive understanding of ultrasound technology, its application in treatment and therapy and its credibility in light of its implications on the human tissue. It was observed that the uses of ultrasound have become extensively diverse and that it is being brought into use in medical facilities around the world. What began as a means of imagining and acquiring a picture of the internal functioning of the body has now become the basis of a highly sophisticated method of carrying out therapy and treatment.
Ultrasound comes forth as a form of therapy that can be subjected to generalized therapy and surgical procedures. Even though there is a body of literature that indicates that the application of ultrasound may be having adverse implications on the subjects, it was observed that no concrete statement has been reached by medical science upon the implications of ultrasound as yet. Ultrasound technology is not merely brought into use for diagnosis but has evolved to a point where it is now a rapidly implemented form of treatment. Lithotripsy comes forth as an undeniably significant alternative to traditional surgery based solutions.
This mere fact places ultrasound technology in a position where even the most modern surgical practices cannot replace ultrasound technology; at least until an alternate can be found. The research identified that patients consider lithotripsy as a preferred mode of treatment as compared to standard surgery.
Ultrasound does not in any manner incorporate the use of hazardous radiations and is comparatively safer than alternate imaging techniques such as X-Ray and the like. In this regard, there remains no doubt in the fact that ultrasound is a highly effective technology that cannot be replaced with any other form of the present technology.
Nevertheless, one cannot deny the fact that the nature of the reaction that occurs in the administration of ultrasound on an individual is centrally destructive if not regulated appropriately. This serves to put ultrasound technology in a position where it still requires research and development to ascertain that there is no possibility that the application of ultrasound technology can have any unintended adverse implications. Ultrasound technology is highly intensive in cases where destructive functions are being derived from its application and when one considers the biological reactions that occur every time ultrasound is carried out for stone disintegration, one cannot help but feel that the slightest misdirection or maladjustment of the ultrasound waves can cause harm to the patient.
It is however recommended as a conclusive statement for this paper that research and development be carried out on ultrasound technology with the consistency that it is being currently subjected to since it comes forth as an ideal instrument for monitoring the growth and development of the fetus in pregnant woman and is perhaps the safest method of performing this monitoring to date. In this regard, ultrasound remains an undeniably significant technique. However, in light of the discussion and the paradox that currently exists concerning the benefits and risks of ultrasound, it would be justified to bring the discussion to a close with the understanding that no harmful implications have been detected as yet for diagnostic ultrasound.
“Even though we do not have a detailed understanding of the mechanism of sound absorption, tissue impedances are known which can be used to predict heat production and to estimate the reflection and transmission of sound at macroscopic tissue interfaces” (Duck, Baker, & Starritt, 1998).
References List
Andreassi, M. G. (2004). The Biological Effects Of Diagnostic Cardiac Imaging On Chronically Exposed Physicians: The Importance Of Being Non-Ionizing. Cardiovascular Ultrasound , 2 (25), 1476-7120-2-25.
Bello, S. O. (2006). How we may be missing some harmful effects of ultrasound – A hypothesis. Medical Hypothesis, 765-767.
Duck, F. A., Baker, A. C., & Starritt, H. C. (1998). Ultrasound in Medicine. New York: CRC Press.
Hofer, M. (1999). Ultrasound Teaching Manual: The Basics Of Performing And Interpreting Ultrasounds Scans. New York: Thieme.
Kellermayer, M. S. (2009). Effects and Medical Applications of Ultrasound. University of Pecs – Faculty of Medicine – Department of Biophysics, 1-4.
Radiological Society of North America, Inc. (2009). General Ultrasound Imaging. Web.
The XPD helicase plays a significant role in the process of nucleotide repair (NER). The process of DNA unwinding enables the separation of DNA into single strands for easy copying and replication. Point mutations in the XPD helicase cause the Cockayne Syndrome (CS). The main signs of CS include premature aging and short stature. The mapping of mutations occurs in domains that adversely affect the integrity of the TFIIH complex. Other features evident in CS patients include poor weight gain and growth, an abnormally small head, and an impaired nervous system. The successful repair of damaged DNA depends on the correctness of the instructions from the CBS and CSA genes. The failure to repair damaged DNA in CS patients leads to increased DNA abnormalities and the malfunctioning and death of cells, which causes different CS features.
XPD is one of the main subunits of the TFIIH complex, which engages in transcriptional activities and repair functions. The repair functions of the TFIIH complex help to reverse various DNA damages (Ahmad, 2008). A mutation in the XPD helicase hampers the ability of the TFIIH complex to execute its functions because of the increase in the rigidity of the protein. The phenomenon impairs the ability of the TFIIH complex to perform repair and transcription functions. XPD mutations lead to a phenomenon called lock in the repair mode, which makes the helicase cut DNA segments that serve the transcription process. The decline in the rate of interaction between proteins and identification of areas of damaged DNA increases the accumulation of damaged cells. The damage to DNA inactive genes prevents the enzymes involved in gene transcription from performing their functions. The decline in the TFIIH complex transcriptional activity arises due to the alteration of the interaction between the XPD-CAD complex and the TFIIH and changes in the TFIIH stoichiometric composition. Evidence shows that the defects in the XPD helicase interfere with the structure and flexibility of the protein leading to Cockayne syndrome (Spies, 2013).
The description of Xeroderma pigmentosum in 1874 introduced the first abnormality associated with XPB/D mutations. The discovery that all the gene mutations in trichothiodystrophy (TTD)had a relationship with the TFIIH complex paved the way for the identification of the relationship between DNA repair and transcription and the genotype-phenotype relationships attributed to XPB and XPD defects. The discovery led to the conclusion that mutations in the human helicase contribute to diverse genetic disorders that exhibit through chromosomal instability, which initiates age-related diseases and cancer. Genetic engineering can significantly enhance the study of the effects of XPD mutations on the functions of the TFIIH complex by allowing researchers to circumvent the XPD defects by overriding the lock-in repair mode to open the promoter. Researchers can develop cell lines supplemented with fetal bovine serum and appropriate antibiotics to study the functioning of the DNA damaged by UV. Genetic engineering is essential in the isolation of genomic DNA from cells exposed to radiation and control cells. Controlled growth of cells would allow the creation of different helicase domains and the cloning of mutant genes to allow the study of the manifestation of the Cockayne syndrome in different environments. Genetic engineering allows the incubation of DNA and incorporation of elements such as geneticin to create a collection of cells that can resist alterations evident in the gene transcription process.
References
Ahmad, S. (2008). Molecular mechanisms of xeroderma pigmentosum. New York, N.Y.: Springer Science.
Spies, M. (2013). DNA helicases and DNA motor proteins. New York: Springer Science.
Data collection and analysis help identify a problem and locate possible solutions for it. Therefore, choosing an approach that suits the issue is essential for resolving organizational problems. Data collection is especially crucial for healthcare establishments because it allows creating evidence-based approaches to managing organizations, patients, and employees. This paper aims to present a brief explanation of the issue, explain data collection methods, and provide an understanding of feedback collection.
Main body
The organizational problem is an insufficient corporate culture due to improper leadership that adversely affects staff members and patients. Vaughn et al. (2019) characterize the issue in the following manner – “limited ownership, not collaborative, hierarchical, with disconnected leadership” (p. 74). According to the authors, a significant number of healthcare establishments suffer from these factors because they share similar characteristics. However, Lardeiri (2017) argues that data assessments can help healthcare consultants enable changes. The following parts discuss the methods and approaches that will be used to carry out the process.
The primary method to collect data for this analysis is conducting interviews. The nature of the approach that implies an ability to obtain answers from a small group of responders is the reasoning for choosing this method. According to Flick (2018),
an unstructured interview would allow using responses from previous responders to design further questions. In this way, it is possible to identify core issues that contribute to improper organizational culture because individuals will be able to explain their rationale for particular answers. The data collection should be administered via email to minimize the effect of the interviewer’s presence that can impact the responses.
The sample for this research would consist of personnel members of the organization – physicians, nurses, and administrative personnel. The executives would be excluded to avoid bias and its negative impact on the results. The age range of the sample will vary together with other characteristics. Selecting employees that worked in the establishment for over five years can present a more cohesive understanding of the issue.
Identifying which content should be included in the interview is crucial as it determines the outcomes. Due to the fact that the chosen method is an unstructured interview, the questions would be altered after receiving the first answers.
Thus, the sample should be divided into two and the second group of responders should provide more insight into the issues that the first group mentions. The article by Vaughn et al. (2019) provides a valuable understanding of leadership issues that healthcare organizations experience, which can be used as a guide for data collection. Giving feedback on results is necessary to present the initial understanding of the outcomes. It can be done in the form of an email to responders after the answers are analyzed. Examples of the questions for the interviews are as follows:
Do you think that the current leadership has enough connection with the employees?
Do you think that the executives provide support to staff members?
Do you think that the current practices support collaboration between personnel? Why?
In your opinion, do team leaders dedicate enough time to examine problems that staff members encounter?
Is the current hierarchy of the organization provide easy access to the executives and managers?
Conclusion
Overall, the data collection problem can help resolve organizational issues by providing a better understanding of the topic. In this case, interviews were chosen to determine the level of satisfaction with the establishment’s leadership and possible solutions. Unstructured interviews should be applied to collect comprehensive responses from two groups of staff members. This approach will help locate the core aspects of the problem and understand the opinions of employees.
References
Flick, U. (Ed.). (2018). The SAGE handbook of qualitative data collection. London, United Kingdom: SAGE.
Data gathering and analysis play a vital role in the accumulation of knowledge on healthcare. Medical studies are commonly based on numerical information, as it provides the foundation for key factors which are needed to be researched, such as prevalence and incidence rates, the effectiveness of interventions, and countless other aspects (Bruce et al., 2018). Health information is being actively collected for research purposes, as its practical application defines future breakthroughs. For example, mortality statistics can reveal critical underlying factors that cause variations in outcomes, such as the difference in lung cancer outcomes between the United Kingdom and Australia (Bruce et al., 2018). Comparing such data enables healthcare workers to determine a way through which this parameter can be influenced for the betterment of public health.
Quantitative research continues to prove its usefulness in disease studies throughout humanity’s history. Statistics can highlight the dangerous conditions that lead to poor outcomes and help scientists across different fields of specialization to cooperate in creating a feasible solution (Bruce et al., 2018). When a phenomenon reveals itself to healthcare professionals, they can utilize quantitative research to rationalize the ongoing event with precise calculations. For example, the connection between air pollution and the U.K. population’s health prompted the government to establish the National Air Quality Strategy based on statistical evidence (Bruce et al., 2018). Interpreting data is the key component of numerous improvements that have been implemented in society through such a mode of study. By using modern technology in the development of new solutions, humankind can progress in the field of medicine. In conclusion, statistics enable healthcare professionals to conduct qualitative research that establishes various connections between factors affecting one’s health and the outcomes stemming from them.
Reference
Bruce, N., Pope, D., & Stanistreet, D. (2018). Quantitative methods for health research: A practical interactive guide to epidemiology and statistics (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
