The gray box testing is the most appropriate method for testing the software system to be used in a healthcare context. The method combines both the white box and black box testing approaches. While the box method tests the internal structure of the software code, the black box approach tests the external structures. However, the gray box technique tests both internal working applications and external aspects of the system (Krawczyk, Barylski, & Barylski, 2013). It also tests the Web Services applications that are essential in the modern technology realm where cloud computing plays a key role. The end-user and the tester, as well as the software developer, can perform the testing process (Liu & Chen, 2009).
Supposing the system uses a Drupal website with several links, the tester or end-user can make any correction made when clicking the links accidentally. The changes can be made in the HTML code because the tester reveals the internal structure of the code. In such cases, the user can change the code and test it on the front end (Lewis, Dobbs, Veerapillai, & Chen, 2011). These approaches are applied respectively and differently in the white box and black-box tests. The main advantage of using gray box testing is that it provides combined techniques of the white box and black-box methods. It depends on the definition of the interface as well as the functional specification rather than the software’s source code (Krawczyk et al., 2013).
Grey box testing provides an excellent testing approach in a communication protocol and data handling, which are essential in healthcare data management. The method has high capacity and greater performance because of the limited omission of errors (Liu & Chen, 2009). It is good because it performs software testing for the designer’s point of view and the user’s viewpoint. On the other hand, testing is done through this method based on the database diagrams and data flow (Lewis et al., 2011).
One of the rationales of choosing a person responsible for testing is expertise. The user must have profound knowledge in software development and usage. In this sense, such an individual will be able to detect errors that occurred during the coding and design of the software (Liu & Chen, 2009). As a result, an excellent testing outcome will be achieved. Another rationale is knowledge of the coding program. It is important to note that software development applies various programming languages that must be understood effectively in order to create a perfect software system (Glad, Buffet, Simonin, & Charpillet, 2009). The person assigned the role of testing must have a broader knowledge of modern programming languages to be able to correct wrong codes using the gray box tester.
It is important to note that testing only recognizes quarter to half of the possible defects in software. Although other verification approaches such as inspections are effective, it becomes difficult to have a software system that is free from defects. Inaccurate testing enhances the presence of a few defects that might seem negligible. However, the presence of defects can result in the vulnerability of the software to external attacks, which is dangerous in the healthcare sector (Lewis et al., 2011).
To deal with the above pitfalls, the users can adhere to several pieces of information about the testing method. The tester should not assume that the system is working by verifying it. The behavior of the system should be tested to determine the level of performance and possible defects. It is important to determine the potential causes of defects and how to avoid them in the software system (Glad et al., 2009). The testing plan must have an explicit statement of the primary objective of the testing, which is to find defects instead of showing that it does not have defects.
References
Glad, A., Buffet, O., Simonin, O., & Charpillet, F. (2009). Self-Organization of patrolling ant Algorithms. 2009 Third IEEE International Conference on Self-Adaptive and Self-Organizing Systems, 4(1), 67-84.
Krawczyk, H., Barylski, M., & Barylski, A. (2013). On software unit testing for improving security and performance of distributed applications. KEM Key Engineering Materials, 597(1), 131-136.
Lewis, W. E., Dobbs, D., Veerapillai, G., & Chen, S. (2011). Ruan jian ce shi yu chi xu zhi liang gai jin- Software testing and continuous quality improvement. Beijing, China: Ren min you dian chu ban she.
Liu, H., & Chen, T. Y. (2009). An innovative approach to randomising quasi-random sequences and its application into software testing. 2009 Ninth International Conference on Quality Software, 2(1), 54-73.
Overall, any policy is aimed at defining why certain things should be done. Therefore, the key seven characteristics of a decent policy are the endorsement, relevance, realism, attainability, adaptability, enforcement, and inclusiveness (Murphy 29). Consequently, if the policy is endorsed, it means that the administration fully supports it; if the policy is relevant, it means that the policy can be applied at an organizational level; if the policy is realistic, it means that the policy is reasonable; if the policy is attainable, it means that the management of the organization approves the implementation of the policy; if the policy is adaptable, it means that it is able to adjust to the external and internal modifications; if the policy is enforceable, it means that everything about the policy is legal; and if the policy is inclusive, it means that its core objective relates to all the contributing parties (Koontz 84). An example of a realistic policy may be the requirement to have passwords on all the computers in the organization so as to minimize the possibility of a breach or data theft.
Singular and Consolidated Policy
There are several advantages that are characteristic of a singular and consolidated information security policy. First, they provide a definite assignment for the designated department of the organization (Herzig et al. 101). Second, these policies are designed by the experts in the field who possess specific knowledge in information systems. Regardless, there are several important disadvantages. Ultimately, this policy type is considered to be a balanced version between the individual and comprehensive policies. Similarly, there are some disadvantages that are typical for a singular and consolidated information security policy. These include the complications that may transpire throughout the management process and high costs of the implementation (Johnson 66). It is necessary to include procedures, baselines, standards, and guidelines in this policy document because the employees should be aware of the essential postulates of the policy and understand the principles embodied in this fundamental document.
PLAIN Language
The organization should store at least 24 of the last user’s passwords. You should change the password at least one time in 40 days. The minimum length for a password is 7 characters. The password should be in line with complexity requirements. The system will not use reversible encryption to store the password.
Understanding CIA
Confidentiality is a synonym for privacy. Its major goal is to protect sensitive information and restrict the access to the data so that only the right persons would have access to the data (Gamon and Wolfe 52). An example from healthcare may be the issue of storing the data concerning mental health treatment. This data should be carefully protected so that no one could access it if they do not have the authority to do so (Riskin et al. 137).
The term integrity relates to the trustworthiness of the data. This information cannot be changed during a transaction or accessed by unauthorized individuals. Data integrity also relates to version control and file permissions (Gamon and Wolfe 52). A banking transaction may be considered a perfect example of a situation when the loss of integrity may harm the parties involved in the event (cancellation of the results of the transaction, monetary losses, transfer of incorrect data).
Availability mostly relates to the hardware and its correct maintenance. This should be done in order to eliminate all the possible software-hardware conflicts and minimize the possibility of failovers (Gamon and Wolfe 53). An example of the situation when availability is more important than the other two aspects (integrity and confidentiality) is an important update at the website of a major company. The update will drive traffic to the website, and the IT department will have to ensure that the downtime is minimal and every user is able to access the desired information.
Works Cited
Gamon, Joel, and Kayla Wolfe. IT Policy and Ethics: Concepts, Methodologies, Tools, and Applications. Information Science Reference, 2013.
Herzig, Terrell, et al. Implementing Information Security in Healthcare: Building a Security Program. HIMSS, 2013.
Johnson, Rob. Security Policies and Implementation Issues. Jones & Bartlett Learning, 2015.
Koontz, Linda. Information Privacy in the Evolving Healthcare Environment. CRC Press, 2016.
Murphy, Sean. Healthcare Information Security and Privacy. McGraw-Hill, 2015.
Riskin, L., et al. “Re-Examining health IT policy: what will it take to derive value from our investment?” Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association, vol. 3, no. 14, 2014, pp. 132–140.
Technologies in the healthcare sector provide distinct benefits like
instant access to patient health data,
clinical decision support at the point of care,
transmission and receipt of lab requests and results,
information aimed at avoiding medication errors and
physician-performance measurement, in addition to improvements in the quality of patient care (Tooker, 2005).
The application of technology in the healthcare information filed also provides significant financial benefits to the organization.
In the up to date technology for healthcare information exchange, wireless communication technology can be used by the healthcare organization chosen. Wireless technology provides inexpensive wireless based laptops, portables and CD-ROM based problem resolution and diagnostic technology. These mobile computing devices improve service productivity, efficiency and profitability of the organization.
By using wireless technology, the organization will be able to allow transmission of 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG) waveforms from remote locations to the handheld computers of cardiologists. There seems to be no significant differences in the interpretation of results using the Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) of the handheld computers. The results are the same as that given by the traditional paper based results except that when analyzed through the computer there is less treatment time involved (Igbokwe).
Wireless cardiotocography is another technological measure that can be used by the organization. This system uses the RF telemetry to monitor the conditions of the fetus during labor. The system has also the potential of being used for other multi-patient monitoring applications.
Wireless technology can also be used at the basic level to by using radio or infrared signals instead of physical connections to connect different components through a wireless network. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) is the application, which is used to cover a smaller area within the hospital. This functions more like a wire LAN. The use of Wireless LANs are enhanced when coupled with multimedia capabilities like CD-ROM drives and MEPG decoders. These are able to support the functions of major portable devices within a healthcare organization.
The organization can also use a wireless reporting system using a wireless LAN. The system comprises of a DICOM (Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine) that works based on picture archiving and communication system and a diagnostic sever. The system also uses portable laptops which comes handy to the radiologists, physicians and technologists to review the current radiology reports and images. This will also help them to compare the reports and images instantly with the reports and images from the previous examinations of the patients.
This system has the capability to provide same functionality as that of a wired system. However there is lesser cabling infrastructure needs. This system can be made use of in the emergency and radiology departments of the hospital. In future, this can be extended to operating rooms, outpatient departments, hospital wards and intensive care units.
Bluetooth technology that supports voice and data transmission is another technological innovation that enhances the communication facilities. Blue tooth uses short-range ratio networks for personal networking. Originally, the Bluetooth concept was developed to meet the universal wireless connection needs for laptops to cellular phones. However, this technology has found many uses in the healthcare industry also to promote communications and quality of patient care. Bluetooth enabled laptop helps in data mining of research studies and the findings can improve the quality of patients care.
References
Igbokwe, O. (n.d.). Wireless Technology and Healthcare. Web.
Tooker, J. (2005). Health Information Technology: Improving Quality and Value of Patient Care. Web.
This essay focuses on breach of data confidentiality as a potential source of problems in healthcare institutions. Ensuring data confidentiality in healthcare institutions is a form of creating accountability in care organizations (American College of Healthcare Executives, 2012). The paper looks at causes, consequences, and recommendations on effective management of data.
Data confidentiality
Poor handling of patients’ confidential data can cause serious problems in healthcare institutions. Therefore, preventing unauthorized access to and improper use of such data are mandatory parts of effective data governance in healthcare institutions.
The goal of information confidentiality is to eliminate data security threats such as data loss and unauthorized access to, inappropriate use, and distribution of such data. This is a potential source of reputation and data privacy challenges in healthcare institutions.
Causes and Prevention
Healthcare institutions experience data confidentiality breach from unauthorized access, manipulation, usage, and distribution. Therefore, healthcare institutions must make sure that data are confidential by providing data security solutions that safeguard, restrict, and prevent unauthorized access to patients’ information.
In addition, healthcare should stop any authorized access or use of such information using its internal structures for restrictions. Therefore, in order to ensure information confidentiality in healthcare institutions, there should be several measures to prevent confidentiality breach.
First, healthcare institutions should use controlled access systems. This aims at preventing access to information by providing various access levels and authorization. Healthcare institutions should ensure that employees only get access to information relevant to their job categories. Second, healthcare institutions should have restrictions on gaining access to areas and systems with medical records of patients. Third, healthcare institutions should have identification and authentication procedures for their employees.
This approach ensures that only people authorized to get access to data do so. It should also implement real-time identity procedures to ensure that only employees with authorization can get access to patients’ information. Fourth, healthcare institutions should have systems that conceal patient’s identity as a way of controlling access to patients’ information. Thus, people can gain access to and use such information without compromising their confidentiality (American Medical Association , 2012).
Importance of ensuring data confidentiality
There are serious ethical and legal consequences of breaching data confidentiality. As a result, ethics and laws about information confidentiality have evolved to protect both patients and institutions. However, healthcare institutions face constant threats from computerized systems as they have changed how people gain access to and use confidential information.
Given difficulties with information governance in healthcare institutions, healthcare institutions and their employees should ensure utmost protection of patient confidentiality. Employees in healthcare institutions must ensure that confidential data remain protected always. Therefore, it is the duty of caregivers to let patients know the limits of confidentiality. Thus, patients must make informed decisions about protecting their sensitive information by avoiding disclosure and choice for treatment.
Patients also expect their caregivers and physicians to respect their privacy. In other words, caregivers and physicians can only release sensitive medical records with informed consents of patients.
It is only important for physicians and caregivers to know laws that involve effective protection of confidentiality, and should not ignore any form of confidentiality breach. This is because even minor cases of confidentiality breach result to mistrust, potential lawsuits together with disciplinary action or dismissal from the job (American Medical Association, 2012).
Recommendations for information confidentiality in healthcare institutions
Healthcare institutions face many challenges due to confidentiality of information shared across many sections. Human problems and management practices are serious threatens to information confidentiality in healthcare facilities. Therefore, effective information confidentiality and governance should involve the following.
Healthcare institutions must educate both their staff and patients about the importance of maintaining information confidentiality. This ensures that people who handle such confidential data understand possible consequences of confidentiality breach.
Healthcare institutions must also create systems that guard against any form of breach in confidentiality. This implies that policies and access controls should focus on regulatory and legal benchmarks. This prevents threats to information confidentiality.
If information governance procedures and access controls will have desirable impacts on healthcare provisions and management activities, then employees will adopt desirable practices when handling data. This improves quality of healthcare and satisfaction of patients.
Different units should also align their procedures and information controls with those of the institution. This eliminates cases of unauthorized access to information. This requires all departments to collaborate and create aligned systems of gaining access to information.
Healthcare facilities must also develop and implement procedures for reporting any case of breach in confidentiality of information. All parties know severe consequences of information misuse and loss, such as financial, trust, reputation and regulatory.
Further, healthcare institutions must also avoid corresponding fines, lawsuits, loss of patients’ confidence, and misuse of information by adopting effective information governance. Therefore, any healthcare institution can reduce cases and impacts of breaches in data confidentiality by implementing appropriate methods of managing and reporting cases of confidentiality breaches.
In case of any confidentiality breach, healthcare institutions should have appropriate response mechanisms to confidentiality breach and propose alternative measures to reduce impacts of such cases.
Ensure accurate understanding of cyber-security to small businesses offering healthcare services.
Background
Technology innovation has improved medical procedures resulting in quality healthcare services. Medical practitioners have advanced their practical knowledge by sharing information through digital platforms. Businesses aiming to provide healthcare services will require internet technology in complex information systems. Ideally, ensuring absolute protection of details related to different stakeholders will determine operational efficiency. The privacy of patient’s details will be critical in guaranteeing sustained medical services (Le et al., 2019). As a result, small healthcare firms will require cyber-security frameworks to keep unauthorized individuals out of the systems. Divinity IT aims at reducing cyber threats executed as ransomware attacks. This type of malicious software blocks online users from accessing a computer system until a ransom is paid. It is objective that small businesses providing healthcare services consider cyber-security measures against online attacks. Privacy protection of patients’ details will be fundamental for medical institutions operating as small businesses.
Problem Statement
Online users of different internet services complain of malicious attacks and threats from unknown individuals. It is common to find individuals lured into crimes through digital technologies. Similarly, clients accessing essential services online also experience cyber-threats when making online transactions. Ransomware attacks are also popular among internet users who transact using digital services. Small-scale healthcare businesses will need protection from cyber-attacks aimed at patients’ financial extortion (Petrenko, 2018). The challenge of innovation in healthcare includes keeping private details confidential. The professionalism of medical practitioners is measured through the protection of personal information. Nonetheless, Divinity IT recommends the best innovation against cyber-threats to steal financial assets from patients using ransomware.
Solution (W/Goals)
Cyber-security frameworks against computer malware ensure the safety and protection of stakeholders of an information system. Divinity IT recognizes the importance of social ethics in preventing malicious attempts on personal details for patients. Morals will be socially applicable to individuals visiting protected areas such as server and camera rooms. Small-based businesses providing healthcare services will also need a modern firewall developed against ransomware threats (Le et al., 2019). The application detects and deters hackers from accessing confidential details of patients. For instance, antivirus software close internet gateways to computer networks and databases storing personal information among patients. Hackers aim for more information with access to social services, including identification data and biometrics. The information is then used to harm targeted victims through financial extortion. Therefore, Divinity IT advocates for cyber-security measures for assuring patients about personal data safety. Small-scale healthcare firms should consider both antivirus and anti-ransom applications against potential malware threats.
Recommendation
Objective strategies are useful for avoiding ransomware attacks against patients. Medical firms operating in the local healthcare market should consider modern anti-malware applications. The software allows online users to identify and mitigate potential cyber-attacks. As a result, Divinity IT recommends firewalls as a fundamental and proactive tactic of protecting patients (Le et al., 2019). Besides, management officials of small-scale healthcare firms should adopt strict privacy policies among practitioners. Keeping unauthorized personnel from accessing data would be strategic in reducing internal cyber-attacks such as ransomware. Hackers are informed on technology development; hence, they use sophisticated algorithms to exploit an information system’s weaknesses. Small firms providing medical services should consider integrating emerging trends in technology to overcome potential threats from hackers. Stakeholder details will be vital in establishing trust between patients and local medical institutions.
References
Le, D. N., Kumar, R., Mishra, B. K., Chatterjee, J. M., & Khari, M. (2019). Cyber security in parallel and distributed computing: Concepts, techniques, applications and case studies. John Wiley & Sons.
Petrenko, S. (2018). Cyber security innovation for the digital economy. River Publishers.
Concept and VisionThe idea were necessitated by personal experience in the search for getting medication during the COVID-19 pandemic. Buheji and Ahmed (2020) confirm that despite the devastating effects that COVID-19 has had on both the global and local economy, it has also led to the need for creations and innovations that solve the pandemic’s related problems. This can be used as a base for establishing the market opportunity for the suggested Healthcare App. One way it addresses the issue of market opportunity is by making it easier for patients to get their medication on time while still ensuring safety from the transmission of COVID-19.
One thing that makes the application more compelling is that it is being launched at a time when people are encouraged to stay at home and avoid going outside due to the pandemic. Indeed, the application will have to be protected through both trademark and copyright laws (Quesada-González & Merkoçi, 2017). There is significant competition as there are numerous pharmaceutical companies that have already launched similar applications (Koçkaya & Wertheimer, 2016). However, the Healthcare App differs from the rest and has a competitive edge as it provides the user with custom-made content based on their interaction with doctors. Thus, it is not just an app for ordering medicine but also offers to monitor of overall health and also scheduling appointments.
After graduating from UOS, I would like to go into exploring the use of technology in the international relations stage. A second career goal is the creation of an application that serves the masses by teaching matters diplomacy to anyone interested for free. In regards to my educational goal, I anticipate I will be able to do my Master’s degree a few years after working and understanding my field of interest better.
Market Analysis
The proposed application targets the pharmaceutical industry in the UAE. One of the factors that makes this market interesting is the fact that there are few similar applications in the region. A majority of the health and wellbeing applications used by residents in UAE are foreign. Indeed, several local pharmaceutical companies have apps where users can upload a prescription and get their medicine delivered to their homes. However, none offers the inclusivity that Healthcare App proposes in that it links doctors’ appointments and patient history into the user profile. Indeed, there is a need to do market research to highlight the features that the app should have depending on the needs of the target audience. Babar (2017) notes that the market is projected to grow by 80% by 2030.
Ten interviews were done to collect the primary data needed. Out of the 10 interviewees, 8 agreed that they would use the app if it were placed in the market. Interestingly, 6 said they would buy the app while 2 said they would only use the app if it was offered for free. Additionally, the interviews revealed that those who did not want the app (2 participants) felt that they could get the same service from their local and online pharmacies. The primary data suggests that the best target market to pursue are people who have long-term health conditions that require frequent medication and doctor appointments.
Market Positioning Statement
Two formulas will be used to develop the market position statement. The first formula is the “For (target customer), Who (statement of need or opportunity), The (product of service name) is a (product category), That (statement of benefit)” will be used in developing the market positioning statement highlighting the value to the customer (Sentence #1). Additionally, the second formula, “unlike…” our product…” will be used to highlight the uniqueness of the brand (Sentence #2).
Sentence #1: For people living with a terminal illness who want to avoid the hassle of queueing to get their medication, the Healthcare App is a health managing app, that allows you to get your e-prescriptions, schedule doctors’ appointments and order for your medicine to be delivered at your doorstep in a timely manner.
Sentence #2: Unlike pharmacies that have delivery options, our product does not need you to upload prescriptions as your profile is linked directly to your doctor who writes an e-prescription that is then forwarded to your local pharmacy and picked up and delivered at your doorstep.
Elevator pitch. When you are living with a terminal condition, it seems unfair to have to go to your doctor all the time to get a prescription, then go to your local pharmacy again to pick up the medication. Yes, you who has a great drug store that allows you to upload your prescription and get your medication delivered to you at home can still dread the uploading process. We make it easier for you by linking you to your doctor and to your pharmacy digitally. Healthcare App joins the dots and your doctor sends an e-prescription to your local drug store, who then pack it up and our delivery team brings it right to your doorstep. This is what convenience in healthcare looks like!
Customers and Customer Development
As mentioned, primary data shows that the primary consumer is patients with terminal illnesses residing in UAE. 9 out of the 10 participants agreed that the app would be more useful to people who needed medication regularly. These are patients who have to regularly purchase different medications they need to manage their conditions. Borrowing from primary research, the consumers will be patients living with terminal illnesses such as cancers, hypertension, Parkinson’s disease, and diabetes. As stated previously, these patients need frequent refilling of their medications. This can be done either at the hospital or at local drug stores. Indeed, such medications would also need prescriptions from the patients’ doctors. Since these are lifesaving medications, it is important to note that many of the patients will be willing to pay for a service that ensures they not only get their medication on time, but that they are also protected from COVID-19, which has a higher mortality rate for patients with such underlying conditions. According to Affinito and Mack (2016), such patients can be reached through their doctors as they have already created a rapport with them.
Competition and Positioning
The most significant competition so far is made up of individual pharmaceutical companies that allow patients to upload prescriptions and either collect or get their medications delivered to their homes. Arguably, hospitals might want to provide the same service to their patients in the future in an attempt to also capture the competitive edge over each other. An advantage that hospitals will have is that they are more trusted by their patients. However, a disadvantage of the same would be that patients who see different doctors in different hospitals will not have a synchronized platform for managing their prescriptions and doctor’s appointments. One barrier to entry into the market is that none of the team members has prior knowledge of the pharmaceutical industry in regards to its laws and policies. Ample research has to be done to ensure that the business is both successful and impactful.
Business Model
The opportunity will be turned into business by having hospitals subscribe to the service. Therefore, hospitals that are subscribed will encourage their patients to create profiles for free and be able to get e-prescriptions and receive their refillable medications on time right at their door step. Users will also be able to upgrade their profiles by paying a certain fee. The upgrade will ensure that the users’ medical histories and doctors are all looped into the same system for easier consultation and tracking.
Learning and Adaptation
When we began the assignment, we did not anticipate to have a fully viable idea by Week 12. However, after talking with our target audience, it is now apparent that this is a viable idea with a positive growth projection. Through the process, it has become clear that the development of a project, from conception to implementation and release to the market can be affected by various things such as finances, current events, and even viability of the project after testing it with the target audience. The current prototype can be made better and marketable through a customization process where each user has a customized experience based on the health data they provide. Customization allows for the incorporation of better lifestyle options such as suggestions on nutrition and exercises that can be delivered as pop-ups within the app.
Risk and Mitigation
The risks and mitigations will be tracked and measured using three key milestones. The first milestone is the development of the app and its success will be measured through the successful launch of the same. One anticipated risk at this stage is project and cost overruns. The second milestone will be recruiting 10 hospitals and clinics to join the app in the first year. The risk can be mitigated through proper planning at the initial stages. The success of this phase will be determined by the number of institutions who come onboard during the stipulated time. One risk that can be experienced is low uptake of the app. This can be resolved by making realistic goals and doing enough research prior to developing the app. The third milestone will be breaking even after two years of operation. A reliable accounting and finance analysis will be used to measure this milestone. One anticipated risk for this milestone is not getting enough clients to allow the company to break even. This can be resolved through proper marketing of the app.
Financial Plan
The financial plan is presented below in the form of a business model canvas projects the next 2 years.
Key Partners
App developers
Doctors
Key Activities
Digital drug dispensing
Linking doctors, drug stores and patients
Delivery
Value Proposition
Reliable and free delivery of medicine to patients
Linking doctors with drug stores for e-prescriptions
Customer Relationships
Customer loyalty through quality and reliable services.
Customer Segments
Hospital owners
Doctors
Drug store owners
Pharmacists
Patients
Key Resources
App
Staff
Delivery persons
Channels
Mobile App
Digital
Cost Structure
Development of mobile application
Cost for maintenance
Marketing costs
Staffing costs
Revenue Streams
Fee paid by hospitals to be listed in the app
Fee paid by patients seeking the premium service
Summary
Through research and the collection of primary data it is clear that the creation of such an app is a good idea with significant potential for helping people and also ensuring a return on investment. Therefore, the idea should be strongly supported if only on the basis that it is beneficial to patients living with terminal illnesses.
References
Affinito, L., & Mack, J. (2016). Socialize your patient engagement strategy: How social media and mobile apps can boost health outcomes. Routledge
Babar, Z. (Ed.). (2017). Pharmaceutical policy in countries with developing healthcare systems. Springer.
Buheji, M., & Ahmed, D. (2020). Foresight of Coronavirus (COVID-19): Opportunities for a better world. American Journal of Economics, 10(2): 97-108.
Koçkaya, G., & Wertheimer, A. (2016). Pharmaceutical market access in emerging markets. SEEd.
Quesada-González, D., & Merkoçi, A. (2017). Mobile phone-based biosensing: An emerging “diagnostic and communication” technology. Biosensors and Bioelectronics, 92, 549-562.
Although the data mining method was developed primarily in commercial environments, it is widely used in various fields such as healthcare and educational systems. An example of the former is using the algorithms for analyzing high-risk groups for specific illnesses to identify and help people in need (Obermeyer Powers, Vogeli, & Mullainathan, 2019). The algorithm analyses data based on the money spent by people on health care. The latter example presents data mining in the educational system and represents the use of machine learning for student dropout prediction (Hedge & Prageeth, 2018). It can help the organization retain the students from the high-risk group from the respective academic program.
Both examples aim to improve the efficiency of whether health or educational system. However, as the latest research demonstrates, these algorithms have certain biases, such as racial bias. If “bias is recorded in data, models… can also be biased” (Hu & Rahgwala, 2020, p. 431). Thus, I would use data mining in both cases; however, before that, I would discover a way to improve the algorithms used for it.
Answer to the Classmate (Taylor)
In his discussion, Tailor addressed two cases of data mining: the example of Target, whose manager discovered a client’s pregnancy, and the TikTok suggestions of chosen “for you” items. In both cases, as Taylor says, the system had recognized the possible clients’ needs before they did so that they felt “someone is watching their every step.” Taylor stated that if he were a business owner, he would use these strategies for his success. Although I agree there is a benefit in using it, I would first consider clients’ sense of privacy. The actions based on the data mining results should not make the customers uncomfortable, as the result of it may be the opposite of what is expected.
The internet opens many possibilities for its users, from education and marketing to friendship and relationships. Primarily, I use it to communicate with my friends and family while being distant from them. It allows to maintain a connection with the people and be aware that someone needs help, as well as to inform them you are in trouble. Besides, I intensively use online resources for education, as often, the variety of books and articles available online is wider than provided in the local libraries.
I think, in the latter case, as in some others, the use of online sources would be more effective if before the knowledgeable person gives the reference. For example, if I need to find information related to some subject in my education, I would first ask my teachers for the bibliography. Easy access to a large body of information can sometimes confuse those unfamiliar with the subject in terms of data and knowledge (Bourgeouis, Mortati, Wang, & Smith, 2019). Without advice, I would spend excessive time looking the sources that may not be relevant.
Answer to the Classmate (Jen)
In the post, Jen discusses that it is important to look at reviews of services, products, etc., on specific websites or social media. This opinion is close to my point of view expressed above. I think the freedom of the internet can lead us to engage with the wrong people or get access to illegitimate products and services. Thus, in view, along with access to the world base of information, we need to nurture our consciousness about what is right and wrong. It will help us to avoid improper actions in communication, marketing, and education in any field.
References
Bourgeouis, D., Mortati, J., Wang, S., & Smith, J. (2019). Information systems for business and beyond. Pressbooks. Web.
Hedge, V., & Prageeth, P. P. (2018). Higher education student dropout prediction and analysis through educational data mining. IEEE 2018 2nd International Conference on Inventive Systems and Control (ICISC), 694–699.
Hu, Q., & Rangwala, H. (2020). Towards fair educational data mining: A case study on detecting at-risk students. In Proceedings of the 13th International conference on Educational Data Mining (EDM 2020), 431-437.
Obermeyer, Z., Powers, B., Vogeli, C., & Mullainathan, S. (2019). Dissecting racial bias in an algorithm used to manage the health of populations. Science, 366(6464), 447–453.
Were the alterations to Ashley’s body in her best interest?
When doctors decided to remove Ashley’s breast buds and uterus at 6 years of age with the approval of her parents, these alterations were not in her best interest. Instead, her parents decided to authorize the alterations to Ashley’s body based on their emotional interests. They are her parents and nobody can dispute that and as such, they would want what is best in their opinion for their daughter. For example, they would not want her secondary sexual characteristics to develop beyond their current levels on the chance that she might be raped and get pregnant. For this reason, they saw it best to have her uterus removed.
Besides, her family has a history of large breasts and they would not want that for Ashley given her current condition, which is why her breast buds were removed. Normally, such alterations cannot be carried out on a normal child but in this case, Ashley is not a normal child. Therefore, it is the responsibility of her parents to ensure that her future is practical and better and for this, we cannot blame them. However, they did not seek a second opinion on the intended alterations to their daughter’s body. According to the Washington state law under whose jurisdiction Ashley falls, it is illegal to undertake involuntary sterilization before a court of law has been approved. It is important to note that Ashley’s parents did not seek the approval of the court regarding this matter. Ashley may not be in a position to make rational choices but she has rights regardless of her condition. In this case, the court of law would have acted as a custodian of her rights and probably made a ruling that would have been in her best interest.
What is/ are the core issue/s of the situation?
Ashley was born with static encephalopathy, a rare brain condition. Although Ashley is now 9 years old, her mental age is the same as that of a 3-month-old child, owing to her condition. This means that she cannot talk, walk, change her position in bed, or even hold a toy. Doctors have said that Ashley will have a normal lifespan, although her current mental condition can never improve. With the approval of her parents, doctors at the Seattle Children’s Hospital have performed a hysterectomy a controversial procedure that involved removing Ashley’s breast buds and a hormone therapy procedure entailing estrogen treatment aimed at inhibiting growth. These hormones will hinder normal development so that even as an adult, Ashley will have the body of a child. Her parents authorized her breast buds to be removed so that her breasts may not develop normally because the family has a history of enlarged breasts. This would be a burden to those taking care of Ashley given her condition and small statute.
On the other hand, the removal of her uterus was intended to arrest the development of her secondary sexual characteristics to avoid complications associated with menstruation. It is also intended to avoid her getting pregnant in case she is raped by say, a pedophile. However, in giving their approval, Ashley’s parents put their emotional interests ahead of her best interests. They also do not seek the approval of a court of law.
Would this situation create a problem for you as a professional?
The situation would create a problem for a profession because according to the Washington state law, one should not undertake involuntary sterilization without the approval of the court. Therefore, a health care professional would be faced with problems in case they counted such a treatment because they have violated the law. Besides, human rights activists can also use these professionals on grounds that they have violated human rights by conducting such a heinous and barbaric act on the child.
Each year, major lending institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank dispense billions of dollars to developing countries in the form of concessional or non-concessional loans, grants, advice, and development assistance (Cage, 2009; Nelson, 2014). At face value, it is believed that these lending institutions are instrumental in providing the funds needed by most developing economies to considerably increase expenditure and consequently achieve noteworthy improvements in their socio-economic and political development (Cavagnero, Evans, & Carrin, 2007). However, many critics continue to highlight the adverse outcomes experienced by developing countries as a direct consequence of funding from these institutions (Alemazung, 2010). The present paper uses Uganda as an example in discussing and analyzing current issues related to lending institutions, the health care system, and human capital.
Funding and Social, Economic, and Political Development of Uganda
Before delving deeper into the discussion on how funding from international lending institutions has continued to impact the social, economic, and political development of Uganda, it is important to contextualize the debate by differentiating between concessional and non-concessional loans. According to Odedokun (2009), a concessional loan “is a subsidized credit and, by definition, has a grant element built into it and can, therefore, be conceptualized as a grant when it is being compared with a non-concessional loan” (p. 2). Although concessional loans are to a large extent geared toward triggering the social, economic and political development of developing countries by virtue of the fact that they are not influenced by market lending rates, they are nevertheless tied to binding and non-binding conditions as well as controversial economic policy interventions that have been criticized for projecting a neocolonial orientation in the developing economies. On the other hand, non-concessional loans are subject to the IMF’s or World Bank’s market-related interest rates and are therefore costly to service and hence inappropriate for many poor countries irrespective of the fact that they are not tied to aid conditionality or unreasonable economic policy interventions (Nelson, 2013).
With a per capita GDP of $1,200, life expectancy rate of 53.24 years, and a population of 34,612, 250 as per the 2011 estimates, Uganda provides a good example of a country that has continued to embrace the macroeconomic policies advocated by the World Bank and the IMF with the view to stimulating its social, economic, and political development (Barkan, 2011). The funding by the two international lending institutions has, at best, provided mixed results in the Ugandan context. In social development, for example, concessionary loans and grants provided by these institutions and other development partners have assisted Uganda to expand its education system and health care networks (Ooms & Hammonds, 2008). However, critics argue that the continued dependence of policy-based lending has been accompanied by greater involvement of international actors in formulating national education and health care policies in the country, a move that has received widespread condemnation for supporting neocolonialism in important national institutions (Barkan, 2011).
In economic development, available literature demonstrates that Uganda’s economy has continued to perform well due to two main reasons, namely (1) the substantial debt relief the country received during the early 2000s through the IMF’s and the World Bank’s Heavily Indebted Poor Countries initiative, and (2) the continuing trend of Uganda to become “a major recipient of general budget support from the IMF, the World Bank, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and the Scandinavian countries” (Barkan, 2011, p. 8). At one time, for example, the macroeconomic policies advocated by the IMF and the World Bank saw the Ugandan economy achieve annual rates of growth of between 8 and 11 percent; however, these rates have now declined to between 5 and 7 percent (Barkan, 2011). Overall, despite the promising figures, critics argue that continued lending from these institutions has served as a major disincentive for the Ugandan Revenue Authority in terms of revenue collection, not mentioning that foreign lending has continued to entrench institutional corruption and facilitate a return to the ‘big man’ rule in the country (Barkan, 2011).
In political development, loans and grants from international lending institutions have been used to develop political institutions in the country (Ooms & Hammonds, 2008), not mentioning that the macroeconomic policies advocated by the IMF and the World Bank have continued to entrench transparency and accountability in the country’s institutions (Barkan, 2011). Today, courtesy of these institutions, the democratic space in Uganda is more open, and the country’s national assembly, electoral body, and other institutions are more accountable to the people. However, critics argue that funding from these institutions has failed to turn Uganda into a democracy, as President Yoweri Museveni is an autocratic leader despite his success in establishing a measure of peace, political stability, and economic growth (Barkan, 2011).
Healthy Population
A healthy population strengthens the economies of aid recipient countries in numerous ways, giving credence to the international lending institutions’ policy-based approach to prioritize healthcare (Koenig & Atim, 2010). In the Ugandan context, a healthy population means that more money will be available for economic development as it is not diverted to health institutions and spent on sick people. Today, for example, the Ugandan government is spending a lot of money on HIV/AIDs, malaria, tuberculosis, and other infectious diseases. Second, a healthy population means that the government will not borrow more money from international lending institutions to settle recurrent health budgets. This is yet to be achieved in Uganda, as the government continues to rely heavily on international lending institutions to settle, increasing recurrent health budgets (Koenig & Atim, 2010). Third, a healthy population means that more people will have the capacity to contribute immeasurable human resources into the country’s economic development. Today, for example, a sizeable proportion of the Ugandan population is not productive owing to health-related reasons (Cavagnero et al., 2007). Lastly, a healthy population means that more and more children will be able to attend school and become productive later in life.
Using Foreign Aid to Leverage Health Care
It is evident from the literature that Uganda continues to rely heavily on foreign aid to maintain its health care system, as available statistics demonstrate that between 20 and 50 percent of the recurrent health budget is provided by international aid (Koenig & Atim, 2010). According to these authors, Uganda continues to use foreign aid to support the huge budget for the health sector, which is traditionally allocated a paltry 10 percent of the country’s approved budget estimates. The authors further note that in the 2008/2009 financial year, for example, Uganda’s overall public allocation to health per capita was slightly over a quarter of the internationally recognized USD 40 per capita per year.
Moving on, it is well known that Uganda has continued to rely heavily on foreign aid to
enhance health policymaking and implementation,
structure health outreach networks and community-based organizations (CBOs),
fund public health institutions charged with the responsibility of training health professionals,
promote advocacy and capacity building in health,
equip public health care institutions with the required medicines and machines,
run programs on HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and other related infectious diseases, and
fund semi-private health entities and non-governmental organizations working in areas such as reproductive health and poverty eradication (Koenig & Atim, 2010).
However, as demonstrated in the literature, the heavy reliance on foreign aid by the Ugandan leadership has not translated into dramatic health care improvements in the core areas mentioned above (Alemazung, 2010; Nelson, 2014). For example, the country is yet to successfully meet some millennium development goals (MDGs) tied to foreign aid, such as reducing by two thirds the mortality rate among children under five, reducing by three quarters the maternal mortality rate, as well as halting and beginning to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS and the incidence of malaria and other major illnesses (Koenig & Atim, 2010, Pearson, 2009).
Conclusion
Drawing from the above, it is evident that the effectiveness of foreign aid in Uganda can best be described as mixed, particularly in the context of the country’s social, economic, and political development. Consequently, although foreign aid may be critical in leveraging the healthcare system in a developing country such as Uganda and also in developing its human capital base, there is need for policy coherence in all development agendas to ensure that the level of foreign aid received by the country is positively reflected in its social, economic, and political development.
References
Alemazung, J.A. (2010). Post-colonial colonialism: An analysis of international factors and actors marrying African socio-economic and political development. Journal of Pan African Studies, 3(10), 62-84. Web.
Cavagnero, E., Evans, D.B., & Carrin, G. (2007). Aid for health: Should policy-makers worry about its macroeconomic impact? World Health Organization Technical Briefs for Policy-Makers Number 3. Web.
Koenig, S., & Atim. B. (2010). Health spending in Uganda: The impact of current aid structures and aid effectiveness. Web.
We have often observed or read about stereotypical bosses who go around the corridors and shouting commands at their employees. To me, this is a pure case of a lack of communication skills, which lead to failure to communicate effectively. I noted that failure to communicate effectively could contribute to the occurrence of unintended negative events. The subject of cross-cultural communication became of interest to me after reading an article that referred to the danger of failure to communicate effectively about patients’ condition due to their diverse cultural backgrounds.
In order to understand how failure to communicate effectively presented risky situations to patients, I realised that communication breakdown was the main cause of communication challenges between patients, nurses, and physicians. Upon further inquiry in that area, I noted that there were specific issues that led to communication breakdown. Culture differences led to a failure in communication between patients and nurses.
I noted that the major challenge that many patients and physicians faced was a challenge of interpretation. Given these difficulties in interpretation, I realised how globalisation had necessitated the need to understand various languages and cultures. I noted that the health care sector had made significant strides in improving the quality of care. However, there are certain critical areas that the health care sector has not yet addressed. I noted that language interpretation in health care facilities has remained primitive despite its relevancy in communication between patients and their care providers. After a careful review of the article, I noted that failure to communicate effectively due to cultural differences could have serious outcomes. I believe that health care facilities should implement effective methods of translation as they continue to receive patients from different cultures.
Upon my reflection of the situation, I noted that culture, especially language, has a significant effect on the provision of health care services (Misra-Hebert, 2003). In such cases, the barrier that exists may result in poor communication, and patients and physicians may totally end up not understanding each other. This leads to failure to communicate effectively, and it may contribute to cases of health disparities. I realised that cultural bias could be a major contributor to effective communication between people of different cultural backgrounds. Hence, we should look for solutions to poor communications that result from language barriers and cultural backgrounds in order to communicate effectively.
Differences in communication
I have noted that people work with others from different cultural backgrounds, even in hospitals. Hence, communication styles may vary significantly. On this note, we should develop our communication styles in order to learn how to communicate effectively with others, but this is not a simple process. I believe that understand basic aspects of a given culture can improve chances of better communication between parties.
We have to note that challenges in communication may differ beyond challenges of vocabulary. While words may bear different meanings based on their levels of complexity, speakers of the same language may need to keep their communication simple in order to communicate effectively with others. Cultures also have different aspects of language use. For instance, one language may lack a term for other elements or an appropriate method for defining a given object. In some cases, even similar words may have completely different meanings based on the cultures of the speaker. Hence, awareness in language limitations may help us to understand that failure to communicate effectively could also arise in the same culture due to differences in dialect and vocabularies, which result from geographical isolation.
I have realised that knowledge can facilitate effective cross-cultural communication. Knowledge would allow us to understand the potential challenges that could arise due to differences in cultures. As a result, we can make a conscious effort to improve our communication abilities with others.
We can also adjust our behaviours and communication styles to match those of other parties. Assuming cultural superiority may not always be the best approach because one cannot tell how the other party would react to our communication styles or behaviours. I believe that professionals must understand the possibility that cultural differences have huge potentials to hamper communication and lead to failure to communicate effectively. It is important to examine the cross-cultural elements of communication before making a conclusion. However, I believe that there are situations, which may require us to get help from professionals in order to understand what other parties say. Interpreters can be effective when dealing with patients from other cultures.
Specific issues within the Context of Communication Theories and Concepts
Notwithstanding the fact that the world has significantly evolved across cultures to be a ‘global village’, there has never been any considerable changes in cultural homogenisation of different cultures across the world. However, we have to recognise that different cultures of the world have increasingly evolved to be interdependent.
I have realised that understanding how to communicate across cultures is not only important in the health care sector, but also in other areas where people from different cultures interact.
Understanding Cultural Diversity
Based on the different cultural context I read in the health care situation, I realised that physicians face new communication issues in their duties. Even in situations where both the speaker and the listener speak the same language, but they are from different geographical regions, it is imperative to consider some fundamental aspects of cultural differences. If we consider such factors in our interactions, we would be able to optimise communication and communicate effectively.
Under such conditions, I believe that physicians should understand that their clients are from different cultures and may speak a different language. However, we have to note that such realisations may even complicate communication because of uncertainty between the two parties.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Uncertainty reduction theory in cross-cultural communications has recognised such challenges. The theory recognises that there are elements of uncertainty when people from different cultures meet for the first time. On this note, the major aim of people from different cultures is to lessen the level of uncertainty that exists between them. However, we have to recognise that uncertainty is both in our behavioural and cognitive aspects. In other words, a physician and a patient may not be sure how to behave in such situations. In addition, confusion may also arise because both the patient and the doctor may not be sure about what each of them thinks of the other one. At the same time, uncertainty reduction theory posits that uncertainty exists at a personal level and relational level. On this note, the theory asserts that people may use communication to lessen uncertainty between them because of differences in cultures.
I believe that even if we do not extend deep into cultures and sub-cultures of others, the most fundamental idea is to recognise cultural diversity in situations in which we have to engage in cross-cultural communications. The understanding of cultural diversity of others does not require us to study different cultures and languages and their inner details. In this context, I believe that physicians can learn how to interact with others effectively, even if their clients’ first languages differ from their own.
I believe that understanding cultural diversity among physicians can prevent communication challenges that occur at their workplaces. Cultural intelligence may result from understanding the diversity of other people’s culture. I believe that knowledge in cross-cultural communication can aid relational development among people of different cultures as they strive to lessen the impacts of uncertainty in their communications.
Developing awareness for the other culture
Learning about languages out other cultures may be the ultimate way to understand the cultures of others. However, this may not be possible as several cultures come to interrelate in a global village. Hence, basic levels of language and other cultural concepts may be necessary for the interaction. This is important for professional like physicians who may need to engage in acceptable forms of greetings and physical contact with their clients. For instance, physicians may not communicate effectively with Muslims because of different cultures, including beliefs about physical contacts. Hence, they may find it extremely difficult to communicate effectively during their services.
The need to train employees on different cultures in their geographical locations may be an effective method of promoting cultural awareness between employees and people they serve.
Developing awareness for others’ cultures requires us to be sensitive to different cultures. These may also include cultural, language, and religious values, among others. For instance, physicians must understand how to communicate with their patients from Islamic culture. However, one must also recognise that there are sub-cultures within major cultures. Hence, culture awareness needs us to understand such variations.
If we strive to acquire knowledge in cross-cultural awareness, then we can realise ad respect sensitive issues in others’ cultures because they have impacts on individual behaviours and communication styles. Hence, the best way for us to improve cultural consciousness during our intercultural communication is to perform cultural immersion. This would allow us to understand the socio-cultural abilities of other speakers as we make contact with them. I believe that if we engage in cultural immersion, then we would be able to have a rational understanding and knowledge of such cultures. In addition, we will also learn the difference between our culture and others’ cultures.
Communication Accommodation Theory
According to communication accommodation theory, it is necessary to determine and understand what motivates people and consequences of their actions when they change their communication styles. These theorists believe that when communication takes place, the speaker and the listener try to contain others in their communication by changing their manner of interaction. The speaker who feels that his or her culture and language are superior assumes a divergence approach. On the other hand, people from minority groups or groups that require approval take a convergence approach in cross-cultural communication.
I believe that effective interpersonal communication in a different cultural setting enhances both social and personal life success. Interpersonal communication skills are responsible for creating positive values that enhance success in individuals’ lives. It has enabled people of different cultures with similar interests to create values in relationships and build value-yielding relationships. At the same time, it enables people to acquire positive values from interactions with individuals of diverse cultural backgrounds.
The concept of cultural competence
I have realised that the manner in which we communicate may not be similar even in the same culture. However, globalisation has enhanced interactions among people of different cultural orientations in work, social, and personal life. There are cultures of high context and low context behaviours. Some of these cultures may be direct and do not need a speaker to interpret. On the other hand, some cultures tend to have emphases on nonverbal messages. Such forms of cross-cultural communications are difficult and may lead to interpersonal conflicts in communications. Thus, effective interpersonal communication has become significantly valuable as individuals of different cultures interact in different environments.
We can achieve success at work and in personal life through tolerating ambiguity. Ambiguity tolerance is an approach that results in successful interpersonal communications among people of different cultures. Thus, we must accept ambiguous and unclear circumstances and be able to handle them in a constructive manner (Wilkinson, 2006).
Interpersonal communications between people of different cultures often have certain goals that both parties wish to achieve. Cultural differences present communication barriers that both parties would wish to overcome. Individuals who can tolerate ambiguity in situations of such cultural differences strive to find solutions and achieve positive experiences of intercultural communications.
People of different cultures have varied patterns of behaviours and opinions about issues. These differences create an environment of uncertainty among parties. The problem arises because people tend to be confused in interpersonal communications where there are diverse cultural differences. What each party expect from each other may not be clear, and at the same time, parties may not be aware of what factors constitute acceptable behaviours. Thus, tolerance of ambiguity gives individuals opportunities to “accept ambiguities and uncertainties, and in turn, look for alternatives before such ambiguous situations result into problems” (Wilkinson, 2006). This implies that such individuals will find success in both their personal and work life.
On the other hand, people who have a “low tolerance for ambiguity usually experience difficulties in their relations with people from other cultures” (Wilkinson, 2006). Cultural differences are threats to such individuals. Such characters react by avoiding such circumstances or escaping an ambiguous situation whenever possible. In cases where such individuals cannot escape, they end up misinterpreting the situation, feel uncomfortable, and underrate ambiguity. Still, attempts to provide solutions to such cases end up with partial solutions and simple alternatives. Such individuals have narrow opinions and always insist on definite ways of handling ambiguous cases.
Interpersonal communications between people of different cultures also look at behaviours. Successful individuals always consider behaviours when interacting with people from different cultures. This implies that people should be flexible in behaviour and be able to adapt to their immediate environment in order to achieve understanding and co-operation in personal and work life.
Individuals know “expected and appropriate behaviours in their own cultures or other familiar cultures” (Wilkinson, 2006). However, situations that bring persons from diverse cultures together also present difficulties in behaving appropriately. The normal behaviour of people may not be appropriate for the other party. This calls for adaptation in behaviours and expansion of one’s own behaviours.
People who have mastered intercultural competency have capacities to identify intercultural communication signals and apply diverse ranges of behaviours in attempts to adjust to the prevailing intercultural interactions. People can only achieve success in intercultural communications if they can adjust their behaviours to fit different cultural environments. Such individuals achieve success by acting differently in a similar environment. They are able to identify issues that may cause conflicts and mitigate them accordingly. Successful people have learned to take account of “other people’s behaviours and effects of their behaviours on others in order to improve upon them” (Wilkinson, 2006).
Conversely, people who cannot adapt their behaviours often act in a similar fashion even in different cultural environments. Such people have limited abilities to consider alternative behaviours in processes of interpersonal communications that involve different cultures. They tend to stick to their behaviour patterns. In addition, such people rarely notice the effects of their behaviours in other people and are unable to change their behaviours to meet certain environments.
In a competitive world of business, firms look to employ a range of workers that have abilities to communicate effectively with people of different personalities and cultural backgrounds. To achieve success in interpersonal communications at the workplace, appreciating cultural differences should be an initiative in the business world as this presents as an opportunity or threats in personal or business communications. Individuals should possess what some authors refer to as “global mindset” that calls for a wider aspect of keenness, peripheral visions, and numerous interpretations which reflect open-mindedness instead of insisting on hypotheses” (Lane, 2009).
Individuals should also strive and achieve cultural competence. This entails recognising various conditions of minds, studying cultures, individuals’ customs, and preparedness to modify behaviours and prospects accordingly. People form opinions in processes of learning. Such opinions result in the formation of attitude. Attitude leads to reactions in obvious ways towards objects or situations. Thus, the formation of attitude results in stereotypes, which people’s mental orientations utilise in labelling others.
When people encounter new colleagues from foreign countries at workplaces, the first response could be a stereotype approach, an indicating factor of bringing out cultural differences. However, people see and hear what they expect until they have had experience with individuals of different cultural backgrounds. Therefore, in pursuit of success in interpersonal communication at workplaces, people should avoid suppositions of individuals based on their group characteristics as it robs them of their personalities. Successes in organisations and the business world through interpersonal communications are only possible if people focus on cultural aspects essential to issues in question, and evading traps related stereotypes. This pushes for recognition of the person, instead of his or her national culture, and possibly creates a possible culture of working together.
Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication is critical in any form of interaction because of the effect it may have across different cultures. I have noted that people may resort to nonverbal cues when spoken words may not help in their situations, or the message becomes ambiguous. Nonverbal cues develop from our cultures and usually from common sense. This is our belief about what should be appropriate, normal, acceptable, and effective for a given situation during communication. I have noted that people from different cultures use different forms of gestures to express themselves. Hence, it important for us to understand how to interpret such gestures, silence, body language, dressing, facial express, and emotional expressions appropriately. However, we must note that various cultures have attached different meanings and importance to different aspects of verbal and nonverbal communications (LeBaron, 2003).
Conclusion
I have noted that when we have to meet for people from other cultures for the first time, we often develop uncertainty about how to react and communicate. This situation may have negative impacts when it leads to failure to communicate effectively. From my reading of how cultural differences affect communication between physician and their patients, I realised that cross-cultural communication might not be simple in such a setup, which may even lack interpreters.
I have noted that cross-cultural communications have different challenges to people taking part in communication. However, how we manage these challenges that may affect the outcome because they can lead to failure to communicate effectively with other parties, on this note, I believe that people should take time to learn about cross-cultural communication to prepare themselves for cross-cultural communications.
From what have I have noticed in a health care setting, the most viable solution for challenges associated with cultural and background differences is using a reliable interpreter, who also understand all other aspects of a given culture. Overall, we also need to acquire cultural competence by acknowledging diversity in cultures. Interpreters may help us to avoid misinterpretations, which could lead to severe outcomes. I believe that the language barrier presents the biggest obstacle to effective communication in any setting. As a result, it is the major cause of failure to communicate effectively, but we can improve our approaches in cross-cultural communications and avoid unwanted outcomes in a given situation.
Reference List
Lane, S 2009, Interpersonal Communication: Competence and Contexts, 2nd edn, Allyn & Bacon, London.
Misra-Hebert, A 2003, ‘Physician cultural competence: Cross-cultural communication improves care’, Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine, vol. 70, no. 4, pp. 289-303.
Wilkinson, D 2006, The Ambiguity Advantage: What great leaders are great at, Palgrave Macmillan, London.