Fulton Countys Health Department provides appropriate information and public health support to its people. The department has a powerful emergency preparedness and response plan. Disasters can have negative implications on the lives of many people. The county has an appropriate coordination plan to respond to disasters and collaborate with other county departments ( Emergency Preparedness par. 4).
The county has many Emergency Officials (EOs) whose role is to coordinate operations and rescue every affected person. The response plan seeks to address different disasters and save lives. The countys website offers appropriate strategies and resources that can be used by different people. The department encourages its people to have access to information. The citizens should also remain calm whenever there is a terrorist attack ( Emergency Preparedness par. 4). Every EO coordinates rescue plans and provides vital instructions (Hunter 37). Such practices are essential towards dealing with different disasters.
Adequacy of the Resources Listed on the Organizations Website
The above response plan makes it easier for the county to address the needs of more people. The response plan seeks to provide aid, minimize risks, and rescue more citizens. However, the resources listed on the departments webpage are inadequate. This is the case because new visitors cannot understand the resources, strategies, and steps embraced by the health department. There are several gaps in the provided resources. For instance, the website fails to provide adequate articles that can help more individuals prepare themselves against different disasters (Hunter 43). The website identifies the duties of the Emergency Preparedness Office. However, it does not provide adequate addresses and emergency lines. The information on the website is also inadequate.
The above gaps can make it impossible for more people to get the best assistance whenever there is a disaster. New resources can therefore be added in order to improve the effectiveness of the countys disaster response plan. To begin with, new information can be added in order to inform people about the best efforts to undertake whenever there is a disaster (Elaine, Padjen, and Birnbaum 392). More addresses should also be added. Such contacts will improve the level of communication ( Emergency Preparedness par. 2).
Safety manuals and guidelines should also be provided on the website. The website should also feature past emergencies and disasters that have been faced in the county (Landesman 49). The website should also include various successful responses that have been used to deal with different disasters. These new resources will improve the level of coordination and eventually empower more civilians.
My Role as a Public Health Practitioner
Public health professionals should possess specific competencies in order to deal with different disasters. As a member of the team, I would use my skills to complete various roles. The most important role is to facilitate collaboration between external and internal emergency response partners (Clements 62). Disaster response is a complex process that brings together different players and partners. This role will ensure both external and internal partners collaborate in order to deliver the best results. The level of communication will also improve.
Failure to fulfill this role can result in numerous problems. For instance, the partners might be unable to work with one another thus making every rescue effort unsuccessful. The level of communication can be strained thus making it impossible for the health department to realize its potentials (Walsh et al. 76). This malpractice can affect the success of every response strategy. This role will therefore make it easier for the team to achieve its goals.
Works Cited
Clements, Bruce. Disasters and Public Health: Planning and Response, Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2009. Print.
Elaine, Daily, Patricia Padjen and Marvin Birnbaum. A review of competencies developed for disaster healthcare providers: Limitations of current processes and applicability. Pre-hospital Disaster Medicine 25.5 (2001): 387-395. Print.
Emergency Preparedness 2015. Web.
Hunter, Nan. The Law of Emergencies: Public Health and Disaster Management, Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2009. Print.
Landesman, Linda. Public Health Management of Disasters, New York: APHA Bookstore, 2013. Print.
Walsh, Lauren, Brian Altman, Richard King and Kandra Strauss-Riggs. Enhancing the Translation of Disaster Health Competencies in to Practice. Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness 8.1 (2014): 70-78. Print.
Although the Millennium Development Goals from number four to seven address the issues of universal health care in the world, the issue on the causes of health disparities especially due to ethnic and racism is still a problem.
Health Disparities
Health disparities are the variations and frequent occurrences of deaths, diseases, or health problems in a particular group or population due to racism or ethnicity. The population may also be discriminated according to the gender, education status, level of income, and physical/emotional disability.
The variation in health indicators
There is a wide variation of health indicators between the whites and other minor races like the Africans, Indians, Latinos, Asians, and Hispanics in America. In comparison to the whites, the most hit minor races are African American and the Indians in America.
Although the infant mortality rate in the U.S is relatively low, the number of African American infants who die each year still stands high doubling that of the whites. Africans who suffer and die from cardiovascular diseases are about 40% higher than the whites are, while African American cancer patients are 30% more than the whites are.
Thus, the two commonest cancers; prostrate and breast; mainly affect Africans despite a similarity in the screening rates. In addition, deaths among African Americans from the HIV/AIDS pandemic are about seven times higher than in the whites (CDC, 2010). Finally, homicide cases in Africans remain high when compared to the whites.
Diabetes, high blood pressure, tuberculosis, and obesity cases are high in Hispanic Americans than the whites. About 20% of T.B patients in the US are Hispanic. Additionally, infants born to Hispanic parents have low birth weight (CDC 2010 Par.4).
The Indians in America also experience high mortality rates, diabetic cases and they record high number of deaths/injuries from accidents and homicides/suicides. However, Asians are the only minority group with good health in the US when compared to the whites. Unfortunately, women from the pacific island (Vietnam) record high cases of cervical cancer in the US.
Causes for the variations in the health indicators
The health disparity in the United States is due racial discrimination whereby the minority cannot readily access health services. For instance, the minority face obstacles in securing health insurance policies thus raising the cost of medical care. Due to high cost of treatment of chronic diseases, most of the patients succumb to death.
Furthermore, the lack of quality education also denies the minority good employment opportunities, which leads to low income. Consequently, they will be unable to afford the essential commodities in life especially goods pertaining to health. Moreover, a healthy living is parallel to good health, therefore when the minority groups do not eat healthily; they become susceptible to most diseases leading to high mortality rates. Finally, the inability to eradicate racism and ethnicity in the U.S is the major cause of the health disparities.
How to eradicate health disparities
The eradication of racial/ethnic discrimination and promotion of equality in the US will allow the minority to access medication (Satcher, 2000, p.2864). Health providers should concentrate on the diseases/conditions that cause deaths while the US government should monitor closely the health of the minority groups.
Conclusion
The health disparity among the minority groups, especially the blacks, is the main problem, which has contributed to unequal healthcare accessibility in the U.S. but eradication of racism/ethnicity will solve the problem.
References
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2010). National Center for Health Statistics, Minority Populations. Web.
Satcher, D. (2000). Eliminating global health disparities. Journal of American Medical Association, 284 (22), 2864.
Travelling usually involves a change in topography and climate, which exposes individual to different health conditions. World Health Organization proposes that worldwide travelling could pose numerous health risks to the traveler, based on the nature of the travel and the traveler (2009, p.1). The individual might undergo drastic changes in environmental factors and other elements like presence of microbes. Other factors that might lead to health risks include poor housing, dirty water, and poor sanitation among others.
All persons planning to travel should take into account all the potential hazards of the country of destiny and learn the preventive measures of these diseases. Although the travel industry and medical profession may offer useful information about the health risks and their precautions, it is the responsibility of travelers to seek travel advisories for specific countries of destiny.
This will provide the knowledge of the risks involved and the appropriate precautions for the journey. This paper will examine the travel advisories for London, Paris, Italy, and Canada.
Travel advisories
Travelers should be able to identify reliable sources offering travel advisories. They can access this information from travel agencies on one hand and from credible internet websites on the other. I will rely on the CDC Travelers website for travel advisories pertaining to these destinies.
London, like any other place on earth can have unique elements in its atmosphere that may pose health risk to its citizen and visitors alike. Exposure to polonium 210 is the health risk that travelers to London should know. Polonium 210 (Po-210) is radiation hazard, which gets into the body by eating, breathing, or open wound. This radiation exposure can lead to severe medial conditions or even death.
The precautions recommended for travelers are unique to this health hazard. The health alert network (HAN) advised the U.S. visitors to London between October 31 and November 23, 2006 to consult their care providers for advice on need for further testing, (Center for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2011). The travelers should try to avoid locations with high Po-210 contamination.
Travelers to Europe including Paris, on the other hand, should be concerned about the outbreak of measles. For instance, France has reported, more than 7,500 measles cases between January and March this year (Center for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2011).
Therefore, travelers who have not had vaccination against measles are at high risks of infection. Travelers must be up-to-date on their vaccinations. The traveler should consult his/her doctor concerning the need for a measles vaccination. However, it is important that a traveler, who cannot prove if they had their vaccination when young, to seek vaccination.
Travelers destined for Canada risk rabies infection from bats, carnivores, and other mammals. These travelers should seek rabies vaccination to protect them from infection due to bite from these mammals (CDC health information, 2011). This travel advisory applies for various categories of travelers including adventure travelers, veterinaries, researchers, and wildlife professionals.
In addition, the traveler should be concerned about other diseases prevalent in North America such as plaques, Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, Lyme disease, diarrhea, and bovine spongiform encephalopathy. Precautions associated with such risk factors involves avoiding certain events including animal bites and scratches, insects bites, concerns about food and water, and injuries.
Regarding travel to Italy, an individual needs to get vaccinations and treatments against preventable diseases. The traveler ought to consult his/her doctor to help in determining what intervention they may need. The government advises travelers to see their doctors at least 4 to 6 weeks prior to their travel.
Conclusion
Travel advisory is important because it alerts travelers of health risks in the region of destination and the precaution they must take to avoid these events. The health risk and the associated precautions are more or less similar. Vaccination is the most important precaution for preventing any health risks in the country of destination.
Reference List
Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2011). Emergency Preparedness and Response. Web.
Recent studies show that, single mothers are likely to suffer more health complications when compared to their married counterparts. This trend is worsened by the fact that, more children are born in single families now. Studies show that today, about 40% of newly born children are born in single parent families.
This figure has increased because in the 60s, the percentage of children born in single-parent families was only 10% (Melnick 2011, p. 1). Many researchers explain that, first-time single mothers are twice as likely to develop health complications by the time they reach the age of 40 (when compared to first time mothers in marriages). As a result of this trend, there is increased concern about the impact of single motherhood on public health.
Kristi Williams (cited in Melnick 2011) explains that, We are soon going to have a large population of single mothers who are entering midlife, when many health problems just begin to emerge (p. 1). Considering the above assertion, it is clear that, there is a looming public health crisis in the UK. However, the most unfortunate thing is that, not much attention is given to this impending crisis.
The relationship between single motherhood and increased health risk is not entirely clear but it is assumed that the stress of raising a child alone and the financial toll on the same task is likely to be the main reason for increased health risks among single mothers (Melnick 2011, p. 1).
The stresses associated with raising a child alone are therefore perceived to have long-term health effects on single mothers. Melnick (2011) elaborates that, Research has clearly shown the toll that long-term stress takes on health, and we know that, single mothers have a lot of stress in their lives. Their economic problems only add to the problem (p. 2). Due to the impending health problem facing single mothers, this study seeks to assess the impact of single motherhood on the UK public health system.
Research Questions
Is the UK public health system prepared to tackle increased healthcare needs of single mothers?
Will the impending health crisis associated with single motherhood have an impact on the well-being of children born in such families?
Are there enough healthcare personnel to meet the increased healthcare needs of single mothers?
What is the extent increased healthcare needs of single mothers in the UK have on the UK public health system?
Hypotheses
The UK public health system is not prepared to tackle the increased healthcare needs of single mothers.
Increased healthcare needs of single mothers will have a negative impact on the well-being of their dependants.
There are not enough healthcare personnel to tackle the increased healthcare needs of single mothers.
Increased healthcare needs of single mothers will have a significant impact on the UK public health system.
Literature Review
Recent research studies document that, unwed mothers are likely to suffer significant health problems when they reach their mid-age (Melnick 2011, p. 1). This finding was derived after undertaking research studies to compare the health status of single mothers and married mothers, by the time they were 40.
The negative health impact of single motherhood was noted to be irreversible. This means that, negative health was still evident even after single mothers got married later in life. E Science (2011) proposes that, the government should come in to promote marriage in the society, at least based on the evidence that, marriage promotes good health among women. This debate has however only started.
Research studies done to investigate the relationship between single motherhood and negative women health were also done in America, but they exposed some significant differences in women health if the impact of single motherhood was assessed along ethnic lines.
For instance, it was noted that, the negative health effects of single motherhood was stronger in white and black women, when compared to Hispanic women (Melnick 2011, p. 1). It was however explained that, this observation was evident because if Hispanic women have children out of wedlock, it occurs in relationships that almost resemble marriages (Melnick 2011, p. 1).
These relationships are often long-term and cohabiting in nature. Furthermore, it was explained that, Hispanic women live in closely knit communities and families when compared to women from other racial backgrounds. These family relationships were seen to provide support to the single mothers, and therefore, Hispanic women find it easier to cope with their situation when compared to women from other racial backgrounds.
In analyzing the impact marriages have after childbirth, it was affirmed that, marriages did very little to impact positively the negative effects of single motherhood. However, it was affirmed that, if women married the biological fathers of their children, they were likely to experience some reprieve in this regard (Melnick 2011, p. 1).
From this observation, it was noted that, women who staid married to the biological fathers of their children (for a long time), experienced improved health by the time they were 40 (Melnick 2011, p. 1). The opposite was however observed for women who did not have a partner at age 40.
Studies have also shown that, black women are more likely to suffer the negative health effects of single motherhood because they are more likely to be single mothers than women from other racial backgrounds (Melnick 2011, p. 1). This observation was supported by the fact that, black women were more likely to have children out of wedlock when compared to white Hispanic women.
The greatest impact of negative health was therefore observed to be strongest among black mothers. Since studies already affirm that, marriage provides financial and emotional support to women, it is noted that, black women are disadvantaged on both fronts (Melnick 2011, p. 1).
This observation was evidenced because black women were observed to marry men from poor socio-economic backgrounds when compared women from white or Hispanic backgrounds. The reason for this observation was that, black women were tolerant to men coming from lower socio-economic backgrounds because decades of poverty decreased the likelihood of finding marriageable men (Melnick 2011, p. 1).
Research Methodology
This research study will be qualitative in nature. Semi-structured interviews will be used as the main research approach. However, the research will first be done by asking unstructured questions to gain background information about the research topic.
It is estimated that, about 30 interviews will be done in 30 public health hospitals across the UK to gather information about the level of preparedness of public institutions (with regards to the healthcare needs of single mothers). These interviews will be qualitative interviews. The interviews will be recorded in tapes and used as documentation evidence for the study. These tapes will act as tools for data analysis because they will be recorded as computer files.
These documents will contain information obtained from field studies. The ethnographer will be used to analyze the data by categorizing them into various groups. The ethnographer is a computer software built to use a coding system that analyzes data in different groups (using number and letters) (Distance SYR 2011).
The sample population group consists of health experts and public institutions. Health experts will provide insight into the health effects of single motherhood (when analyzed over long periods). Moreover, they will explain the relationship that, women health effects (associated with single motherhood) have on the public health sector. Administrators of public health institutions will give information regarding the level of preparedness of the UK health sector to the impending burden of increased healthcare needs of single mothers.
The main ethical concern in this study is obtaining consent form research participants when taking part in the study. Consent will be obtained freely. Confidentiality issues will also surface as part of the ethical issues to be considered in the study.
To ensure the confidentiality of information given, the researcher and the participants will have to sign a confidentiality document stipulating that all information obtained from the participants will strictly be used for purposes of the study alone. Moreover, the names of the participants will not be disclosed during the research.
Conclusion
An assessment of the impact of single motherhood on the UK public health system is an important social and medical issue that needs to be addressed.
This research study seeks to undertake this research and recommend areas of policy improvement that needs to be done before the full impact of increased healthcare needs of single motherhood is felt in the public health sector. The findings of this study will therefore be used to improve the level of preparedness of the UK public health system in meeting increased healthcare needs of single mothers.
References
Distance SYR. (2011) Time between: the Full-Time Adult Undergraduate. Web.
The World Health Organization is a branch of the United Nations public health wing that specializes in addressing various issues affecting the health of various communities in the globe. It was established in 1948 and its headquarter is in Geneva Switzerland. Margaret Chan is the head of this organization that controls the international health activities of most countries.
Advancement of Health Care and Medicine
Leadership
The World Health Organization provides leadership in various platforms to help nations in curbing public health challenges. It organizes seminars with health practitioners and engages in consultations to identify ways of improving the health of citizens in various countries (Tanner, 2014). Moreover, it offers professional support to countries that suffer disease outbreaks or other challenges that may affect the health of their citizens. The organization partners with health facilities and departments to improve the health of the public and curb the spread of diseases. Most nations experience challenges in their health sector because of inadequate and poor leadership (Fischer, Hynes, & Perl, 2014). This organization works with countries and ensures they adopt policies and practices that transform leadership in health care facilities.
Knowledge bank
This organization plays a critical role in regulating health research activities and stimulating the production and distribution of valuable knowledge to promote the health of individuals in different countries (Tanner, 2014). Knowledge sharing is important in helping nations to curb disease outbreaks and improve the welfare of health practitioners and patients. Health facilities should be equipped with modern technology and their staffs should have appropriate knowledge of managing diseases. This organization provides the technical support required in ensuring that health practitioners use appropriate knowledge gained through training to manage diseases.
Regulation of health practices
Medicine is a regulated practice and all professionals under this branch should abide by the codes of conduct that guides this profession. The World Health Organization sets codes of conduct to ensure all practitioners follow the stipulated guidelines (Tanner, 2014). It monitors the implementation of these norms and standards to ensure they are followed to promote disease prevention, management and treatment practices. Moreover, the organization examines the existing ethical and evidence-based policy options and their suitability in ensuring physicians offer high-quality services (Fischer, Hynes, & Perl, 2014). Nursing is guided by ethical standards that must be followed by all individuals under this profession. The World Health organization conducts frequent evaluation of these standards to ascertain their appropriateness in promoting public health.
Capacity building
The organization acknowledges the challenges that developing nations face and how the rural population struggles to get medical help. It works with local health departments and provides technical support to their staffs as a way of catalyzing change and building sustainable institutional capacity to fight diseases and improve human health.
Prediction
This organization has vast experience in monitoring and predicting health trends. It uses the existing and previous records to plan and help countries realize the appropriate approaches of managing diseases. The knowledge generated through research enables this organization to offer technical advice to countries to ensure they promote the health of their citizens (Fischer, Hynes, & Perl, 2014). Prior knowledge of managing diseases reduces the prevalence of communicable infections, the number of patients and costs incurred in treating them.
Conclusion
The World Health Organization is an indispensable body in promoting public health and ensuring diseases are managed properly. This organization provides leadership and enables countries to know what should be done to promote public health. Moreover, it collects and distributes relevant information regarding disease management and this helps health practitioners to do their work easily. The organization sets standards and regulates the practice of nursing to promote ethical and professional practices. Lastly, it works with health departments to promote corporation among countries and departments and ensure public health is given priority.
References
Fischer, W. A., Hynes, N. A., & Perl, T. M. (2014). Protecting health care workers from Ebola: personal protective equipment is critical but is not enough. Annals of Internal Medicine, 161(10), 753-754.
Tanner, M. (2014). Urban Health in Developing Countries: Progress and Prospects. London: Routledge.
Public health services in the United States were initiated indirectly via various mechanisms. The federal government devised ways of collecting funds through taxation in a bid to finance national public health initiatives conducted by the state and local governments.
The mission of the public health sector is to enhance physical and mental well-being, coupled with preventing diseases and accidents. In this paper, the public health sector in the US will be analyzed with regard to the environmental factors that impact human health. The federal and local governments are responsible for public health practice and environmental issues. This paper will explore the legal roles of the federal and local governments in public health and environmental protection.
Roles of the national and local governments
The federal government has a strong influence on public health provision via its capability to raise funds through taxes. It is tasked with making policies, financing, public health management, conducting evaluations, collecting information about health delivery systems, and overseeing the activities by the state and local governments. The national government engages in public health capacity building.
It is tasked with the responsibility of controlling interstate trade and protecting the environment together with overseeing food and drug safety. The national government sets terms on the use of federal funds. The national government is tasked with disease control roles, especially for people entering the US.
On the other hand, local governments are directly linked to the local communities to ensure peoples protection, coupled with property and environmental preservation. The roles involve the management of urban policing and property protection through firefighting services and the management of urban sprawl. Urban sprawl involves the fast expansion of the geographical area of cities. People living in these suburban areas develop high reliance on private means of transport, which increase air and noise pollution.
Local government is also responsible for local transportation such as the construction and management of road and railway infrastructure. Automobiles have eased commuting within the city but increased pollution as people become more reliant on private means. Planning and development within the municipality include municipal zoning to prevent the use of agricultural land for construction. In addition, the roles include constructing, maintaining, and improving recreational parks and green spaces.
Due to urban sprawl, the construction of residential and business houses destroyed wildlife zones and agricultural lands. Small areas were left for wildlife, thus compelling animals to move closer to human zones in search of food. The governments also ensure the provision of public utilities like city sewage-system maintenance, street lighting, and water supply (Payne-Sturges 9).
Comparing and contrasting
Relations between the federal and local governments regarding public health and environmental preservation evolved into a partnership since the 1980s (Schneider 40). Since environmental and public health programs have developed new challenges, the topic of relative roles and responsibilities widened. In dealing with these new challenges, the two entities have combined their unique abilities to ensure effective public enterprise. Local governments have an important relationship with the federal government.
The federal government allocates direct finances to the local authorities for the implementation of infrastructure programs and social welfare projects with regard to public health. Federal entities also work closely with local municipalities in designing policies, which foster public health and environmental preservation. In addition, just like the national government, the local governments have the authority to collect revenues through taxation.
Apparently, the federal and local governments are working closely together to minimize the effects of urban sprawl such as air pollution emanating from automobiles, which spoil the air quality coupled with damaging public health. In addition, heating, cooling, and lighting have escalated the burning of fossil fuels, thus causing air contamination and global warming. Water runoffs have also increased due to the heavy road infrastructure, which cannot absorb rainwater.
Therefore, runoff water is directed into rivers, and it carries viruses and bacteria, which raise the danger of water-borne diseases. Furthermore, since automobiles play a big role in the urban lifestyle, motor accidents affect the publics physical well-being. In the United States, automobiles claim more than 40,000 people annually.
The impact of such a scenario has been huge, thus demanding cooperation between the federal and local governments. The high populations in urban areas complicate the local governments efforts to supply social amenities. As a result, diseases are likely to develop and spread, thus leading to a national epidemic. This aspect might go beyond what the local governments are capable of, and thus the federal government joins the effort to tackle such occurrences.
How changes in conditions are causing role changes
The criteria, setting, and purpose of public health and environmental protection have evolved over the last three decades. While these changes have been occurring swiftly, they have attracted concerns only recently. Since the 1990s, public opinion shows continued support for public health practice and environmental protection (Hunter 35). A large number of citizens insist that the federal government should double its efforts in ensuring that polluters are compelled to adhere to environmental regulations.
Apparently, the local governments have employed staff members with relevant environmental capabilities, and this aspect has raised its effectiveness even past the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Since effecting new changes depends on information and data, both governments have made a profound impact on public health practice largely due to widespread information and data.
The dynamics of public health and environmental protection have caused both the federal and local governments to shift from compelling to catalyzing change. The EPA has sought to assist these governments in catalyzing rather than force success via rules and regulations. Since various challenges face the implementation process, the EPA and other public health agencies have ensured widespread information flow through campaigns and training.
For instance, since its foundation in 1946, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention is one of the leading entities for health promotion, control, and awareness in the US. Its major role is to prevent and control widespread infectious diseases. It conducts research pertaining to public health with regard to environmental indicators as well as responding to scenarios of a disease outbreak.
Examples of federal urban cooperation and conflicts
The federal and urban governments cooperate in various cases involving green infrastructure and sustainability programs that enhance public health, coupled with protecting the environment. The cooperation of the two authorities focuses on achieving various goals, which include improving the efficiency of waste disposal across cities, minimizing the quantity of waste generated, and the creation of green infrastructure for better absorption of stormwater, among others.
For instance, the New York Green Infrastructure Plan of 2010 aims at achieving sustainability planning by reducing water pollution from stormwater runoffs and sewage overflows (Friis 43). This goal is achieved through urban agriculture, parks and gardens, city street trees, and suburban zoning. Even though local authorities are capable of making huge changes autonomously, the federal government is involved in setting standards for water quality of rivers, lakes, and nearshore oceans.
In addition, since many sustainability programs in New York are implemented at the local stage, the relation between local and federal authorities is fundamental. This assertion holds because changes made at the local level have to meet the standards set by the federal regulatory authorities.
The federal and local authorities cooperate to ensure that the standards set against pollution by the Clean Water Act of 1972 are observed. As a result, public health is improved since mediums for disease transmission are blocked. Limited cases of air and water pollution help in the alleviation of numerous diseases.
Cases of conflicts arise due to regulatory issues the question of who regulates the environment, and public health has raised controversies since the 1980s. The federal stage entities in the US have exercised power to regulate both public health and environmental protection. It is noteworthy that most sustainability programs take place at the local level, so most decisions and regulations should reflect the demands of the locals. Conflict ought to occur in such situations.
For instance, the 1987 storm-water control program is regulated under the Clean Water Act, which compels the local municipalities to comply with federal water standards (Kate 21). Local governments powers are limited despite the fact that they maintain the neighborhoods, control pollution, and maintain green infrastructure. In addition, local governments are, in most cases, required to do what the federal government requires, given the criteria of implementation, and left to bear the costs.
Conclusion
Cities are currently implementing sustainability initiatives for the benefit of multiple sectors that enhance public health. Both the federal and local governments have abandoned tools that derail sustainability prospects, such as regulatory conflicts. These two authorities are working collaboratively to enhance public health.
Locally designed measures are key to solving public health and environmental issues, such as green infrastructure, whilst observing federal law. Consequently, many local government initiatives are now being incorporated into federal projects. Due to this progress, the quality of general public health has witnessed huge growth in the United States.
Works Cited
Kate, Davies. The Rise of the U.S. Environmental Health Movement, Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2013. Print.
Friis, Robert. Essentials of Environmental Health, Sudbury: Jones & Bartlett Learning, 2012. Print.
Hunter, Nan. The Law of Emergencies: Public Health and Disaster Management, Burlington: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2009. Print.
Payne-Sturges, Devon. Humanizing Science at the US Environmental Protection Agency. The American Journal of Public Health 101.1 (2011): 8-12. Print.
Schneider, Mary. Introduction to Public Health, Sudbury: Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 2011. Print.
To provide effective and patient-centered care, it is important to organize the exchange of information and personal data among health care facilities. As a result, any achievements associated with improving the process of exchanging the information are important to be discussed in detail.
Background Information
In 2011, the EHR Vendor Affinity Group and Beacon Communities, as well as other EHR vendors, organized their efforts to develop the strategy for overcoming such IT issues as interoperability. Such vendors as Cerner, GE, Allscripts, Greenway, SuccessEHS, NextGen, and Vitera were oriented to developing and formulating the solutions to the identified issue ( Vendors and Communities Working Together par. 4).
The problem of interoperability was determined to be important because of the necessity to provide an efficient plan of action for improving the health care management and exchange of health care data.
Challenges
The problem is in the fact that even if EHRs and integrated HIE are adopted by health care providers, it is often impossible to use EHRs appropriately because of the lack of interoperability. Isolated and often heterogeneous electronic systems are usually used by different health care providers, and this fact limits their possibilities to exchange the necessary information without barriers ( Vendors and Communities Working Together par. 2).
As a result, EHRs cannot be used to improve the quality of the provided care because physicians and other health care professionals are not able to use the required medical information. Even though there are many EHR and HIE vendors, they do not use certain interoperability standards to enter, store, and exchange the information with the help of EHRs and HIE.
Solution
To address the identified challenges, three concrete steps were accentuated as the parts of the complex solution to the discussed problem. The first step was oriented to determining what data elements were most important to support certain cases in the process of exchanging the data.
The second step was formulated about the necessity of conducting the specific assessment of EHR vendors technological resources and abilities to generate the required data elements identified previously. The final third step was to determine conditions for improving the current versions of Continuity of Care Documents (CCD) used by the EHR vendors to address the problem and support the initiatives of Beacon Communities ( Vendors and Communities Working Together par. 5).
The formulated steps and actions enabled vendors to use certain structured data to make access to information and medical data easier. As a result, the focus on developing the structure of data elements and other important elements to standardize the process of exchanging the data has led to simplifying the strategy for accessing the data by health care providers and other professionals interested in the medical information.
Referring to the issue of the query-based exchange, the providers received the opportunity to access the necessary information quickly, without facing additional barriers associated with sharing the medical information within systems. In this context, Affinity Group pilots were proposed to assess the effectiveness of the formulated approach ( Vendors and Communities Working Together par. 7).
The solution also addressed such general issues as the role of interoperability for influencing the market and the overall increase in the quality and effectiveness of the provided health care for patients. Thus, the use of standardized and structured elements is important to minimize clicks and to improve the efficiency of the medical data exchange.
Benefits
The benefits associated with improving the approach to exchanging the health information used in the electronic form are important for health care providers of all levels because they receive the opportunity to make the delivery of care more efficient, accurate, complete, and appropriate due to orienting to the full medical information exchanged upon the request.
The possibilities to manage and coordinate the care also become expanded. While trying to identify the concrete benefits associated with the activities of Affinity Group, it is important to pay attention to a range of advantages for health care providers ( Vendors and Communities Working Together par. 8). Thus, the structured systems are important to realize the flow of the medical information that is effectively coordinated. It is important to focus on moving the data and parts of the information to appropriate health care providers promptly.
The focus on data elements and structured systems are important to make EHRs effective to use them for exchanging the data when all the necessary transition information is known and available to the users of the system. The next benefit is associated with saving time for health care providers who can access and use important information as quickly as possible.
As a result, the workflow can be affected only positively ( Vendors and Communities Working Together par. 9). Furthermore, access to the effectively organized and equally available medical and patient data is important to reduce the overall costs related to managing the data and to improve the quality of patient-specific care.
Next Steps and Further Recommendations
The active use of proposed strategies and specific CCD can enable vendors to revise the overall approach to improving the specifics of exchanging the data. It is possible to take further steps in improving HER technology to achieve higher results.
The further integration of Affinity Group pilots can be discussed as an important step toward developing the quality and efficiency of EHR platforms ( Vendors and Communities Working Together par. 11). While discussing the prospects for overcoming the issue of interoperability in the future, it is important to state that the use of the determined structured elements can become wider.
In this case, Affinity Group pilots can be used as examples for other models and for other communities that are interested in addressing the issue of interoperability at the next stages. The other important stages are associated with the further development of standards for EHRs and HIE that are important to guarantee interoperability within systems.
Thus, during the next two stages of the discussion of the use of structured elements, it is possible to propose and adopt new approaches to overcoming the other technical issues. The further focus on the ONCs Standards & Interoperability Framework is also expected to enhance collaboration between technology specialists, developers, and vendors ( Vendors and Communities Working Together par. 16).
Conclusion
The EHR Vendor Affinity Group and Beacon Communities focused on the problem of interoperability of EHRs and HIE that prevented users from effective access to the data and exchange of information. The series of actions were identified to address the problem efficiently and to contribute to the improvement of the health care deliverys quality.
In the recent decade, Ethiopia has seen impressive progress in the field of health. Positive tendencies are observed in the reduction of mortality rates, both among infants and adults, longer life expectancy, and the decreased percentage of the most widespread illnesses, such as malaria, HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and several tropical diseases. However, despite the steady progress, the situation is still far from satisfactory, as the mortality rates are still comparatively high, which is at least partially grounded in the cultural issues.
Probably the biggest source of health concerns that is currently present and highly influential in Ethiopia is the trust in traditional medicine. It is commonly believed that at least some diseases are the result of the actions of supernatural beings such as gods or malevolent spirits. As a result, the sick person is more likely to seek help from a traditional healer rather than a medical professional. This leads to the maltreatment, when the patient either gets no proper treatment or gets it too late, being sure that he is getting all the required help from a healer. Additionally, healers often try to strengthen the populations mistrust in the modern medicine to secure their clientele. As a result, malaria and tuberculosis, two diseases that can be successfully treated, remain among the highest causes of death (CDC, 2015).
Another cultural concern that destabilizes health situation is rape (Berhane, 2015). Traditionally, women in Ethiopia have much fewer rights. Men believe that consensus is not required for a sexual act. As a result, Ethiopia has one of the highest rape rates in the world and, not surprisingly, the deaths of HIV/AIDS comprise seven percent of the total number (CDC, 2015).
The same cultural inferiority of female population is the cause of the low level of education among women. This leads to poor understanding of important health topics and results in high maternal deaths from the previous inappropriate abortions and unqualified midwives, which is especially serious issue in the rural areas where the modern medical infrastructure is undeveloped, and the educated local community is the only means of assisting the laboring mother (Poverty & Healthcare, 2011).
Finally, Ethiopia is among the countries that still have female genital mutilation as a part of their spiritual and religious practices (Poverty & Healthcare, 2011). The surgical procedure is often performed with inappropriate and unsanitary equipment, in unfitting conditions, and by an untrained specialist. The operation often leads to infection, heavy bleeding, and sometimes ends in death. While the mortality resulting from this practice is relatively low compared to causes mentioned above, it still is a major concern.
There are several ways of addressing these issues. Aside from the strictly medical solutions, such as introducing the possibility of HIV testing and improved prevention strategies, several infrastructural changes are advised. Primarily, educational establishments and activities must be organized that will work in two directions. First, the population must be informed in an approachable manner about the difference between the folk and scientific medicine. Second, the proper health education should target archaic surgical practices and highlight the dangers of sexually transmitted diseases, especially HIV. Finally, the rural areas need to have well-trained extension medical staff in case the proper institutions are difficult to build and supply.
Currently, Ethiopia experiences an extensive development of the medical infrastructure. However, there is still much to be done to improve the overall health status of the country. In particular, the educational effort is required to address the current cultural issues that lead to the uneven progress and sometimes disruption of the achievements of the medical reform.
References
Berhane, Y. (2015). Ending domestic violence against women in Ethiopia. Ethiopian Journal of Health Development, 18(3), 131-132.
The Oregon Health Plan (OHP) is a Medicaid program that was initiated in 1993 (Oregon Health Authority, 2015). The minimum eligibility requirement for enrollment in OHP is to be an Oregon resident. Its coverage level is contingent on a set of conditions, such as applicants age, state of mental and physical health, and income. OHP is comprised of two packages: OHP Standard and OHP Plus (Oregon Health Authority, 2015).
OHP Standard is a benefits package offered to those adults who do not have medical insurance and do not meet eligibility requirements for Medicaid. Even though it requires monthly premiums, co-payments were eliminated (Oregon Health Authority, 2015). Unlike OHP, Standard OHP Plus offers full benefits for those adults who are eligible for Medicaid and children eligible for the Childrens Health Insurance Program (Oregon Health Authority, 2015).
SustiNet is an affordable healthcare plan that became available for Connecticut residents in 2014 (Manthous & Sofair, 2014). It covers the healthcare needs of existing state-sponsored populations, state employees and retirees as well as Medicaid and HUSKY beneficiaries. (SustiNet Health Partnership, 2011). It also offers insurance for private employers, with a focus on small businesses and non-profit organizations. Connecticut municipalities and private individuals are also eligible for SustiNet (Connecticut General Assembly, 2009). The healthcare plan does not require co-payments for preventive healthcare services. Dental coverage that is offered by SustiNet can be compared in its scope to that of large employers (Connecticut General Assembly, 2009).
Healthcare reform in Massachusetts was initiated in 2006 and was designed to ensure that almost all of the states residents would be offered a minimum level of insurance coverage (Commonwealth Health Insurance Connector, n.d.). This reform helped to establish the Commonwealth Health Insurance Connector Authority that provides insurance plans for the people whose income does not exceed 150% of the Federal Poverty Level (FPL) (Commonwealth Health Insurance Connector, n.d.).
Evaluation
One significant strength of OHP was its ability to expand insurance coverage to those residents of the state who did not have the financial ability to purchase any level of healthcare insurance. However, the programs success in providing insurance coverage by rationing medical services was not sustainable. The enrollment in OHP dropped by 53%, from 104,000 at the beginning of 2003 to 49,000 at the end of 2003 (Oberlander, 2007).
SustiNet was designed to provide healthcare insurance to those who cannot purchase it on their own, in a similar vein to OHP. One of the strengths of the plan is the provision of independent information about health outcomes, costs, and other pertinent information about both state-sponsored and private insurance coverage plans in Connecticut (SustiNet, 2010). However, even though the implementation of the plan was meant to slow the growth in health care costs while simultaneously expanding coverage dramatically, the report& shows that SustiNet costs will rise by $77 million in 2017 (SustiNet, 2010; HayGroup, 2011).
Notwithstanding the fact that the enrollment in the program did not fall precipitously as it did in the case of OHP, it is projected that benefits costs for all current enrollees would be paid by the state. Taking into consideration that even a 1% error in the estimation of premiums can result in a significant impact on spending, this could be a major problem for the State of Connecticut (HayGroup, 2011).
Just like OHP, Massachusetts healthcare reform was meant to expand insurance coverage to those residents of the state who did not have the financial ability to buy healthcare insurance coverage. After its enactment in 2006, more than 400,000 people living in Massachusetts received insurance (Commonwealth Health Insurance Connector, n.d.).
Taking into consideration that the outcome of legislation was the provision of healthcare coverage to almost 98% of the states residents, it can be argued that the reform delivered on its promise. However, in a similar vein to SustiNet, it led to a massive increase in state spending on healthcare services (McAdoo, Irving, Deslich, & Coustasse, 2013). According to a recent report, Massachusetts spent $2.42 billion dollars on Medicaid and SustiNet (McAdoo et al., 2013).
Analysis
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the idea of universal health coverage (UHC) is associated with equity in access to health care services, meaning that everyone in need of those services can receive them regardless of whether they have the financial wherewithal to afford them (WHO, 2016). Considering that Massachusetts healthcare reform was designed to ensure that almost all of the states residents would be offered a minimum level of insurance coverage, which is consistent with WHOs definition of UHC, it can be argued that the state came close to providing the people living within the states boundaries with affordable healthcare services.
OHP, on the other hand, did not succeed in meeting the objective of expanding insurance coverage to those residents of the state who did not have the ability to purchase an insurance (Oberlander, 2007). Taking into account that its enrollment rates significantly dropped, it cannot be considered a UHC (Oberlander, 2007). Unlike OHP, SustiNet provides insurance for existing state-sponsored populations, state employees and retirees as well as Medicaid and HUSKY beneficiaries ; therefore, it can be called a UHC (SustiNet Health Partnership, 2011).
Though classical definition of health embraces all dimensions and aspects, there are still needs significant amendments with regard to newly emerged circumstances and contexts.
Hence, the World Health Organization defining health a state of complete physical, mental, and social well being and not merely absence of disease of infirmity cannot be regarded as an objective evaluation of the entire meanings and concerns of todays situation (The World Health Organization, as cited in Saracci 1409). At the conceptual level, the definition encounters the most serious challenges, which impair its leading role as far as the conflict between resources and health needs are concerned.
To be more specific, the current definition of health can be confused with the state of happiness. According to Saracci, the distinction between health and happiness is crucially relevant in terms of rights, in particular positive rights or entitlements requiring societal actions to ensure that they effectively and fully materialize (1409). To remove the existing ambivalence, the definition should describe health as a state of well being free of infirmity and disease and a universal human right.
Perspectives for Creating an Ideal Health Care Delivery System
In order to promote effective health reform and improve the situation with health in a global context, a global perspective on Health Care System should be associated with the introduction of a patient-oriented and innovated system. Hence, delivery of health should be personalized (Valdez et al. 3).
Open access and transparency, therefore, enable people to make importance decisions about their health, while focusing more in health promotion and disease prevention. In this respect, the introduction of industrial systems and engineering in the sphere of health care management will contribute to creating a optimized system of health care.
Health Care System: Examining the Main Problems within a Global Context
Definition
Health care system is a complex network of organizations and agencies whose activities are directed at providing health care to people. Promoting health and introducing disease prevention measures are among the main goals of medical care. In a global context, health issues and problems around the world are monitored by the World Health Organization (Shah n. p.).
The agency also controls almost all health care networks in different countries by looking at political, cultural, and national discrepancies. In particular, rights and freedoms related to health, unequal access to health problems, and education and gender issues are analyzed and controlled by the World Health Organization.
Physical Fitness and Public Health System
Public healthcare system has a potent impact on peoples willingness to engage in physical activities. In this respect, the major goal of public health institution is to provide a persuasive conception of physical fitness for people to be involved into improving their physical and mental health.
Therefore, improving health advocacy should become a priority to public activists who should make the population take part in physical activity (Bendtsen 35). In reality, despite the firmly fixed concept, large segments of the world population are not enough active, which increase a high attributable risk for acute disorders. Therefore, the urgent need for a more consistent health-promoting concept is enormous.
Working out relevant policies and programs can both economically and socially advance the welfare of the population and remove the need to introduce serious medical interventions (Bendtsen et al. 35). The conception is especially relevant for the developing economies, as well as for the countries where the obesity level exceeds the fixed norms.
According to Bendtsen et al., both public health system and the population should be equally willing introduce change into a healthy lifestyle and promote effective physical fitness concepts (36). As a result, the population feel great responsibility for their own physical activity levels, but also attribute responsibility for promoting increased physical activity to health care practitioners (Bendtsen et al. 34).
In this respect, a holistic approach should be used to bring in physical activities into a health public sector that, in its turn, can promote this tendency to people.
Outlining Problems and Main Barriers for Introducing Improvements to Health Care System
Because of unequal access to health care systems, as well as irrational allocation of resources, a global system of health care delivery encounters a number of problems. To begin with, health rights of individuals with regard to social, economic, and political aspects differ. Poverty and inequality is the results of the violation of the rights to health (Shah n. p).
The shortcomings of the problems relate to inconsistencies in terms of domestic legislations, observance of international declarations and absence of effective prevention and control of diseases. Access to the most essential medical services is also limited in developing countries.
Absence of transparency and equal access is also explained by inefficient information flow and innovative introduction to the sphere of health care. One of the main obstacles to achieving shifts in health care provision is associated with structural and cultural traditions in the health care delivery system emphasizing only subsystem improvement and short-term outcomes and rewards (Valdez et al. 2). Lack of knowledge and experience in handling IT information also hampers the process of improvement and promotion.
Along with the problem of unequal access and lack of innovative knowledge, effective management of human resources is another serious obstacle. At this point, human resources management significantly influences the situation in health care system because it identifies major financial circulations (Kabene et al. 3). It is also the main physical capital of health care institutions and, therefore, managers should pay closer attention to training programs for the employees.
The effectiveness of work carried out by health care personnel correlates with the benefits and performance the system delivers. In this respect, skills, knowledge, experience, and motivations of the individuals are the core pillars of successful management. In case there is a misbalance between physical and human resources, the health care organizations can face a serious problem while maintaining appropriate quality standards.
Kabene et al. support the idea that HRM practices must be developed in order to find the appropriate balance of workforce supply and the ability of those practitioners to practice effectively and efficiently (2). As a result, lack of adequate tools, such as those provided by ISE, and absence of experienced staff are contributing factors to recession in health care industry.
Facilitators to Achieving Success by introducing Industrial System Engineering to Health Care System
Main Facilitators
As it has been mentioned before, knowledge innovation faces significant barriers because of a conservative outlook on health care structure. In this respect, increasing awareness of the health care management, as well as recognizing the potential of the Industrial System Engineering can provide new perspectives for development and improvement. In addition, progress in acknowledgement of ISE tools and use of IT equipment can establish a favorable climate for introducing a health care reform (Valdez et al. 4).
While introducing ISE tools to health care, the major challenges have been faced. In particular, difficulty in re-formulating an obsolete way of thinking and lack of transparency can be eliminated if consistent measures are taken. Specifically, the ISE solutions will be divided into three steps.
The first one involves stimulating innovations with the help of ISE tools that will be combined with a sophisticated nature of medical care (Valdez et al. 6). The next step will focus on accelerating knowledge transfer to solve existing health care problems. Finally, integrating meta-knowledge to promote sustainability and capacity is also an important solution to the problem.
Action Plan for Introducing ISE Knowledge to Health Care Delivery
Before introducing the identified solutions to the health care system, it is necessary to define the areas where the interventions should take place. These areas involve human resource management, capacity structure, current state of technologies, existing knowledge about IT systems, and influence of research practices on information flow (Valdez et al. 15). All these dimensions can be effectively improved through collaboration, training, financing, distribution, and administration.
First, the introduction of ISE can contribute to increasing the number of stakeholders involved in improving health care system and promoting negotiations through reforms and projects. The development of partnerships among organizations and industries is also guaranteed. Second, enhancing personnel experience through training will foster the processional development and create a base for career fellowships.
Third, innovative technologies can attract investments and encourage communities to support different IT projects (Valdez et al. 15). Forth, distribution process and facilitate networking and publication of a new research articles, as well as support demonstration project in different health care organizations. Finally, introducing ISE tools is beneficial for effective administration and control of information flow and human resources.
Judging from the above presented solutions, effective management of ISE tools within health care system can also advance the quality standards of medical services. Because information flow is one of the most important conditions for successful patient treatment, health care organizations should strive to turn their institutions into state-of-the-art technological centers (Valdez et al. 17).
What is more important, presenting innovative ISE methods, health care organizations should introduce a patient-centered approach to treating clients and ensuring high quality and safety of health care delivery.
Judging from the above-presented concepts and solutions, an ideal health care system will be seen an integrated network with improved linkages and multiple channels for access. In addition, medical services will be delivered to a multi-cultural population irrespective of social, political, and economical conditions. Finally, health care system should be ubiquitous, flexible, and responsible (Valdez et al. 17).
Industrial System Engineering and Health Care: Analyzing the Outcomes
Apart from promotion health programs, introducing industrial system engineering research into public health system is also crucial for analyzing academic demands and creating effective models for solving problems. Specifically, the industrial engineering can advance the principles of quality improvement and facilitate the studies about innovative support systems (Industrial & Systems Engineering n. p.).
More importantly, developing computer system to teach people on the methods to eliminate the risks of incidents is also important. Finally, a matter of patient safety and analysis of practice patters is also necessary for better health care management (Industrial & Systems Engineering n. p.).
Overall, physical health activities increase peoples awareness of the responsibility they take for their moral and physical health. For instance, programs oriented on smoking cessation, exercise referral schemes, and weight management programs are recognized as highly important. Introducing such programs should result in a significant increase in quality of life, as well as greater peoples involvement in organizing their independent life.
Conclusion
Health is a multi-faceted notion embracing a variety of concepts and contexts. Public health system, therefore, should take effort to re-organize the health industry and introduce new concepts of physical fitness through the introduction of ISE technologies. Moreover, health care system should also reconsider the role of sport in life of people and provide new programs for patients.
At this point, it is possible to work out effective medical intervention along with a set of physical exercises. In particular, introducing effective IT tools can significantly enhance the quality of care and provide high perspective for further development. More importantly, innovated health care centers are more likely to attract investors and non-profit organizations.
Works Cited
Bendtsen, Preben et al. Is There A Demand For Physical Activity Interventions Provided By The Health Care Sector? Findings From A Population Survey. BMC Public Health 10 (2010): 34-41. Print.
Industrial & Systems Engineering. Health Systems. 2011. Web.
Kabene, Stefane, Orchard Carole, Howard John, Soriano Mark, and Raymond Leduc. The Importance of Human Resources Management in Health Care: A Global Context. Human Resources for Health. 4.20 (2006): 1-17. Print.
Saracci, Rodolfo. The World Health Organisation Needs To Reconsider Its Definition Of Health. BMJ: British Medical Journal (International Edition) 314.7091 (1997): 1409-1410. Print.
Valdez, Rupa Sheth, Edmond, Ramly, and Patricia Flatley Brennan. Industrial and Systems Engineering and Health Care: Critical Areas of Research. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. 2010: 1-87. Print.