Category: Health & Medicine

Some evidences indicated clearly that vaccinations have the potential to prevent a wide range of diseases that affecting human being. In 1900s, the vaccines were used to control various diseases that threatened human beings such as measles, tuberculosis, and diphtheria.

Most of the diseases were controlled through the use of vaccination. The specialist tried to practice more in order to save more lives of people. The pain that associated with different diseases such as measles were unimaginable.

So many people are currently disregarding the importance of these vaccines. People strongly believe that vaccinations have the potential to cause autism. The reasons why more people believe strongly that such vaccinations cause autism among young children are based on motivated reasoning, denial arguments, conspiracy theories and logical fallacies.

The occurrence of numerous cases of autism among the targeted children has raised numerous questions. This essay uses different concepts to explain why more people believe strongly that such vaccinations cause autism among young children.

Motivated reasoning

Every emotion-biased process of decision-making is known as motivated reasoning. This kind of reasoning has been observed to result in denial. Autism is a major condition that affects many children. Normal children have been observed to develop the condition at a time when it is least expected.

People have developed much fear about the disease because it is clearly understood. According to Monica Prasad, she discussed about the definition of motivated reasoning.

According to the article, motivated reasoning is a descendant of the social psychological theory of cognitive dissonance, which posits an unconscious impulse to relieve cognitive tension when a respondent is presented with information that contradicts preexisting beliefs or preferences (Prasad et al. 5). That means people always confirm the information that they already believed with ignoring any kinds of evidences or scientific theory or data.

They believe deeply in their mind that the vaccine will cause Autism to their children and they do not want to change or challenge their theory. The reading goes further to argue that people avoid inconsistency, ignore challenging information altogether, discredit the information source, or argue substantively against the challenge (Prasad et al. 5).

People also refuse to counter argue with their believe even without any supportive evidences as Prasad et al. mentioned no evidence had currently been found linking Saddam Hussein to 9/11 but nevertheless believed that Saddam was responsible for 9/11 and were able to give a reason for that belief (15). Cognitive dissonance leads people feelconfident when they come across two contradictory ideas and stand on their belief.

A motivated reasoning forces people to dictate the decision-making processes and attitude changes of the individual. The individual will therefore rely on a specific evidence or motivation to make the most desirable conclusion. However, people psychologists have also presented powerful denial arguments to explain why human beings resist information.

Denial arguments

Denial arguments have emerged whereby human beings engage ininferred justification. Denial arguments are opinions or ideas presented by individuals without giving accurate reasons to support them. This method usually occurs when an individual decides to infer any evidence capable of supporting his or her beliefs.

Inferred justification can therefore be used to explain why more people have established new ideas regarding the use of vaccines (Washington and Cook 2). Such people believe strongly that vaccinations can cause autism. The situation discourages them from vaccinating their children.

The article Denial and the Nature of Science by Haydn Washington and John Cook argues clearly that human beings are capable of denying. They discussed about peoples ability. They write We all deny, and the ability to deny is an amazing human phenomenon (Washington and Cook 2).

In my opinion, the emotion of human is the reason why individuals will always deny. For example, many Norwegians were observed to avoid engaging in various thoughts associated with climate change.

According to Washington and Cook, they write People in Norway avoided thinking about climate change because doing so raised feelings of helplessness and guilt that threatened individual self-identity (Washington and Cook 6).

The situation appeared to affect the people thoughts and identities. Similar approaches have been embraced in different regions whereby individuals decide to ignore the facts about vaccination.

Moreover, more people continue to deny the existing facts about the use of vaccines. They strongly believe that the use of vaccines is something that is not real and healthy. They will have to develop more faith and trust in order to accept some drugs from different doctors, pharmacy companies, and public health workers.

The increasing cases of autism cause the feeling of guilty for some people who think vaccine is good and change their mind (Specter 3). As the result more and more people ignore the scientific evidences and the use of vaccines.

This fact explains why the percentage of vaccinations in the United Kingdom has fallen drastically. As well, many parts of Wales and England recorded new cases of measles from 2006 and 2007 (Prasad et al. 97). Similar observations have been recorded in the United States.

Conspiracy theories and logical fallacies

Conspiracy theories and logical fallacies are also the reason for people why they engage in denial. For instance, a logical fallacy is an illusion or trick used by leaders to deceive individuals. A conspiracy theory is a hypothetical argument explaining how some individuals, groups, or organizations might have been involved in a certain harmful situation (Washington and Cook 2).

According to Washington and Cook, they write If one disagrees with a view held by the great majority of the worlds scientists, the most common response is to assume all those scientists are involved in a vast conspiracy to deceive (Washington and Cook 4).

That means individual person disagrees with some of the argument or fact, he will think that will be a unacceptable lie to deceive people just like the climate change mentioned by Washington and Cook.

For example, some people might state that the safety of different vaccines is nothing but a conspiracy just in order to increase the benefit of the vaccine companies (Washington and Cook 2). Also, some people may believe that the argument is a logical fallacy.

Some people might ignore the ideas with the safety of different vaccines even with the powerful medical or scientific reports just like the climate change mentioned by Washington and Cook that climate has changed naturally in the past and therefore current climate change must be natural (Washington and Cook 13).

People always focus on the illogically phenomenon but the supporting evidences. So more people refute and ignore the evidences supporting the effectiveness and safety of vaccine and will think drugs or other medication provided by the doctors will be the best way to treat Autism rather than taking the vaccine.

People are always the skeptics and will always work hard in order to approach the truth. According to the article Denial and the Nature of Science byWashington and Cook, they write Skepticism is about seeking the truth and realizing the world is a complex place.

Skepticism is about stepping away from superstition and dogma. Genuine skepticism in science is one of the ways that science progresses, examining assumptions and conclusions (Washington and Cook 1).

People can improve themselves, even the world with a real skepticism which address the questions with logic, statements and evidence. But sometimes individual person will also question various evidences and eventually ignore the suggested theories or arguments.

This practice becomes a true action of denial. Therefore, the increasing cases of Autism among the immunized children have led to a new form of skepticism. Then denial has been used widely to reject the effort of a well-established occurrence and fact on the use of the vaccine on Autism.

That is one of the reasons why people strongly believe that vaccine cause Autism (Specter 1). Some medical and scientific report has indicated clearly that vaccine is secure.

Conclusion

The concepts of fallacy, motivated reason, and conspiracy have encouraged more people to disregard the use of vaccinations. However, failing to vaccinate children is something that can affect their health outcomes (Specter 3).

Scientific evidences also show conclusively that such vaccines are healthy and safe. It is therefore necessary for parents to consider every scientific fact in order to embrace the benefits of vaccines. The practice will support the health needs of many children.

Works Cited

Prasad, Monica, Andrew Perrin, Kieran Bezila, Steve Hoffman, Kate Kindleberger, Kim Manturuk and Ashleigh Powers. There Must Be a Reason: Osama, Saddam, and Inferred Justification. Sociological Inquiry 79.2 (2009): 1-20. Print.

Specter, Michael. Denialism: How Irrational Thinking Hinders Scientific Progress, Harms the Planet, and Threatens our Lives, New York: Penguin, 2009. Print.

Washington, Haydn, and John Cook. Climate Change Denial: Heads in the Sand, London: Earthscan Ltd, 2011. Print.

Analyzing and evaluating the two most salient trends impacting the inpatient or outpatient setting

Various trends are affecting both inpatient and outpatient care the most important of which is the rise of e-measures and increase of co-management arrangements. Along with traditional hospital-physician relationships, one may observe a new form of collaboration between hospitals and independent physicians. According to co-management arrangements, hospitals hire employed groups of physicians to manage quality issues that are related to service lines (Angood & Birk, 2014). These arrangements seem to be quite significant in improving hospital performance because of their high adaptability. Therefore, the expected continuation of this trend is the development of co-management arrangements. E-measures are aimed at automation of health issues measurement that is more accurate and time saving compared to non-automated measures (Garrido et al., 2014). However, there is a range of difficulties in regulation between such actors as accrediting entities, government, vendors, and payers. It seems that the use of Electronic Health Records (EHRs) can considerably affect the quality of reporting by clearly illustrating provider workows and promoting quality.

The positive and negative impacts of these trends

The positive points of co-management arrangements include versatility and goal-oriented nature. The first point means that these arrangements are adaptable to different hospital service lines (Angood & Birk, 2014). In other words, they can be used to adjust to the ever-changing environment promptly. The second point implies that co-management arrangements can be specifically oriented at a certain goal. For example, it can be associated with a certain physician or a group of them. As for the negative aspects of this trend, one can note that in case a group of physicians is involved in the collaboration, then its members have to agree to contribute to the effectiveness of a hospital. Otherwise, the engagement of members would not be full and sufficient. Also, some legal issues should be noted. In particular, the government may intervene in case of payment concerns.

Speaking of e-measures, it is important to state that they are useful in tracking and controlling a patients health issues. The time savings that result from this trend are another positive impact that helps to provide quality health care services (McWilliams, Chernew, Dalton, & Landon, 2014). The current partial automation of health-related processes is likely to be replaced by the full automation. This step can offer increased efficiency and quality. However, economic strains are the main negative aspects of implementing e-measures. In particular, the cost of development, implementation, and maintenance require significant costs. Nevertheless, a breakeven can also be achieved.

Are these trends sustainable?

The sustainability of the identified trends seems to be quite obvious and relevant to the challenges set by the modern world. Both of the mentioned trends help adapt to the changing circumstances and provide high-quality care (Garrido et al., 2014). It seems that these trends would be developed and finalized according to the requirements of hospitals and health care organizations. At this point, it is necessary to stress that the trends of co-management arrangements and e-measures are closely connected with other trends such as reductions in hospital readmissions, Medicare programs, and other issues (White, Carney, Flynn, Marino, & Fields, 2014). Therefore, it seems to be essential to consider their impacts in connection with other trends to ensure comprehensive and appropriate analysis. For example, the sustainability of either one or both identified trends may depend on hospital readmissions or management, thus impacting their quality, timeliness, and effectiveness.

References

Angood, P., & Birk, S. (2014). The value of physician leadership. Physician Executive, 40(3), 620.

Garrido, T., Kumar, S., Lekas, J., Lindberg, M., Kadiyala, D., Whippy, A.,& Weissberg, J. (2014). E-measures: Insight into the challenges and opportunities of automating publicly reported quality measures. Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association, 21(1), 181184..

McWilliams, J. M., Chernew, M. E., Dalton, J. B., & Landon, B. E. (2014). Outpatient care patterns and organizational accountability in Medicare. JAMA Internal Medicine, 174(6), 938945.

White, B., Carney, P. A., Flynn, J., Marino, M., & Fields, S. (2014). Reducing hospital readmissions through primary care practice transformation. Journal of Family Practice, 63(2), 6774.

The contractions of muscles that allow us to move would not appear without the work done by motor units. Sir Charles Sherrington made a great contribution to the study of a human body when he stated that people could move due to the action that occurs between a motor (efferent) neuron and muscle fibers and introduced the concept of a motor unit. The researcher assumed that each muscle fiber receives innervation from only one motor neuron, and that the muscle fiber faithfully responds to every impulse of the motor neuron (Floeter 1).

As can be seen, their basic structure is rather simple and includes only an efferent neuron and muscle fibers. Motor units can be of different sizes, depending on the type of contraction of the muscles. The smallest ones deal with the smallest neurons and fibers and turn into slow motor units with low myosin ATPase activity. An intermediate size of neuron and diameter of muscle fiber means that the motor unit is fast-oxidative with high myosin ATPase activity.

Finally, the largest fast-glycolytic units with high myosin ATPase activity come (Motor Units par. 7). As a rule, the muscles include different types of motor units in various proportions depending on the individuals genetics; the quadriceps, for example, has a relatively equal proportion of slow and fast units. In this way, the extraocular muscles are fast motor units, while postural muscles are slow ones.

Of course, it is impossible just to memorize all the information about the motor units in the spare of the moment. Still, its constituents are rather easy to remember, as there are only two of them. The connection between size and types is also clear. If the constitutes are large, the motor unit is also large and fast. The contradiction can provide an example: the eyes and extraocular muscles are small, so the units are fast. If motor neurons and muscle fibers are small, the motor unit is small and slow. The back and postural muscles in it are big, so the units are slow. Dealing with slow and fast motor units, it is critical to remember two opposites, slow-oxidative and fast-glycolytic. The intermediate part will have the characteristics of both of them and can be easily recollected when combining the names of these two: fast (glycolytic) + (slow) oxidative = fast-oxidative.

One of the latest researchers connected with this topic focuses on determining the selectivity of access to large numbers of independent motor units through intrafascicular multielectrode stimulation of the peripheral nerve (McDonnall, Clark, and Normann 599). In other words, scientists try to investigate the connection between nerves and motor units, influencing them from the outside, which seems to be rather unusual.

Motor units play an important role in our lives, as with the help of them, we can control our movements and cope with day-to-day activities. They make our muscles contract and give us the ability to blink, talk, brush hair, etc. Even the simplest movements would be unobtainable for us without motor units. They are the vital components of any action. This topic is extremely important, as it allows us to understand not only the way in which the human body moves but also what triggers the movements. It proves that the organism is a complicated system where all elements are connected, and even toe and brain can have something that makes them united.

Works Cited

Floeter, Mary. Structure and Function of Muscle Fibers and Motor Units 2010. Web.

McDonnall, Daniel, Gregory Clark, and Richard Normann. Selective Motor Unit Recruitment via Intrafascicular Multielectrode Stimulation. Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 82.8-9 (2004): 599-609. Print.

Motor Units. n.d. Web.

Socially disadvantaged and vulnerable populations (or groups) are all those who are not able to fully secure themselves and their families with the necessary standard of living. For example, minority, elderly, people with disabilities, and persons with special difficulties in finding work. In this paper, I will focus on the elderly comprising one of the most vulnerable groups due to their isolation that results in chronic diseases, decreased mobility, and potential problems of mental activity.

The first challenge they encounter is a psychological burnout. The health of the elderly living in a large city depends on some psychological and social factors. The emphasis is made on the role that public policy can play in the process of shaping a social environment that improves the health of elderly people. Among pensioners, there are groups with different living standards and behavioral strategies determined by a combination of factors.

The most significant among them are adaptive personal resources inherent in the socialization of the community. The social attitude of pensioners is maintained by a negative assessment of their life, depression, and inefficient everyday activities. A considerable part of pensioners experience a social failure, loneliness, worthlessness, rejection by society and the state, and feel psychologically oppressed (Knowing Your Community, 2016). A factor of loneliness is perceived by older adults as an extremely difficult one. Therefore, it is necessary to help them feel better involved in employment or other social activities (Code of ethics, 2000). Human service professionals are also to contribute to the high-quality future life of pensioners (Ethical standards for human services professionals, n.d.).

The second challenge the elderly have to face is the violence occurring in low-income communities (Ohmer, Warner, & Beck, 2010). Because of the high labor migration, more and more elderly people left without help or support of their children (Code of Ethics of the National Association of Social Workers, 2008). The most common form of family violence against older adults is psychological, economic, and physical violence (ACA code of ethics, 2005).

Victims of violence can be an elderly person. Usually, it is millions of low-income elderly worldwide who suffer from domestic violence having no protection. However, not all of them can seek help from the legislative body of the country because sometimes people are struggling to insulate their wards so that they could not complain. The consequences of physical violence can be physical injury, pain, or impairment of health. Violence can also be psychological when threats and harassment make him or her suffers emotionally. Another very common form of abuse is neglect of an elderly person. For example, refusal of the nurse or the caregiver to fulfill their obligations towards the older adults. Therefore, some social justice advocacy strategies should be introduced into practice (Ratts, 2008).

The third factor is financial instability. Some limited capabilities, either physical or financial, certain information deficit, the newly introduced or increased payment for a number of cultural, leisure, and sports facilities, lead to a significant reduction in the quality of life of older people. Consequently, it seems essential to provide them with healthcare, security in old age through guaranteed pensions, unemployment protection, and all rights found in the Universal Declaration (At-Risk and Clinical Social Action and Service Strategies Toward the Creation of a Human Rights Culture, 2008, p. 158). Older people are extremely sensitive to the deterioration of their financial situation.

Thus, one can conclude that older people often are not able to lead a normal life and secure a peaceful, decent living in an imperfect system of social assistance. In order to help them, it is necessary to provide appropriate social support.

References

ACA code of ethics. (2005). American Counseling Association. Web.

At-Risk and Clinical Social Action and Service Strategies Toward the Creation of a Human Rights Culture. (2008). In J. Wonka (Ed.), Human rights and social justice: Social action and service for the helping and health professions (pp. 157203). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Web.

Code of ethics. (2000). Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences. Web.

Code of ethics of the National Association of Social Workers. (2008). National Association of Social Workers. Web.

Ethical standards for human services professionals. (n.d.). National Organization for Human Services. Web.

Knowing Your Community. (2016). In M. Homan (Ed.), Promoting community change: Making it happen in the real world (6th ed.), (pp. 131-200). Boston, MA: Cengage. Web.

Ohmer, M. L., Warner, B. D., & Beck, E. (2010). Preventing violence in low-income communities: Facilitating residents ability to intervene in neighborhood problems. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 37(2), 161181. Web.

Ratts, M. J. (2008). A pragmatic view of social justice advocacy: Infusing microlevel social justice advocacy strategies into counseling practices. Counseling and Human Development, 41(1), 18. Web.

Introduction

Nowadays, there exist numerous guides on getting in shape, but they do not always appear to agree with their ideas. It is not surprising: the process of getting in shape is rather long and difficult, and one method is unlikely to fit every person. Still, a couple of suggestions can be relatively universal, including the advice of making sure to enjoy the process.

Thus, the first step to getting in shape for any person is to understand that he or she wants to be in shape. The process needs to be completely voluntary; otherwise, it will be difficult to enjoy it. One could suggest that this stage provides motivation for the remaining elements of the process, which makes it crucial for success; it is the basis for getting in shape, and should not get skipped.

The process of getting in shape

Once the decision is made, it is time to begin the investigation. Indeed, doing anything without knowing how to do it is not a good idea. Reliable sources (for example, health magazines or professionals) need to be consulted with the aim of gathering enough knowledge to customize the process of getting in shape. The need for customization is apparent: everybody is special and unique, and, apart from that, people tend to have different tastes, which may affect their enjoyment. Getting in shape is typically related to physical activities and dieting, and there is a wide variety of ways to perform both. People who do not enjoy jogging might like powerlifting, and those who dislike vegetables might like fruits. Choosing what is most pleasant and convenient for every particular person appears to be another motivational technique that promises success.

Having established the preferences, one can begin planning the process. This stage can be customized as well: some people prefer detailed plans while others are more comfortable with a gliding schedule. Setting goals can be motivational, but it is important to make them manageable and achievable while also ensuring a certain level of challenge, which should also be specific for every person. The knowledge from the previous phase should be used extensively here and, if possible, consulting specialists is also helpful.

The next stage is the implementation, and it is likely to require much effort. Planning should provide the guidelines, and the customization of activities should provide motivation, but it is advisable to search for other sources of inspiration during this stage of getting in shape. For example, friends and relatives can be a source of support, and new ideas for getting-in-shape activities can be found during traveling or surfing the Internet. Thus, it is possible to return to the research and planning stages at any moment to modify the process for ones enjoyment.

Finally, if a person enjoys it, the process of getting in shape can and should become a habit and an integral part of ones life, which brings along multiple benefits that do not have to be related to health. For instance, jogging with pets can help one to become a responsible owner. Engaging in group sports can help one to socialize, spend time with friends, and make new acquaintances. Learning about healthy products and dishes can be educational and very entertaining. In general, finding new healthy ways to enrich ones life can be very engaging.

Conclusion

To sum up, there are many ways to enjoy the process of getting in shape. Moreover, this process comes with multiple bonuses. By determining ones preferences, planning the process, and searching for continuous sources of motivation and inspiration, a person can make sure that he or she will not stop halfway and achieve their goals in this field.

Teratology is the study of physiological defects in organisms. The defects could be due to several factors like the environmental factors. These factors work together to impair the normal development of an embryo. The level of vulnerability to these defects depends on several factors like the stage of development of an embryo at the time the organism is exposed to the heterogenic agents.

These agents act on the cells of the embryo or its tissues hence causing abnormalities in the development. The level of defects mostly depends on the nature of the teratogenic agents, the way in which the cells are exposed to these agents and the level of placental transfer between the mother and the fetus as well as the level of the dosage (Wilson 200).

When an embryo is exposed to the teratogenic agents, the end result might be, retardation, malfunctioning, malformation or in the extreme cases death. Some of the congenital defects are however genetic and they are passed from one generation to the other. Some are usually internal while others are external.

The manifestation might be large or small depending on a number of factors like the level of exposure to the teratogenic agents. Some of the parts affected during the malfunctioning, deformation or retardation include the nervous system, facial features, the gut, the skeletal as well as the genital systems (Nau 111).

Malformations

Some of the malformations in vertebrates are usually minor and to some extend negligible. Some involve the malformation of the external features like the facial features, the ear, and hands among others. Some of these malformations are due to the viral effects, radiation as well as the chemical substances that are ingested or find their way into the body. The malformations can be categorized as follows;

1. Malformation: This is a structural defect that is caused by a localized morphogenetic error.
2. Deformation: It is the change in the structure or shape that occurs on an organ that was previously normal.
3. Anomalad: This is a malformation that takes place with subsequent structural changes.
4. Syndrome: It is a known malformation pattern that might not necessarily be due to morphogenetic errors.
5. Association: It is a malformation pattern that is considered to be neither a syndrome nor an anomalad.

A single etiological factor is able to lead to a number of these malfunctions. Mutation of an organisms genes plays a very significant role in the development of these malformations. In the cases where such malformations are hereditary, careful insight into the organisms history and family tree is able to determine the genesis of such malformations.

It is usually not very easy to determine whether the defects that occur after birth are malformations or deformations. Some of them might not necessarily be due to the primary developmental error. When different agents cause the similar defects in the same organisms, then it is quite obvious that such agents would be acting on one particular field of development (Carlson 134).

Gene mutations usually lead to misinformation as the information contained in such genes is usually altered which in turn leads to malformation for instance in the cases of deafness, cataract as well as heart complications. The altered information that is coded in the genes is usually passed to the subsequent generations and the probability of similar malformations occurring in the subsequent generations is very high. Some of the defects might not be recognized until the organism is a few months or years old.

A good example is the deafness that is caused by rubella which might not be evident until the child is one or two years old. The rubella virus rarely crosses the placenta from the mother to the fetus although whenever this happens the results are tragic. It might for instance result in the deafening of the fetus, retardation, abortions and in some cases death. It has been found out that some of the prenatal defects that are eminent in mammals are due to irradiation (Needham 109-111).

Vitamins A are very vital in the fetal development in the vertebrates. When the mother does not get these vitamins, the fetus will most probably be prone to malformation. Whenever such vitamins are deficient in the diet of the mother, there are high chances of the malformations in the kidneys, ovaries, ears among other parts.

It has also been discovered that the malformations might be due to the chemical substances that are ingested or those that in one way or the other find their way into the body. Pregnant mothers who take the thalidomide medication are prone to having babies with malformations.

The magnitude of the malformation might depend on the amount of these substances that has been ingested. Some of the other effects include deaths as well as abortions. Some of the defects include the malformation of the limbs, shoulders, and the skeleton as well as other non-skeletal tissues. The placenta is usually porous to some of the substances that are likely to cause defects when they come into contact with the fetus.

Rh Incompatibility

It is quite common for the blood cells of the fetus to find their way into the mothers blood system and this might be due to placental defects or it could happen at the time of delivery. It is possible for the fetuss erythrocytes to have the Rh antigens while the mother is negative. Whenever they find their way into the mothers system, her immune system produces the anti-Rh antibodies which are aimed at countering the Rh antigens. The effect is not much in the firstborns as the antibodies are not in large quantities.

The subsequent pregnancies are however affected significantly as the mothers immune system is well prepared to counter any Rh antigens. The antibodies are able to penetrate the placental walls attacking the Rh positive erythrocytes in the unborn hence causing hemolysis. This results into the hemolytic disease. In severe cases, the young one would be prone to brain damage and anemia. In humans, the conditions might be averted through blood transfusion in the baby.

Placental Pathological Conditions

There are several pathological conditions of the placenta that might affect the normal development of the fetus. Abnormalities in the implantation of the placenta might have adverse effects on the unborn. In some cases for instance, the placenta might be implanted in such a way that part of it covers the uterine cavity on the cervical outlet.

This is a common cause of hemorrhage which usually leads to the early separation of parts of the placenta from the uterine wall of the mother hence leading to fetal malformation. The uterus is also prone to malignant tumors which are likely to cause impairment in the fetal development (Streeter 62).

Principles of Teratology

The vulnerability to these defects and malformations is very much dependent on the organisms genotype and its interaction with the environment. The stage of development at the time of exposure is very significant in determining the vulnerability of the organism.

The teratogenic agents act in certain ways to the organisms cells as well as tissues hence causing abnormality in the development of the organism. This usually results in malformations, retardation, and disorder and to some extend death might occur. Environmental factors might also determine the development of a tissues or cells of that organism but this largely depends on the nature of such influence. The degree of the influence is usually proportional to the level of dosage of the teratogenic agents (Fabiola Muller 213).

The causes of the malformations can therefore be summarized into three major categories; they include genetic disorders of which 15% are attributed to the internal factors. The single gene defects and the chromosomal aberrations fall under this category.

The other causes are environmental factors of which 10% is attributed to the external factors. They include chemical substances, drugs, certain hormones as well as Vitamins. Others include physical agents as well as infectious agents. The other environmental factors that cause the malformations include the maternal conditions.

Idiopathic disorders and other multifactorial disorders also lead to malformations. Some of the chemical substances that might alter the normal development of the embryo include environmental pollutants like lead and mercury, ethanol and retinoid (ORahilly 333-340). The malformations usually vary from one organism to another depending on the exposure to the teratogenic agents and this usually results into miscarriages and still birth, retardation, congenital anomalies as well as functional defects.

Works Cited

Carlson, B. M. Pattens Foundations of Embryology. 6. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1996.

Fabiola Muller, Ronan ORahilly. Human Embryology & Teratology. New York: Wiley-Liss, 2001.

Nau, Hopwood. A history of normal plates, tables and stages in vertebrate embryology. New York: PubMed PMID, 2007.

Needham, Joseph. History of Embryology. Cambridge: Cambridge: University Press, 1959.

ORahilly, Ronan. Developmental Stages in Human Embryos. Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washingto, 1973.

Streeter, George. Developmental horizons in human embryos. Contributions to Embryology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.

Wilson, James G. und F. Clarke Fraser. Handbook of Teratology. London: Plenum Press, 1977.

Doctors play a crucial role in spending their lives trying to have the patients better. Just like any other human being, doctors too die, but they do not die like any other person. This is because, when they have a terminal illness, they receive more treatments compared to anyone else. Also, doctors know exactly what can crop up to them in case of any illness. They know the convenient choices for them since they are privileged to have access to any medical care of their choice.

It is a fact that no doctors want to die. The issue is that they know a lot about modern medicine to the extent that they know when the medicine will not work. Doctors know much about death, and they are aware that among the fears that people face before death is the fear of dying in pain and dying alone. They always want to talk to their families about what could happen just to encourage them not to be afraid since life must have an end.

All doctors have had a chance at one point to see futile care performed on people. Most doctors feel like the process of sustaining a life in the intensive care unit is worse than away a terrorist could be treated. Most of them would rather die than be injected with perforated tubes. They hate being hooked up to machines when they know that they cannot be able to sustain life. Most of them would need their colleagues to help them end their lives.

Doctors think that giving patients care and medicine that makes them endure is not good. Even though physicians were trained to collect information in private, they sometimes end up revealing the information to their colleagues. Most doctors have a high rate of alcohol abuse and depression than any of the other employees in any field. This is because of the difficulties that they face on a daily occasion as they try to care for patients in critical conditions. This is why doctors have to administer a lot of care to patients that they do not think would have been necessary.

Patients play a prominent role in causing depression to doctors. For example, in a situation, where a patient is admitted to an emergency room and is in a critical condition, the scared family members sometimes overwhelm doctors. They end up caught in a mixed situation where they have to make choices. Doctors need to do all they can to save lives. In everyday life, doctors find themselves in situations that they do not have control over.

Most of the time they end up in unrealistic situations and they need to save a life. In the case of impossibilities, and when the worst happens, doctors feel that they are to blame for the deaths. Most doctors do not advocate for the use of the CPR method of remedy in terminal illness (Hanson, 67). This is because there is more pain that the patient will go through after its use than the point of not using it. They believe that poor knowledge of something, in addition to misguided expectation from the family members have for a long time led to poor decisions. However, not all patients are to blame for this. Most of the doctors play a significant role in enabling it.

This is sad because even the doctors, who do not want to administer the CPR method, have to find an alternative way of fulfilling the wishes of close relatives, as well as the desires of the patient. In an emergency room, the doctors need to establish a lot of trust from the family members, who have entrusted their patients to them. Most people like to believe that all the doctors are acting out of their best motive. This is to save money, time, and resources. Most doctors choose to do little to ensure that they get little feedback and for the family members not to think that they are not willing to save lives.

Most patients have wishes that most doctors find it difficult to uphold. For example, if a patient is suffering from a terminal illness, they sometimes wish that someone would end life for them to reduce the agony that they feel. Most of the nurses might want to ignore their wishes, which makes most of the patients feel as if they are having their worst nightmare.

In conclusion, most of the doctors do not over-treat themselves. This is especially if they are aware that the treatment will not provide any improvements to their health. They tend to think that everyone can find the chance to die in peace without the agony of pain. Hospice care is set to provide care to patients having terminal illnesses. Surprisingly, studies have indicated that patients who are put up in hospice care tend to live for a longer time than patients who go out actively to look for medical attention.

This is because hospice care provides patients with better care in their last days on earth. Therefore, most of the doctors would like to die in the comfort of their bed.

Works Cited

Hanson, William. Smart medicine: how the changing role of doctors will revolutionize health care. New York [N.Y.: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011. Print.

The five senses: smell, touch, sight, sound and taste are avenues through which people perceive the world around them. Psychologists argue that through these senses, people do not experience sensation but the results of sensation. Regardless of this, the accuracy and inaccuracy of sensory data is affected by a number of factors namely environmental, psychological as well as physiological, which either distort reality or enhance it. As such illusion plays a big role in determining how accurate or inaccurate stimuli are perceived.

Naturally, sensory abilities are very accurate. However, a number of reasons lead people to believe in the accuracy of inaccuracy of sensory information. Previous experiences results to generalized assumptions about the nature of stimuli. Such assumptions make people ignore the context in which a given stimuli is perceived. Similarly, both cognitive and physical illusions alter perception, and thus the accuracy of sensory information. Illusions lead to alteration of reality.

When this occurs, stimuli are inaccurately perceived (Stangor, 2010). The five basic senses; light, touch, smell, sound and taste have a tendency to adapt to the environment. Sensory adaptation refers to the ability of sensory receptors to ignore familiar stimuli in preference of new stimuli. As such our senses ignore the fluctuation in the intensity of stimuli. Accuracy of sensory data is thus not guaranteed (Kraft, 1978).

The discussion above alludes to the fact that there are factors that determine the accuracy of sensory data. Accuracy and inaccuracy of stimuli is influenced by knowledge about the environment in which the stimuli is first perceived. This is because specific stimuli are associated with specific environments.

As such, people internalize the environment within which stimuli are perceived. Therefore the environment becomes part of cognitive interpretation of stimuli (Stangor, 2010). Similarly, psychological factors affect the accuracy and inaccuracy of sensory information.

Psychological factors refer to the emotional and the cognitive states of a person. Cognitive skills and abilities affect intelligence as well as how people apply knowledge. Poor cognitive skills might lead to misinterpretation and misapplication of knowledge and as such stimuli is inaccurately perceived. Furthermore, previous experiences may trigger an avalanche of emotions which affects how people perceive stimuli (Gregory, 1997).

Moreover, the physiological factors determines how accurate or inaccurately a stimuli is perceived. Physiological factors refer to the physical element of perception and sensation. Sensory receptors may be poorly developed. This leads to poor reception and interpretation of stimuli, which affects the accuracy of sensory data.

The factors raised above leads to the discussion on the role of nature versus nurture in reference to interpretation of sensory information. Naturalists argue that the ability to sense and interpret sensory data is innate. The ability of sensory receptors to interpret stimuli is determined by genes and not the external environment. This implies that sensory abilities are genetically modified and as such independent of the external environment (Carruthers, 2000).

On the other hand, nurturists argue that sensory perception is learned. This implies that senses develop as a result of environmental experiences. As such peoples experiences of the world and the environment in which they perceive stimuli contribute to the manner in which stimuli is perceived (Cardwell and Flanagan, 2003).

Sensation and perception are complex phenomena that cannot be restricted to a number of reason and factors. This is because the accuracy of sensory information is determined by a variety of variables both within and without human influence, which effectively distorts reality.

Reference List

Cardwell, M. and Flanagan, C. (2003). Psychology A2: the complete companion  Page 106. Cheltenham, GL: Nelson Thornes.

Carruthers, P. (2000). Phenomenal consciousness: a naturalistic theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Gregory, R. (1997). Knowledge in perception and illusion. Web.

Kraft, C. (1978). A psychophysical approach to air safety: Simulator studies of visual illusions in night approaches. New York, NY: Plenum Press.

Stangor, C. (2010). Introduction to Psychology. Web.

Introduction

HIV is an abbreviation for immunodeficiency virus while AIDS is the acronym for the immunodeficiency syndrome. HIV is a condition that affects the immune system of the human beings, and it is caused by immunodeficiency virus hence the name HIV. The virus destroys critical cells that are required for the fight of the diseases and infections (Brewer 613). Thus, people infected with HIV are prone to many infections. HIV was discovered in the early 1980s and since then statistics as per 2010 show that approximately 34 million people have contracted the virus across the globe (Center for Disease Control and Prevention par. 11). The following paper will discuss how HIV is transmitted, whether there is a possible cure, risks of HIV infection and the infection stages of HIV.

Implications of HIV

The spread of HIV is through some infected body fluids. The virus attacks the bodys immune system, i.e. the T cells also called CD4 cells (Baeten and Grant 145). The increased viral load leads to destruction of the CD4 cells. This reduces the ability of the body to resist infections and hence creates room for opportunistic infections such as tuberculosis and cancers that invade the weak immune system.

Stages of HIV infection

HIV infection takes place in three phases. The acute infection is the first phase, which appears in the early stage after contracting the virus. The symptoms at this stage include influenza that may last for 2-3 weeks. However, some people may not depict significant symptoms. The clinical latency is the second stage characterized by the reproduction of HIV in very low levels. The virus is still active though symptoms may not be manifested (Holtgrave 373). With proper management of the HIV, infected people can stay in the clinical latency stage for many years. However, without treatment, the disease may progress faster. Finally, AIDS appears in stage three. In this stage, the victim may suffer from different infections such as tuberculosis and cancers. In addition the stage is characterizes by decreased count of CD4 cells. For instance, the count is usually less than 200 cells/mm³.

Transmission

The coming into contact with certain body fluids such as blood, semen, rectal fluids, breast milk and vaginal fluids from an infected person can result in transmission of the HIV (Lafeuillade 125). The most common mode of transmission is normally through risky sexual behaviors such as failure to use a condom during sexual encounters, and multiple sex partners. Anal sex is the highest risk sexual behavior followed by vaginal sex (CDC par. 12). Other less common modes of infections include mother to child in the course of pregnancy, birth and breastfeeding, use of unsterilized syringes and needles. In addition, in rare cases, HIV has been transmitted by oral, blood transfusion, being bitten by a person with HIV and contact between broken skin and deep open mouth kissing where the partners have bleeding gums or mouth sores (CDC par. 14).

Treatment

HIV has no cure; however, there are antiretroviral medicines that are used to prevent the progression of the HIV to AIDS. The drugs reduce the progression of the virus from the second stage to the third stage and enhance healthy living among the HIV positive people. The antiretroviral drugs have also been found to slow down the rate of transmission. In addition, vaccination trials have been conducted. However, the trials have yielded partial reduction in the transmission risk as of 2012 (Kent 72). The trials have given hope to researchers; hence, ongoing researches on medicines and vaccinations that could cure HIV.

Works Cited

Baeten, Jared, and Robert Grant. Use of antiretroviral for HIV prevention: What do we know and what dont we know? Current HIV/AIDS Report 10.2 (2013): 142-151. Print.

Brewer, Devon. Knowledge of specific HIV transmission modes in relation to HIV infection in Mozambique. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 36.1 (2004): 613-621. Print.

Center for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV/AIDS. Georgia: CDC. 2016. Web.

Holtgrave, David. Is the elimination of HIV infection within reach in the United States? Lessons from an epidemiologic transmission model. Public Health Reports 125.3 (2010): 372-375. Print.

Kent, Stephen. Trying to cure HIV with immunotherapy: Not so simple. The Lancet HIV 2.3 (2015): 72-73. Print.

Lafeuillade, Alain. Potential Strategies for an HIV infection cure. HIV Clinical Trials 12.3 (2011): 121-130. Print.

According to Fredrick Hatfield, the abdominal wall is made up of four muscles. These include internal oblique muscles, external oblique muscles, transverse abdominis and rectus abdominis (Hatfield, 2010). However, other muscles exist for example the spinal erectae and muscles in the pelvic girdle. Each of these muscles has a specific function and uses specific forms of exercise to optimize its functions. In this paper, I will explore functions of these muscles and how they can be trained for optimum functioning.

The rectus abdominis, also called the six pack, is the most prominent of all abdominal muscles if well developed. This muscle enhances the flexion of the torso through contraction. This is because it joins the pubic bone to the lower side of the chest thereby flexing the torso towards the hips. To optimize the function of this muscle, I will use leg lifts which allow it to contract in an isometric manner thus stabilizing the pelvis.

The stabilization of the pelvic region helps to ameliorate back pain (Abdominal Muscle Anatomy, par. 5). Another exercise includes crunches (moving the torso to the hips) and reverse-crunches (moving hips to the torso). However, Hatfield discourages abdominal crunches for obese people as they cause psychological torture. Furthermore, inability to perform repeated movements such as sitting down or getting up is embarrassing (Hatfield, 2010).

The external oblique muscle attaches the ribs to the hips and rectus abdominis. This muscle allows the spine to rotate and twist. Together with internal oblique, they can be optimized by using exercises which involve rotating and twisting of the spine. These exercises include wood chips, side pack, bicycles, tennis, racket, golf and baseball (Abdominal Muscle Anatomy, par. 5-7).

The internal oblique on the other hand is oriented in an opposite direction to external oblique. Together with the external oblique muscle, they are involved in twisting, side bending and rotation of the torso. For these muscles, I will use exercises which involve rotation of the body trunk to optimize their function. Due to their combined action, internal oblique and external oblique muscles also use exercises which involve abdominal and sidewall contractions (Livestrong.com, par. 8).

The transverse abdominis unlike the internal oblique, external oblique and rectus abdominis does not cause the trunk to move. Therefore, I will use exercises that cause forced expiration and inward movement of the abdominal wall to optimize functions of the transverse abdominis.

Such exercises include front and side plank exercises. Exercising the transverse abominis is important as it is less used in many sessions of training. Furthermore, utilization of this muscle gives a person a slimmer physique as it pulls the abdominal wall inwards. (Abdominal Muscle Anatomy, par 4).

The rectus abdominis allows drawing together of the pelvis and ribcage, pelvis stabilization, forced expiration and expelling of urine and stomach contents. Therefore the key function of the rectus abdominis is a result of its longitudinal orientation which helps the spine to maintain a stable lumbar curvature (Abdominal Muscle Anatomy, par.10). To train the rectus abdominis muscle, I will use crunch exercises and reverse crunch exercises.

Electro-myographic studies have shown that upper sections of rectus abdominis are used more in crunch exercises without weight. With addition of weight, crunch exercises are used all over this muscle. Similarly, reverse crunches use lower Rectus abdominis, the internal oblique and the external oblique. However, Hatfield suggests that all sections of rectus abdominis (both lower and upper) are used in crunch exercises unlike the widespread belief that only a particular section is used (Hatfield, 2005).

Other exercises that I will use to train abdominal muscles include Russian twists, side bends, hanging leg exercises, seated plate twists, modified side plank and a combination of machine training and abdominal crunches. The following sections describe how these exercises are used.

The Russian twists use internal oblique and external oblique muscles. This is because swinging and twisting exercises during Russian twists exert stress on internal oblique and external oblique muscles thus lightening the midsection (Livestrong.com, par. 2).

On the other hand, hanging leg-raises exert more stress on abdominal wall muscles than crunches. However, Hatfield prefers reverse crunches to hanging leg-raises as hanging leg-raises exert a lot of stress and do not use abdominal muscles. They instead use hip flexors and other muscles of the fore arm (Hatfield, 2005).

Side bends, like crunch exercises, help in stabilizing the back. This is because it uses internal and external oblique including other muscles like quadratus lumborum. When using the side bends, the client bends sideways while holding a dumbbell (Hatfield, 2005). The external oblique and internal oblique muscles are pre-stretched by the arm which is behind the head. This optimizes function of internal and external oblique muscles (Body and Fitness, par. 6-7).

A combination of machine training and abdominal crunch is a full range approach that I will use to train abdominal muscles. Hatfield refers to curved back peddling as the best example of this combination. This is because it uses an overhead pulley that stabilizes the back thus reducing back pain and giving a full range approach to training (Livestrong.com, par. 3-8).

In addition, when using seated plate twists, I will instruct the client to perform side to side rotations while touching the plate on the floor in a sitting position with the legs stretched out. Seated plate twists exert stress on internal oblique and external oblique muscles thus optimizing their function (Body and Fitness, par. 3-6).

Knowledge of various abdominal muscles and how they can be used in training is very critical in training my clients, friends and family. Applying abdominal exercises in abdominal muscle training is an important lesson which I will use to reduce instances of back pain in my clients.

This is because a healthy abdominal wall helps to stabilize the back thus reducing back pain (Hatfield, 2010). Furthermore, I will use exercises such as front plank and side plank exercises to train the transverse abdominis muscle thus giving my clients the slim profile they desire.

This is unlike the dietary approach I had initially used for my clients to enhance weight loss. In training my clients, friends and family, I will apply the knowledge gained that the upper and lower sections of the abdomen (rectus abdominis) are not necessarily isolated by exercises like crunches and reverse crunches. This is because all exercises produce stress equally through an abdominal muscle and there is no upper or lower section that is isolated (Hatfield, 2005).

During my training exercises, I will not apply hanging leg exercises for abdominal muscle training as they do not develop abdominal wall muscles but instead develop hip flexor muscles.

Since Hatfield suggests that there are many abdominal exercises, and there are just as many abdominal exercise-devices, it is necessary that I make the appropriate choices during training to meet the needs of my family, clients and friends (Hatfield, 2010). This is because an informed choice on forms of exercises to use will result in optimum muscle function thereby providing a healthy spine for exercise.

References

Abdominal Muscle Anatomy. Web.

Body and Fitness: Inspiring beyond sports. Web.

Hatfield, F.C. (2005). Fitness: The complete guide to dumbbell training. Santa Barbara, CA: International Sports and Sciences Association.

Hatfield, F. C. (2010). Fitness: The complete guide. Santa Barbara, CA: International Sports and Sciences Association.

Livestrong. Oblique abdominal muscle exercises. Web.