Professional nursing organizations or bodies are formed to support the field and make it easier for practitioners to achieve their objectives. These are some of the reasons why nurse practitioners (NPs) are encouraged to be part of such associations. Unfortunately, many nurses are yet to join a professional association in the United States. This paper offers a detailed analysis of the significance of professional nursing associations and the reasons why nurses should be willing to join them.
Roles of Professional Organizations
Catallo, Spalding, and Haghiri-Vijeh (2014) acknowledge that professional associations in the field of nursing are important since they generate ideas and share them with community members, government agencies, and practitioners. This means that they generate the required energy and ideas that can inform the nature of nursing practices. For example, they propose various issues or policies that can be examined and implemented to improve the way health and nursing services are offered in a wide range of settings. Such bodies are also known to generate ideas that can be embraced by practitioners to transform their care delivery models. This means that more nurses are empowered to achieve their potential and meet the needs of their respective patients.
Professional organizations engage in proactive work to ensure that nursing remains a healthy field that supports different populations. For instance, such associations design specific regulations, clinical guidelines, and care delivery procedures that inform practice. They also offer powerful codes of conduct to their members, thereby guiding them to act in a professional manner whenever focusing on their patients health needs. These associations offer insights, legal protections, and the provision of resources to empower members depending on their demands (Salmond & Echevarria, 2017). The society is also a beneficiary since professional bodies implement powerful measures and initiatives that advocate for the needs of both nurses and patients. This argument explains why every improved nursing process will address patients health needs, minimize the major diseases affecting them, and improve their livelihoods. These complex roles are, therefore, needed to maintain the status and health of nursing.
Comparison of AACCN and ONS
The American Association of Critical-Care Nurses (AACCN) is an organization that brings together many acute and critical care practitioners. The body has over 100,000 members. Interested practitioners should have the right academic qualifications and certifications. They should also be dedicated and willing to support the associations agenda. Individuals must apply in order to become part of the AACCN fraternity. There are active and affiliate members. Retirees are also encouraged to remain in the organization. Members (affiliate and active) are required to pay 78 USD annually as fees. Retired members pay 52 USD per year. The association organizes a number of events and conferences to educate members and other interested parties (Catallo et al., 2014). Webinars, local campaigns, and national events are used to support the needs of different members.
On the other hand, the Oncology Nursing Society (ONS) is one of the professional bodies supporting cancer care and oncology nurses. The organization has over 39,000 members. The organization encourages interested nurses to apply using its membership application file or form. International nurses can enroll in the tiered membership program. The membership fee is 125 USD every year (Salmond & Echevarria, 2017). Retired nurses or those who are above 65 years of age are required to pay 75 USD per year. Those with disabilities pay $63 per year. The organization uses conferences, online forums, and national events to empower different members. Members are also encouraged to engage in advocacy and promote policies that can transform the field and meet the needs of critically ill patients.
Benefits of Professional Organizations
Salmond and Echevarria (2017) believe that professionals who want to achieve their potential must be aware of every available resource. Professional associations can be useful and helpful to members who plan to succeed in their careers. The first benefit or reason why such bodies should be joined is that they offer timely updates and insights that can empower members to develop a wider perspective (Catallo et al., 2014). The second benefit is that such organizations offer adequate education in the field, thereby facilitating continuous learning. Members can also benefit from every networking opportunity associated with such organizations. This goal is achieved through the use of local events, national meetings, and online forums.
Many professionals associations offer career opportunities. New jobs are posted and advertised to different members. This means that members of such organizations will be in a position to pursue their career goals. Newsletters, journal articles, and resources are available to members at discounted prices or even free of charge. Another important benefit is that many professional organizations make it easier for interested individuals to become certified (Salmond & Echevarria, 2017). Some also act as advocacy groups. This means that the rights and expectations of different members are supported. These benefits should, therefore, encourage more individuals to join specific professional bodies in an attempt to achieve their career goals.
Registered Nurses and Professional Associations
Many registered nurses (RNs) do not join professional associations in the United States. For instance, statistics show that less than 10 percent of such professionals have joined the American Nurses Association (ANA). Around 20 percent of these nurses have joined at least one specialty organization. These statistics show that there are certain reasons that discourage or make it hard for such practitioners to join these organizations. A study conducted by Catallo et al. (2014) indicated that the costs associated with these organizations such as membership fees deterred RNs from becoming part of them. Salmond and Echevarria (2017) observed that many nurses did not have time to become part of different professional associations.
The absence of adequate development opportunities is another barrier that discourages nurses from joining a professional or specialty organization. This means that there should be appropriate mechanisms to ensure that RNS have access to such opportunities. Many RNs are unaware of some of the benefits associated with these associations. This gap makes it hard for them to focus on them. Instead, many RNs decide to pursue different programs and educational resources that can result in career growth. Finally, Salmond and Echevarria (2017) argue that there are no appropriate mechanisms and strategies to educate and sensitize more nurses about the roles and benefits associated with these professional bodies. This analysis explains why there is a need for appropriate mechanisms to empower and encourage RNs to consider joining different professional nursing associations.
Issues Surrounding the Above Reasons
The above discussion has revealed that increased membership costs and lack of adequate time discourage nurses from joining professional organizations. There are critical issues that can be presented to explain why this happens to be the case. To begin with, nurses do not get competitive remunerations or salaries. This means that they would be unwilling to increase their expenses by joining specific associations that require annual membership fees (Salmond & Echevarria, 2017). This barrier continues to discourage more RNs from thinking about any given professional organization. The issue of time arises from the nature of healthcare delivery settings.
Catallo et al. (2014) indicate that the current problem of nursing shortage forces practitioners to work for more hours. Consequently, they are unable to find enough time to engage in conferences or events staged by different professional bodies. These issues also make it hard for nurses to get adequate resources, opportunities, and insights that can encourage them to identify and join specific associations. Due to the nature of these challenges, RNs continue to prefer specialty organizations over broader ones such as the American Nurses Association. This happens to be the case because they have little time to join more than one professional organization. They select specialty organizations based on their goals and qualifications.
Conclusion
This discussion has shown that professional nursing bodies can empower, guide, and support RNs and community members. The current situation is that a small percentage of practitioners have joined these organizations. Problems such as poor remunerations and nursing shortages continue to complicate this issue. In conclusion, there is a need for different agencies to support the needs of nurses and encourage them to join at least one professional association. This decision will empower more nurses and result in improved care delivery processes. Consequently, the healthcare sector will be prepared to meet the needs of every population.
References
Catallo, C., Spalding, K., & Haghiri-Vijeh, R. (2014). Nursing professional organizations: What are they doing to engage nurses in health policy? Sage Open, 4(1), 1-9. Web.
Chiovotti, R. F. (2015). Professionhood and professionalism as an educational aid for facilitating nursing students development and renewal of self and profession. Journal of Nursing Education and Practice, 5(11), 51-64. Web.
Salmond, S. W., & Echevarria, M. (2017). Healthcare transformation and changing roles for nursing. Orthopedic Nursing, 36(1), 12-25. Web.
There are numerous psychopharmacological principles that are used by physicians in the field of medicine. These principles are set guidelines that have been tailored and modified for purposes of assisting psychiatrist patients (Carlson, 2010). Additionally, these principles contain a basic description of drug administration and its end-effects in the human body. Therefore, the psychodynamic principles are meant to facilitate success in clinical encounters. In most cases, such principles primarily emphasize pharmacologic care (Carlson, 2010). It is imperative to note that such principles adhere to the medical selection, transference, counter-transference, treatment procedures, and other activities that are relevant to the practice of psychopharmacology.
Other dynamics include medication choice, overprescribing, and under prescribing of psychopharmacological care. For this reason, these principles are stated on the basis of their application in psychology (Carlson, 2010). One of the principles is pharmacokinetics. This principle asserts that by effectively administering a drug, it must reach its site of action (Carlson, 2010). However, the psychiatrist should be aware of some of the behaviorally active drugs which have an effect on patients nervous system. For this reason, this principle explains the fate of a drug once it is absorbed into the body and how it accesses the target site. On the same note, drug administration is also a principle that elaborates how drugs should be made to pass through all the blood barriers into the targeted sites. From this principle, the drug can be administered by use of intravenous, intramuscular, intrarectally, interparental, or by inhalation (Carlson, 2010). Additionally, some drugs are administered through soluble lipids that are easily diffused into blood vessels.
Such principles are relevant in the field of psychology since psychiatrists are able to administer drugs to patients effectively. Therefore, individuals in the field of psychology need to be familiar with the principles (Carlson, 2010). Moreover, through these principles psychiatrists are able to monitor and examine behavioral and cellular functioning due to the effect evoked by the drug administered. This also helps in taking safety measures when administering specific types of drugs. In line with this, one is able to know the appropriate dose to avoid toxicity or side effects associated with the wrong application of the drug (Carlson, 2010).
Addiction to prescription drugs versus street or illegal drugs
From a neurological point of view, any kind of drug addiction is harmful to human health unless it is controlled. According to research evidence, drug addition in both cases has similar impacts on both mental and physical health (Carlson, 2010). In line with this, once administered in the body, both drugs have similar impacts on the nervous system. Addiction from painkillers has been perceived to be in no way different from that of stimulant drugs such as cocaine, opium, and mandrax. Neurological views have shown that the addiction recovery procedure and withdrawal process are relatively similar in both cases (Carlson, 2010). It is vivid that the dangers associated with abusing prescription drugs are similar to those of street drugs. For instance, both drugs can impair body functions and also affect the ability to make proper health choices (Carlson, 2010). However, the only difference that arises is on the prescription of street drugs since they are taken without clear guidance from a qualified doctor. In the case, of a careful prescription of the drug, a patient is usually instructed how to use the drug only that they become addicted after prolonged use. Additionally, street drugs have been examined and found to have high stimulating effects on the brain and thus are more addictive.
Reference
Carlson, N. (2010). Physiology of behavior. New York: Pearson Education, Inc.
Born in Seville in 1094, Ibn Zuhr is one of the most renowned physicians and surgeons of his time. He was born in an elite family which had produced generations of professionals such as physicians, juries and poets (Abdel-Halim, 133). Later in his early 40s, he fled to Marrakesh where he was jailed for seven years. However, after the city of Seville was conquered by another dynasty in the year 1147, he returned there and devoted his life to practicing medicine (Bachour, 44). His legacy in medical practice did not end with his death since his daughter and his granddaughter also emerged as great physicians in Spain. This way, they continued to propagate their family legacy in medical practice (Glick, Livesey and Wallis, 26).
His contributions are incalculable. In fact, although he was a renowned physician and surgeon, his prowess in writing and philosophy overshadowed all this (Abdel-Halim, 138). He wrote books that described his surgical operations, simplifying them for the benefit of the common men who could not understand medical jargons (Azar, 74). He clearly described major therapies in sequential basic steps, which would enable a man to undertake therapy without any help of a medical practitioner. Thus, his series of books were translated into different languages to aid other medical professionals in learning his techniques and procedures (Abdel-Halim, 135). This has made his contributions to the field of medicine popular and useful up to date with many generations learning and practicing them.
Thus, Ibn Zuhr was a man of many achievements. The contributions made by Ibn Zuhr to the field of medicine are numerous. However, the most famous of his contribution is the development of controversial surgical procedures (Glick, Livesey and Wallis, 32). Most notable is animal testing, where he emerged as the first person to ever test surgical procedures in animals before practicing the same on people (Abdel-Halim, 140). He is famous for disliking and publicly opposing medical speculation (Azar, 80). Therefore, he insisted on practicality and precision. He first tested tracheotomy operation with a goat to verify whether breathing through the trachea is possible. Following the success of this experiment, he treated a girl who had cut her throat in an attempted murder (Bachour, 49). He later published this information in a book that served as the basis for the development of tracheotomy surgery (Abdel-Halim, 145).
Another contribution made consists in patient feeding. In the early days, it was difficult to feed patients who could not use their mouths. Therefore, it was very difficult to treat patients who could not receive food through normal feeding. Due to this, Ibn Zuhr tested whether direct feeding could be undertaken through the gullet. This way, he paved a way for feeding patients who could not receive food through their mouths (Azar, 77). Therefore, Ibn Zuhr goes down in history as the person who invented an alternative feeding method for humans.
Further, Ibn Zuhr developed proficiency in the treatment of bladder stone, where he performed surgical operations to remove it (Glick, Livesey and Wallis, 54). However, he later experimented on medicinal treatment and eventually discovered that bladder stone was better treated using medicine instead of surgery. Ibn Zuhr was categorical on medical practices excellence arguing that it was not worth experimenting with peoples lives whenever a practitioner was not sure of the outcome (Bachour, 53). Therefore, he developed a well-structured training program for potential surgeons.
He is credited as the first physician to fully understand human anatomy. Therefore, Ibn Zuhr cultivated the culture of treating people based on a sound understanding of human anatomy as opposed to speculation (Abdel-Halim, 132). In the durations before his engagement as physician and surgeon, there was not a sound understanding of human body. Thus, he is renowned for undertaking human dissection after having tested the same with animals such as goats. In his search for precision and accuracy in treating people, he embarked on undertaking postmortem in an age when such complicated surgical operations were non-existent (Bachour, 50).
Contrary to many Muslim scholars who had contributions in different fields, Ibn Zuhr committed his life to the field of medical practice trying to perfect each surgical operation or practice that he developed (Glick, Livesey and Wallis, 38). It is this focus in one field of practice that allowed him to make outstanding and original contributions. His practice of dissecting dead human bodies was excellent since he perfectly understood human body system. He perfected dissecting human body based on scientific principles contrary to using trial and error method or even speculation to achieve surgery (Azar, 73).
With his remarkable advances in the field of medicine, he produced a practical manual for use in treatment as well as dietary descriptions to be prescribed for cure of several diseases. He advocated for a moral, rational and empirical approach to medicine which would give practical results (77). While doing this, he was still greatly interested in ensuring that all medical procedures and techniques are practical and simplified to allow their access and use by the lay man (Glick, Livesey and Wallis, 63).
Ibn Zuhr is also credited with discovering various types of cancer. He was the first medical practitioner to discover and describe esophageal cancer, which affects the esophagus and makes it difficult for people to swallow (Bachour, 54). Having discovered this cancer, which could not allow people to swallow food or drink, he embarked on looking for an alternative means of feeding individuals affected. He eventually came up with an idea that food could be transmitted through a pipe into the stomach (55). This made it possible for people suffering from this cancer to live since they could be fed through a pipe. In addition, he discovered cancer of the stomach (Glick, Livesey and Wallis, 30). He observed that many parts of the stomach could be affected by cancer, which hindered normal gastric functions (31).
In the field of parasitological studies, Ibn Zuhr is quoted as the pioneer, where he is credited with discovering itchy mites. He described their effects on the skin and documented the requisite treatment procedures (Azar, 80). Therefore, it is observable that he documented each medical procedure he invented for the benefit of others, who could be medical practitioners or common people. Therefore, Ibn Zuhr has emerged as the greatest surgeon and physician of the 12 century, who perfected medical practices during the times when it was unprecedented (Bachour, 55).
In conclusion, it must be highlighted that Ibn Zuhr is considered to be a legend in medicine. He committed his life to going an extra mile devising techniques, procedures and experiments used and known till now Thus, his contributions both in writing and medicine have impacted the medical practice for centuries.
Works Cited
Abdel-Halim, Re. Contributions of Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) to the progress of surgery: a study and translations from his book Al-Taisir . Saudi Med 26.9 (2005):133-149. Print.
Azar, Henry A. The Sage of Seville: Ibn Zuhr, His Time, and His Medical Legacy. Cairo: American University in Cairo, 2008. 72-81. Print.
Bachour, Tom. The Contributions of Arab Physicians in Dermatology. Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine 15. 2 (2002): 43-55. Print.
Glick, Thomas, Livesey, Steven and Wallis Faith. Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia. Routledge, 2005. 22-68. Print.
Various theories have been developed, and they attempt to describe causes for mental illness as well as recommend intervention measures. Critical Social Theory has to do with the liberation of people from known and unknown constraints that have a great impact on social interactions. It can be used to explain how economic, social, and political situations find their way into the field of health (Green 2012). A persons environment has a role to play in his mental health. These sentiments are further advanced by another theory, the Ecological Systems Theory. The general idea is that there exist very strong links between environmental systems and an individuals behavior throughout their lifespan. The effects are not peculiar to a certain stage of development, for example, adulthood, but cuts across all the levels. It lies heavily on culture and cultural values, and hence people doing rehabilitation could use the theory to remind the victims of what is expected of them, the stereotypes and biases even those that they conform to (Green 2012).
Lifespan issues
During the entire period of mental illness, this group of people goes through a lot of issues. The issues differ between individuals though there are those common to all. The habits change, and one is not even able to handle hygiene properly. They feel rejected and view any attempts to correct them as hatred. Their bodies change, and this increases their levels of depression, and at times suicide may become an option.
Crisis
Crisis sets in when those affected by mental ill-health fail to cope with the situation. The level of coping varies from one individual to another. According to Hendricks, Cindy, and Jerome (2010), this may lead to abnormal reactions that trigger personality imbalances and, ultimately, crisis. This is a critical level where the affected become uncontrollable and violent. This has prompted programs to be formulated like the one dealing with the reduction of violent scenes between police and the mentally ill.
Trauma
There is a high correlation between trauma and mental illness. In fact, the highest percentage of mental illness cases emanate from trauma. Trauma could result from lifes bad experiences like an accident, loss of a close person, or employment (OHare 2009). Lifetime traumatic experience has been known to cause schizophrenic spectrum and major mood disorders.
Pathology
More often than not, diagnosis of mental illness is not done at the right time. Mental care experts recommend early detection so as to curb the illness in its early stages. This may not necessarily come from the victim as majority of them would not admit having a problem. It can be effectively handled by family members or close relatives who notices slight mental changes for instance forgetfulness.
Necessary individual, couple, group and family interventions and cultural considerations
The families of those with mental illness encounter a lot of experiences. The daily management of these victims calls for a lot of sacrifice. Personal hygiene, medication, food and shelter should all be taken into consideration. It generally leaves the care provider exhausted, stressed and angry (Kam, et al 2012). There is need to train these relatives so as to be able to endure and survive the care giving process while maintaining their own health.
Children whose parents have mental illnesses need care and support. They need to understand their parents condition as way of making it easier to adapt. These children are disadvantaged as compared to their peers since they portray poor development in behavior, social and academic domains (Fraser and Kenneth 2012). They also have a high chance of developing mental illness.
Normal development issues faced by the chronically mentally ill (physical, cognitive and socio-emotional behaviors)
A major problem associated with the chronically mentally ill is weight management and hence interventions in this area are necessary. Due to poor dietary habits and effects of symptoms management medications that are associated with weight gain, this group finds it hard to lose weight. As Galletly and Leslie (2009) puts, over weight is associated with many problems ranging from hypertension, stroke and diabetes to social implications such as self esteem.
The chronically ill have problems using their cognitive domains as they are usually impaired. Their levels of thinking and reasoning are greatly hampered and as such they have to rely on others to decide for them. Their socio-emotional behaviors are affected as the normal people view them as social misfits (Michael 2010). The mentally ill on the other hand feels unwanted and this increases depression which could result into violence. A mentally ill person may decide to become a nuisance as a way of protesting the imagined rejection.
Interventions for weight management in chronically mentally ill persons
This paper will attempt to identify and describe the interventions used in rehabilitation of the chronically mentally ill people in different environments. It is very important to come up with intervention programs for the patients as this helps them to effectively control the situation. If properly administered over a period of time it could reduce morbidity and mortality among such groups (Kate, et al 2012). These patients have obviously different symptoms and it may prove difficult to effectively use psychosocial intervention.
The intervention will employ the main ways of helping chronically mentally ill persons to manage weight. These could be prevention of caloric intake, drugs and behavioral changes. At an individuals home, controlling the nature of food the patient eats may pose challenges as it inclines towards discrimination and makes the behavioral change being tried to lose meaning. The whole idea is to make the individual have independence pertaining to control of behavior. As such, prohibition of caloric intake would be possible only in institutionalized case like the one in point. Weight loss programs combined with drugs for the same purpose would yield good results.
The interventions should be formulated upon theoretical considerations, diet and practices to be learnt, acquisition of behavior management skills and follow ups to ensure the patients continue to practice the skills when the program is over (Beth 2012). The intervention program will run for six months scheduled at two hours per week. Body mass index (BMI) for each of the participants will be taken and will be progressively checked to monitor the changes.
The intervention sessions will have two phases: one for learning and skill acquisition while the other will dwell on debating the difficulties in applying the skills. Short lectures, group discussions, demonstrations and guided practice will form the interventions strategy. The participants will be given the opportunity to apply the newly acquired skills and give feedback. There will be simplification of learning materials and alliteration of information to ensure enhanced understanding.
The examples of diet foods will be those within reach for all. The participants will be furnished with lists of nutritious foods and encouraged to come up with meal plans as well. Physical activities learnt will be recommended to be carried out throughout the day. Self discipline will be achieved by encouraging positive behavior and motivating members with good results. After the six month period the BMI for the participants will be taken every two weeks during which time discussions will be held in a view to assess implementation of the skills learnt.
Works Cited
Beth Angell, et al. Crisis Intervention Teams and People with Mental Illness: Exploring
The Factors That Influence the Use of Force. Crime & Delinquency 58.1 (2012): 57-77. Academic Search Premier. Web.
Fraser, Eliza, and Kenneth I. Pakenham. Evaluation Of A Resilience-Based
Intervention for Children of Parents with Mental Illness. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 42.12 (2008): 1041-1050. Academic Search Premier. Web.
Galletly, Carol L., and Leslie E. Murray. Managing Weight in Persons Living With Severe Mental Illness in Community Settings: A Review of Strategies Used In Community Interventions. Issues In Mental Health Nursing 30.11 (2009): 660-668. Academic Search Premier. Web.
Green, B. L. Applying Interdisciplinary Theory in the Care of Aboriginal Womens Mental Health. Journal Of Psychiatric & Mental Health Nursing 17.9 (2010): 797-803. Academic Search Premier. Web.
Hendricks, James E., Cindy Gillespie Hendricks, and Jerome B. McKean. Crisis Intervention: Contemporary Issues for On-Site Interveners. Charles C Thomas, 2010. EBook Collection (EBSCOhost). Web.
Kam Hock, Chang, and Stephen Horrocks. Lived Experiences of Family Caregivers Of Mentally Ill Relatives. Journal of Advanced Nursing 53.4 (2006): 435-443. Academic Search Premier. Web.
Kate Lorig, et al. The Health and Recovery Peer (HARP) Program: A Peer-Led Intervention to Improve Medical Self-Management for Persons with Serious Mental Illness. Schizophrenia Research 118. (2010): 264-270. ScienceDirect. Web.
Michael J. Silverman, Perceptions of Music Therapy Interventions from in patients With Severe Mental Illness: A Mixed-Methods Approach. The Arts in Psychotherapy 37. (2010): 264-268. ScienceDirect. Web.
OHare, Thomas, and Margaret V. Sherrer. Lifetime Traumatic Events and High-Risk Behaviors as Predictors of PTSD Symptoms in People with Severe Mental Illnesses. Social Work Research 33.4 (2009): 209-218. Academic Search Premier. Web.
Central research question: How to Decrease Turnover and Increase Retention of Nurses?
Sub-questions
How does the introduction of better working conditions improve the turnover level and retention?
Does greater awareness of interpersonal skills positively influence turnover and retention of nurses?
Hypothesis
Emphasis on social and bonus schemes, as well as effective strategies of human resource management, can decrease turnover and increase retention.
Can your idea be tested with any of the various types of experimental designs? Why or why not?
The ideas can be tested with the help of surveys made of questionnaires, as well as experiments consisting of introducing a new position into the hospital a psychologist who will take care of nurses concerns and problems. The psychologists tactics will be premised on Nola Penders behavior model that assumes the importance of introducing a collaborating approach to communication among the nurses.
What is your design? Why have you chosen that design?
A quantitative design has been chosen because intervention techniques and statistical analysis will contribute to defining deviations and findings that the experimental research design will introduce.
What is your target population? How would you identify and recruit participants?
The target population is a sample of 25 nurses from the general surgical floor of the hospital. This department has been chosen because it has the highest level of turnover and the lowest level of retention due to the extreme workload of duties and obligations imposed on the employees. The nurses will be proposed to take part in a survey composed of questionnaires and will be proposed to attend a psychologist who will try to discover whether psychological problems and interrelations influence their performance.
What data collection method might you use? How would that data help answer your research question(s)/hypotheses?
In order to find out the reasons and underpinnings of high turnover and low retention levels, the conducted survey will be subject to statistical analysis, which will be provided before psychological analysis and after it. Psychologists should find out the attitude of nurses to introducing rewards and benefits schemes and normal schedule, along with educational training programs. The hypothesis will be justified if the survey results after the sessions will be more positive and nurses will be more satisfied with the professional environment.
How consistent are these data collection methods with methods used in existing research on your topic? Why did you choose these methods? What are the alternatives?
An extensive overview of related research has shown that quantitative research design prevails while investigating the research topic under analysis. In particular, Duffield et al. (2011) have presented their survey to define how front-line managers influence the job satisfaction level among the employees. The scholars have resorted to a survey that aims to define how such aspects as job satisfaction and intention to leave are correlated. Using a quantitative method design, the research has found that a good nurse leader has a potent impact on high turnover and low retention levels within a hospital. Other researchers have also been based on experimental designs (Jones & Gates, 2007; Kooker & Kamikawa, 2011; Wieck, Dols, & Landrum, 2010).
How would you ensure the quality and reliability of the data?
Consistency and reliability of the quantitative data received from surveys can be ensured through test-retest reliability and internal consistency. Test-retest reliability can measure the extent to which obtained results deviate from the accepted levels. For instance, the result will help define whether the variation in evaluations of a single person under similar conditions is smaller or higher.
How might you analyze the data?
The data analysis will be based on the statistical results obtained from pre-test and post-test procedures. Using a comparative approach is vital for defining which of the established variables have changed and which ones remain at the same level.
What are the target audiences for your findings?
The target audience is nurse managers and human resource managers who should take into account the results to improve the retention culture in their hospitals.
Analysis of Existing Research Design With Regard to the Research Question
Because mixed-method research implies a two-dimensional approach to answering research questions, most current studies take advantage of this method to present a consistent and extensive overview of a specific problem. Using quantitative and qualitative approaches both in sequences or simultaneously contributes to answering a hypothesis and aligning the research to a much broader context in science. Specifically, the analysis of quantitative data provides the researchers with a chance to introduce intervention to the chosen sample and track all possible changes that occurred once the intervention has been presented. In its turn, qualitative methods allow a researcher to draw conclusions based on the observational studies conducted. They also create a sufficient basis for building a hypothesis.
The rationale for a Chosen Research Approach
Analysis of retention culture is often confined to such aspects as organizational environment, cultural diversity, communication, and human resource management. All these spheres are vital for enhancing the quality of patient treatment and increasing collaborative techniques among the members of the health care staff. In order to define the reasons for the reluctance of nurses to work in a specific environment, some personal and external factors should be analyzed. Each dimension is concerned with pertinent methods and, therefore, a mixed-method approach is the most reliable method to based my research on.
Because the research question under analysis seeks to define how specific variables influence turnover and retention in a hospital a combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches can best meet the problem. Capturing different aspects and criteria, surveys and interviews combined can provide a wider insight into the research problem and define how different attitudes and working environments can improve the retention culture and make nurses stay at the position for longer periods of time. Second, the use of experimental and qualitative analysis provides more sources for data collection because it can significantly contribute to the validity and reliability of the research. Hence, numerical data and text results can complement qualitative information received from the interviews and observational studies. In such a manner, research can also conduct a synthesis of the information to draw some new findings and define how these findings can be useful for the given research.
Personal Worldview
The issue of cultural diversity should be treated with greater concerns when it comes to job satisfaction and the working environment. People should take into consideration the problem of equality in the United States and take care of the immigrants coming to America. A huge diversity existing in the country has a potent impact on social and cultural welfare and, therefore, the problem of nurse turnover and retention should be considered with greater depth and diligence. People should treat others as they want to be treated themselves. Respect for cultural, religious, and social backgrounds is indispensable to creating a healthy environment within an employed setting. Nurse managers, therefore, should give much more attention to collaborative techniques and encourage nurses to share their experience and expand their professional knowledge. Treating equally each member of the hospital can also contribute to the respectable image of the organization. It will also promote the implementation of international standards of human resource management strategies. Finally, it will provide a fresh insight into the development of new training programs that would enhance the safety and quality of patient treatment and delivery of services.
References
Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (2001). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin.
Duffield, C., Roche, M., Blay, N., & Stasa, H. (2011). Nursing unit managers, staff retention and the work environment. Journal Of Clinical Nursing, 20(1/2), 23-33.
Jones, C., & Gates, M. (2007). The costs and benefits of nurse turnover: a business case for nurse retention. Online Journal Of Issues In Nursing, 12(3), 1.
Kooker, B., & Kamikawa, C. (2011). Successful strategies to improve RN retention and patient outcomes in a large medical centre in Hawaii. Journal Of Clinical Nursing, 20(1/2), 34-39.
Wieck, K., Dols, J., & Landrum, P. (2010). Retention priorities for the intergenerational nurse workforce. Nursing Forum, 45(1), 7-17.
Being a professional means the possession of education, skill, expertise, and experience as qualifications to hold a certain office or be able to perform a certain duty in a given field. Professionals represent certain organizations or unions and are required to act in good faith to own up to their reputation and perform duties that represent ethics. In addition to ethics and morals, it is not the duty of the public served by these professionals to take up liabilities caused by their negligence. In this case, it is the duty of the professionals to own up to their mistakes and face the law if lawsuits are filed against them. Professionals are humans like any other person and are prone to making mistakes, especially in challenging situations. Honest mistakes are some of the unavoidable challenges that professionals are faced with, resulting in uncertainties. Considering this fact, members of the public, depending on the ethical conduct of these professionals, do not make these mistakes as minor issues, especially when death and other casualties are resulted from the misconduct. Through the understanding of professional behavior, this essay mirrors a series of medical errors committed in the UAE to establish professional negligence and windows of lawsuits (Liuzzo, 2010).
Analysis and Application
Death can result from various reasons in the medical profession, and consequences may befall persons with nothing to do with the cause of death. Considering these factors, medical malpractice in the UAE was reported in the year 2010, involving deaths that were potentially preventable. Considering the causes of the deaths, patients who died under the care of medical professions were reported to have been injected with fatal doses or ingesting of wrong proscription drugs (Khawaja, 2012). In this case, the medical personnel is the professional lot responsible for the wellbeing of the patients.
Deaths occurring due to negligence by these professionals results in the loss of loved ones this affects family members or next of kin. Therefore, such cases, in spite of the possibility of honest mistakes, result in death that affects a broad spectrum of public members. If the prescription of the wrong drugs or injection of fatal doses did not result in deaths, negligence by the professionals to adhere to ethical and moral underpinnings would still result in an uncomfortable situation. The situation can be resulted in if the effect of the drugs is negative in the patients recovery process or if the patients develop secondary conditions. It is clear that the UAE cases were directly connected to professional negligence and not the insufficiency of medical resources. Lawsuits can be waved inspite of the magnitude of actions if inadequacy of resources is registered. However, failure to inform patients of such inadequacy is considered negligence and is punishable by law like any other aspect of negligence leading to death or adversity of the condition (Liuzzo, 2010).
Conclusion
Negligence by professionals is the failure to adhere to their professional obligations and in result, causing fatal or uncertainties to the public. The medical errors registered in the UAE involved medical professionals negligence to follow the right channels in establishing the right interventional measures. The cause of action or failure to act ethicallylinked the professionals directly to happenings of the UAE case; this means lawsuits or revocation of their medical licenses was eminent.
References
Khawaja, M., Giacaman, R. & Jabbour, S. (2012). Public Health in the Arab World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Liuzzo, A. (2010). Essentials of Business Law, 7th ed. New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies.
Physiological Consequences and Health Risks of Excess Body Weight
Description of Concrete Experience
I am 5 feet 3 inches tall and weighed 175 pounds when I was diagnosed with hypertension. In the year 2003 at the age of 33, I was diagnosed with high cholesterol and high blood pressure. By then my cholesterol results were 260 and an average range of 140 -200. My blood pressure was 159/101. My cholesterol LDL level was high and I had to take Lipitor medications to lower my cholesterol. I am also taking Lisinopril to reduce my high blood pressure. As of January 2011, I have lost a considerable amount of weight and I weighed 145 pounds and my cholesterol was 231 with an LDL bad cholesterol of 120 (range 0-129) and HDL good cholesterol of 99 (range 41 89). My blood pressure is back to a normal reading of 119/ 89.
Reflection
I was quite shocked when the doctor gave me the results and an ultimatum that I was to work hard to reduced mu cholesterol levels to less than 200 in three months and that included taking Lipitor. This news was scary because the doctor also indicated that my triglycerides were too high and they were increasing gradually. This made me reflect on the members of my family who have suffered a cholesterol problem some at a very early age.
This made me less optimistic about the ability to lower my cholesterol level but I took up the challenge. Lipitor is the prescription drug that I was given and this is normally used along with low-fat dieting to effectively lower the low-density lipoproteins which are often referred to as the bad cholesterol and triglycerides in the blood. On the other hand, the drug can raise the High-Density Lipoproteins, the good cholesterol.
Generalization/Principles/Theories
I was also taking Lisinopril which an Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor to help me in the management of hypertension. The drug acts very fast and within one hour I always felt its effects and it takes 12 hours to be eliminated. Together with the Lipitor, the two drugs greatly reduced the risk of me developing a heart attack, stroke, or any other cardiovascular problem related to LDL and hypertension.
Testing and Application
My doctor made me understand that having LDL and being obese would have increased the risk of developing heart problems. I was hypertensive already with 260. By lowering the level of cholesterol in my body, I have reduced the risk of heart attack that results from coronary heart disease which in turn develops because of high cholesterol in the blood. The risk is reduced by a factor of 20-30%. This means that those people with more risk factors like a family history of the disease, obesity, smokers should be more watchful of their cholesterol levels.
Current Nutritional Theories and Recommendations for Maintaining Healthy Weight
Description of Concrete Experience
Developing the best answers for me in trying to reduce and maintaining a healthy weight has not been easy. Essentially, I understand that for such matters, there is never a one-size-fits-all approach that can be applied for several situations like mine. The different circumstances change and so does the approach of weight management. I understand that the challenge is both psychological and biological. Normally, the body has a set point bodyweight that one returns to after losing weight.
Reflection
In terms of nutritional theories of maintaining body weight, I have been adhering to the consumption of nutrient-rich food. I have been taking a variety of foodstuffs because there is no single foodstuff that can supply all the nutrients at once. My daily food selection has included eating bread and other whole-grain foodstuffs. I also eat plenty of organic fruits vegetables and milk. To reduce the number of fats that I consume I have often eaten baked or broiled foods such as fish, chicken, turkey, and shrimp. I try to stay away from fried fast foods like French fries, cheese, chicken, fish, and fried bananas.
Generalization/Principles/Theories
Surveys in America have shown that people do not eat enough fruits, whole grains, dairy products, and vegetables but rather they consume a lot of fast food. I use to cherish eating fast foods until when I was diagnosed with hypertension and high cholesterol in 2003. I try as much as possible to eat organic food though they are slightly expensive but very good for my health. Sometimes I was tempted to skip meals to beat my goal of reducing cholesterol below 200 but I realized it resulted in overeating afterward. I have disciplined myself to eat regular meals and intervals but not to starve myself.
Testing and Application
Rather than eliminating most of the foodstuffs from my diets, I have selected the ones that have high cholesterol, sugars, and salts. In the past, I used to eat for pleasure at times but since I realized I could just moderate the food I consume, I only eat food that is major sources of the nutrients I want. This healthy eating has enabled me to maintain a good rather healthy body weight based on sex, height, and age.
Having excess body fat had been the cause of my high blood pressure but currently, I do not feel the effects of high blood pressure. This nutrition strategy, I believe has reduced my risk of developing diabetes, heart disease as well as other related medical conditions. My sensible eating habits have managed the problems I initially had of losing and gaining weight irregularly. I am working to introduce regular exercises to my schedule.
Psychosocial Principles in Weight Management
Description of Concrete Experience
When I was diagnosed with high blood pressure and excess cholesterol in my blood, I suffered the most painful part of my condition, emotional suffering. The doctor gave an ultimatum I did not think I would achieve and feared the more risk I would be in. Besides, when a person is diagnosed as being obese, there is some stigma that comes with it particularly women as they feel they are not attractive enough and I suffered this too. I have heard people say that obese people were not attractive, gluttonous, and lazy and this lead to prejudice and this made me fear such stereotyping. Besides I feared getting stressed and eventually developing stress.
Reflection
High blood pressure and high cholesterol are a risk to physical health and consequently I know it could affect my psychological health as some people learning of my condition perceive me as being fat. They referred to this with ridicule and ostracism. However, having known that such a thing would happen, I prepared myself not to be demoralized or lower my self-esteem by losing at myself negatively.
I encouraged myself that I would do whatever it takes to reduce cholesterol even after several failures. In my case, I did not consider weight loss and reduction of blood cholesterol as the only issues about my health rather I considered cutting down the risk of developing more serious diseases as a motivation for me to struggle for good health. I had a bigger picture in mind, instead of just losing some few pounds and reducing the level of LDL in my blood, I focused on adopting a new lifestyle, healthy eating habits, and maintaining a healthy weight.
Generalization/Principles/Theories
It was very hard to overcome the psychological issues but once I got the right attitude I was willing to remain patient and achieve my goals slowly and be healthier even after so long. I accepted my condition and resolved to move forward. I knew, there was plenty to be done and the work would not be easy but to me, it did not matter what others thought or how long it would take me to attain the new life. I knew my body would gradually and comfortably adjust and that ways I would be better placed to permanently maintain the new healthy lifestyle. When I started achieving my targets in I felt excitement and zeal to keep up the new lifestyle. I was very motivated and this has been the reason why I have been able to enjoy the benefits of good weight management from 2003 up to today.
Testing and Application
By exercising regularly I have been able to be more apt on my diet strategy and this has improved my psychological well-being and my new nutrition habit has replaced my old lifestyle of sedentary living like eating at fast foods very often. Sometimes exercise and eating at regular intervals has suppressed excessive appetite that would cause a lot of snaking during the day. Furthermore, healthy eating and exercise improve general health even when the weight loss was moderate. To maintain healthy body weight requires nutrient restriction and disciplined habits and exercise. It would be problematic to diet and fail to exercise as weight loss would be minimal. On the other hand, exercising without diet would cause denser muscles to replace fats.
Explain the Physiologic Influence Of and Recommendations For Aerobic, Anaerobic, and Resistance Training In Weight Management
Description of Concrete Experience
Exercising 1 hour for 5 days a week helped me release stress as well as lose weight. I have come to understand that even modest weight loss is very important to healthy living. The simplest way of losing weight through very effective has been to exercise for at least 150 minutes per week. The mental and behavioral changes that I made to adhere to my eating habits continue physical exercises and have an attitude about food and weight management has been very helpful.
To have better results I have been exercising for at least 20 minutes every day and this is mainly aerobic exercise. To support my exercise, I have constantly adhered to low-fat foods and these are known to have a low-calorie level. Instead of skipping meals, I have planned regular meals and I do not miss breakfast. I also check my body weight very often to ensure that I can keep track of the way I am losing, gaining, or maintaining body weight.
Reflection
Aerobic simply refers to the presence of oxygen while anaerobic is the opposite, therefore in normal daily activities, human beings use oxygen like digestions and sitting. Simple exercises are aerobic activities because the body uses the oxygen it can to ensure these activities happen. When exercise increased and becomes more intensive, the amount of oxygen that the body takes in is not able to supply the activities hence the body begins metabolizing without oxygen. The anaerobic metabolism is a different way of creating energy and does not use oxygen and its an alternative to producing energy by oxygen use and this can only take place for a very short period.
The 20 minutes I normally do for one hour per five days is often aerobic because the 20-minute sessions do not exhaust the normal oxygen I breathe. I often do this type of exercise because this is the type of exercise that burns fat from my body as I breathe oxygen. I use low-intensity activities that include walking and jogging in the morning and these are mainly fat burning. Sometimes the exercise gets a little strenuous leading the body to require more oxygen hence anaerobic metabolism.
This is when I stop my exercising because anaerobic metabolism burns glucose in the body and converts it to starch for storage in the body muscles as glycogen. Considering that this process does not require the use of oxygen, this type of metabolism is only used for a very short period in strenuous activities. The byproduct of the process is lactic acid which normally causes a burning sensation in muscles during exercise and this is an indication that the body is using up glucose and not fat.
Generalization/Principles/Theories
I am encouraged by the fact that reducing body fat directly benefits the body by reducing the risk of weight related diseases like diabetes and cardiovascular conditions. Since I began exercising and dieting, I do not feel the same way I used to feel heavy. The reduced weight has translated to having improved HDL cholesterol and triglyceride levels, normal blood pressure, and a good waist-to-hip ratio. I based my conclusions on studies that have shown that reduced body fat was a more potent modulator of the cardiac structure compares to the pharmacological therapy recommendations.
Exercising is very effective and even for the people who have a family history of high blood pressure and are leading sedentary lifestyles can be able to slow the progress or prognosis of the condition or stop it altogether by this strategy together with diet. The only people who may not be able to achieve their required results are those who suffer the disease because of a serious genetic cause. A comprehensive program for maintaining body weight at a healthy position comprises of regular exercising, attending stress reduction and management program, and a proper diet that has low-fat and organic foodstuffs. This combination of interventions has helped me to reverse the heart condition I was diagnosed with.
Testing and Application
My doctor advised that even minimal activity was enough to expend body energy. For instance, walking to turn off the television rather than using the remote was using energy. Talking a walk rather than sitting at home and relaxing on weekends has also been very beneficial in my strategy of maintaining my body weight. All my life has been filled with doing the little things that will see me use energy like cooking my food, walking to places around the house, walking upstairs rather than taking a lift or escalators.
Funny though is fidgeting as it helps to keep some pounds off and chewing gum has also been suggested to expend some energy. However, I understand that I should not depend on mild activities when I need to lose more weight since intensive activities that expend energy can prevent weight gain.
I will be seeking to make my exercising more strenuous because this is when the chances of future success will increase. Intense exercise means that more metabolisms would lead to anaerobic respiration which converts glucose to glycogen for storage. Resistance has been very effective in ensuring that I build some muscles and I have been doing it once a week.
The Advantages and Disadvantages of the Various Methods for Determining Healthy Weight
Description of Concrete Experience
I have used the following to determine a healthy weight loss just like many other people with the same problem. I have uses a scale, BMI charts, and tape measurements. Besides these, there are other methods including how well clothes fit, percent body fat, and bathroom weight scale. However, it is recommended that only the doctor can accurately evaluate the weight of an individual and recommend the relevant weight determination strategy.
When the results indicate too much fat, then an individual is at risk of developing weight-related problems like cardiovascular complications or diabetes even when they exercise. Its main disadvantage is that genetics can cause some people to have bodies with too much fast but still have a lesser risk of health problems. Besides, the method is not universally accepted because of the lack of a standard of measure.
Body Mass Index is often used by doctors who assess patients for overweight or obesity diagnosis. The method involves dividing the weight of an individual in pounds by their height in square inches then the result is multiplied by a factor of 704.5. A product of over 25 is overweight and over 30 is obsessed. The disadvantage of this is that it fails to take into consideration the different body types and percentage of body fat hence misleading for some people.
Reflection
This is the most common method of determining healthy weight and it is what I often used whenever I visited the hospital for a check-up. By dividing weight in kilograms by the height in meters squared, a number is derived and this is what is used to evaluate the weight whether its healthy or unhealthy. Values of 18.5 to 24.9 show that the individual has normal and therefore healthy body weight. 25 to 29.9 BMI is a sign of overweight. Studies of BMI and cardiovascular diseases show a great correlation between a BMI of over 25 and the prevalence of cardiovascular problems and diabetes.
I loved this method as it was considered the best and its popular, fast, and efficient. Even though it fails to measure body fat, its more accurate in an approximation of the fatness of an individual. It is hence more reliable than using a tape measure and a simple scale. Drawing a chart to monitor the body weight changes helps to keep the weight in a certain range.
Generalization/Principles/Theories
As much as I liked using BMI, it has its shortcomings. Since its not a measure of body fat, it often gives false results for muscular persons and they are wrongly categorized as overweight. Besides, the scale can place people with less fat in the underweight category. Very short people and pregnant women often get inappropriate results that cannot be used for useful medical assessments. The patient must understand that abdominal fat is riskier to health than hip fat.
How well clothes fit is very simple as a person feels that the clothes are loose and sagging when they were initially fitting well. The disadvantage is that while loose clothes could be a sign of weight loss or tight clothes showing weight gain, it could as well be a symptom of a serious problem like the effects of medication or pregnancy causing the loss or gain respectively.
The bathroom weight scale has the advantage of being effective and simple. However, its disadvantage has been that it takes a lot of fat to weigh the same as muscle meaning that a fit individual could weigh the same as a sedentary individual but they may not be the same in terms of health.
Testing and Application
Three main ways can be used to measure body fat since most of the methods of checking healthy weight do not measure body fat. These are skinfold calipers, hydrostatic weighing, and homebody fat scales.
Skinfold caliper is a form of the caliper that professionals use to measure how much fat one has. An individual can do it at home by use of Accu measure and following instructions carefully. Its regarded as very cost-effective.
Homebody fat scales have been famed has faster and convenient to use. I never used them but the scales use bioelectrical impedance to evaluate body fat in percentage. The scales pass a low electrical current through a patients body and the calibrated scale measures impedance (resistance). The results are computed with other factors to give the amount of body fat ones body has.
The most accurate of ensuring that body fat is measured reliably to do the underwater weighing also called hydrostatic weighing. The method employs the Archimedes principle. The doctor first calculates the body density based on water displaced. The reason why body fat is an important measure is that it is a crucial component in weight control. Besides, body fat requires fewer calories than muscles and when I have less, I will gain more calories I can consume before the weight gain.
The Hazards of Various Fad Weight Loss Diets
Description of Concrete Experience
I have been one of the many people who desperately wanted to lose weight faster and hence believing in the diet fads. As a result, I have often been on the Lemonade diet. My inspiration came from singer Beyonce Knowles who uses this diet to lose weight fast for a roll in the movie. However, I manage to lose weight only to gain every pound back within 30 days. I have been on the cabbage soup diet and lost 10 pounds because I was inspired when Mayo Clinic in Minnesota recommended this diet for heart patient that need to lose a tremendous amount of weight before having surgery. I gained all my weight back with that diet too. I have also taken Adipex diet pills.
I lost about 15 pounds but gained 7 pounds back over 4 months. My best and longest results were between 2003 and 2009 when I went to the gym, park, and join a 30-day boot camp to work out. I lost weight and felt good as well as was able to eat anything I wanted without gaining weight.
Reflection
The cabbage soup has been given a lot of publicity with many television programs showing that it is effective. However, these reviews have been short-term with the soup wining. The problem is that a person gains the weight back after stopping the use of the soup.
Also popular is the lemonade diet. The diet has gains greater fame in recent years with celebrities being used to promote the product. Essentially there is nothing like a celebrity like Beyonce gaining a quick fix from the diet. The faster solution comes at an extra cost since dieting can cause heart problems, strokes, and more weight gain when an individual stops using it. I have personally experienced this gain. Following the regimen of these diet fads and eating nothing could cause heart palpitations hence causing serious illness.
Generalization/Principles/Theories
I realized that fad dieting caused both short- and long-term effects on the body. Even though they brought about bodyweight loss very fast, this was only temporary for me, as I gained back the weight and found it unhealthy. Dieting has an impact on metabolism as it slows it and at times it can be halted and its this that causes a person to think that the diet is great. The body is deprived of proper nutrients that would otherwise have been gained through a normal diet.
These nutrients are very important and deficiency depletes the stored ones and the body begins to show signs of malnutrition. Fad diets affect metabolism and this puts the body in a position ready to gain weight in the future, as such I always gain weight immediately after I stopped using the fad diets.
The long terms implications can be very devastating. Depression, aggression, sinus problems, rashes, muscle loss acidosis, and reduced sex drive have all been associated with fad dieting.
Testing and Application
The few times I used fad dieting I suffered some nutritional deficiencies that caused me to feel weak not knowing it was a sign of malnutrition as the body exploited muscle stores hence causing muscle loss. However, each time I returned to normal eating, I gained weight even faster. This means that during the time I was dieting of the lemonade and cabbage soup, my body lacks essential nutrients like minerals and vitamins.
During the time I was dieting, my body did not use food well as metabolism was affected by my drastic actions of not consuming nutrients. My body was, therefore, prepared to gain weight in the future. This is the reason behind my weight gain whenever I stopped the fad diets. The process of losing weight while on diet and gaining it when I stopped could be dangerous as it can make losing weight more difficult but pose risk to problems already highlighted.
Politics influence the manner in which contraceptives are approved for use by medical institutions. For example, in December 2011, the secretary for Health and Human Services (HHS) Kathleen Sebelius told the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Commissioner not to allow over the counter (OTC) sale of Plan B One-Step emergency contraceptive (Wood, Drazen, & Greene, 2012). However, the FDA commissioner Dr. Margaret Hamburg had already approved the sale because a large number of health care professionals had confirmed that the drug was safe to use. Therefore, when the HHS secretary overruled the decision by the FDA commissioner and restricted the sale of Plan B One-Step contraceptive over the counter, this indicated that the decision that the HHS secretary made was influenced by political forces.
Plan B One-Step contraceptive is a single tablet that a person should take immediately after engaging in unprotected sex. The drug contains progestin levonorgestrel, which does not interfere with the normal functioning of the human body. This is because Levonorgestrel does not lead to abortion, and it does not terminate any pregnancy that is already established. The drug has been in use in the US since 1999. The efficacy and safety of the drug have also been scientifically reviewed and, therefore, safe for humans. The use of the drug was publicly reviewed by the FDA Advisory Committee in December 2003, where the drug was approved for sale to all women without putting any age restrictions. However, the FDA did not comply with its own rules since it failed to implement the recommendations that the Advisory committee made. In September 2005, the FDA delayed the sale of the drugs over the counter (Wood, Drazen, & Greene, 2012).
However, after a series of political meetings in August 2006, the sale of Plan B One-Step contraceptive over the counter was denied. In this perspective, the drug was only to be sold to women who were aged 17 years and above without prescription. However, women needed to prove their age before they could be sold the drug. Women who were younger than 16 years were required to take the drug under prescription. However, Plan B One-Step manufacturer applied for a license so that the drug could be approved for use without any restrictions. After a careful review, the FDAs staff approved the sale of the drug over the counter. Therefore, it is true that health professionals and scientists took part in assuring the public that the drug was safe for women to use to enable them to avoid unwanted pregnancies. However, the HHS secretary said in December 2011 that the data that was presented to her regarding the use of the drug was not sufficient. Therefore, she could not approve girls below 16 years to use the drug without a prescription.
However, since most women were required to produce proof of their age and identify after engaging in unprotected sex, most of them refrained from using the drug because they felt shame. In addition, women who did not have valid documents to prove their age were at a disadvantage because they were not allowed to use the drugs. Therefore, the decision by the HHS secretary to sell the drugs behind the counter was influenced by political forces.
References
Wood, A. J., Drazen, J. M., & Greene, M. F. (2012). The Politics of Emergency Contraception. Web.
Anaemia and its predisposing factors in pregnant women
The research on the prevalence of anaemia and its predisposing factors in pregnant women is very relevant in nursing as the findings are critical in determining the nature of prenatal care needed. Zhang, Li, and Ananth argue that, pregnant women are highly predisposed to anaemia because normally during pregnancy there is increased utilization of iron in the body and increased plasma volume thus decreasing haemoglobin concentration in the body (2009, p.283). Additional predisposing factors such as young maternal age, low body mass index, late prenatal care, poor education, diseases and deficiency of iron, vitamin A, B12, complicates the aetiology of anaemia in pregnant women. Therefore, the study of anaemia in pregnant women provides a basis of offering quality prenatal care in nursing.
Diagnosis of anaemia entails quantitative methods of diagnosis that measure haemoglobin concentration in the blood to determine the extent and severity of anaemia. In the study, Zhang, Li, and Ananth quantitatively classify haemoglobin concentration as follow: that above 10g/dl as normal, between 10g/dl and 8g/dl as anaemic and below 8g/dl as severely anaemic (2009, p. 284). Quantitative determination of the haemoglobin concentration in pregnant women without folic supplementation shows that about 32% developed anaemia during the pregnancy, while those who received folic acid supplementation had comparatively higher haemoglobin concentration across the trimesters. Hence, the quantitative research provided a robust data for statistical analysis that clearly showed prevalence and aetiology of anaemia among pregnant Chinese women.
Since iron deficiency not only causes anaemia, but also affects parental care, the purpose of the research was to establish whether supplementation of iron and vitamin A could effectively help in preventing anaemia and improving prenatal care. The research further wanted to ascertain whether iron supplementation would significantly reduce the prevalence of the anaemia among Chinese women. The purpose of the research conforms to the evidence-based practice of health research because it complies with the standards such as aetiology, treatment, diagnosis, prognosis, and prevention of harm. On aetiology, research purpose reaffirms that the cause of anaemia is the deficiency of iron and vitamin A during pregnancy and that predisposing factors such as poor nutrition and inaccessible prenatal care contribute significantly to high prevalence of anaemia in pregnant women.
Clinical implications of the research is that pregnant women in developing countries are very susceptible to anaemia because of dominant predisposing factors such as low education, poor nutrition, young maternal age and inaccessible prenatal care. Specifically, the research findings are very relevant to pregnant women who are in abject conditions of poverty and do not have adequate nutrition. The research ultimately concludes that anaemia and low levels of haemoglobin affects parental care and that supplementation of iron effectively alleviates the condition.
Aetiology of anaemia in adolescent girls
Aetiology of anaemia in adolescent girls is an area of priority for nursing research because the prevalence of anaemia in developing countries is significantly high as compared to the developed countries. Moreover, the study has shown that anaemia affects many adolescent girls and thus interferes with their educational performance at school. Presence of predisposing factors such as poor nutrition, inaccessible health care, malaria, low body mass index and poor education in developing countries contributes greatly to high prevalence rates of anaemia. Thus, for World Health Organization to help improve health status of the adolescent girls in developing countries, it should consider aetiology of anaemia as an area that needs priority in nursing research.
The research on the prevalence and risks factors associated with anaemia is a quantitative because it involves measuring of haemoglobin concentration and supplementation of iron and vitamin A in adolescent girls for a period of five months. Polit and Beck argue that, qualitative research begin with a phenomena that has been previously studied or defined and identification typically precedes the inquiry (2010, p.21). Thus, this research is a prospective study that focuses on the aetiology of anaemia by monitoring haemoglobin concentration with the objective of analysing the prevalence and predisposing factors of anaemia among adolescent girls.
The main purpose of the study is to determine the effect of iron and vitamin A supplementation on the haemoglobin concentration and susceptibility to malaria amongst adolescents. According to Leenstra, Kariuki, Kurtis, Oloo, Kager, and Ter, iron deficiency is the main cause of anaemia among adolescent girls because during adolescence, there is increased use of iron and vitamin A due to rapid growth and blood loss through menstruation (2009, p. 173). Moreover, other predisposing factors in developing countries such as poor nutrition and malaria increase the prevalence of anaemia in adolescent girls. The study complied with the evidence-based practice in terms of diagnosis, prognosis and treatment of anaemia by conducting a research to determine the effect of supplementation of iron and vitamin A on the haemoglobin concentration. The adolescent girls received iron and vitamin A supplementation for a period of five months while monitoring the levels of haemoglobin in the blood. However, in preventing harm, the study cautions that, although supplementation of iron help in preventing anaemia and improving educational performance of the adolescent girls, it may increase susceptibility to malaria.
The clinical implications of this research include prevalence of anaemia among adolescent girls due to rapid growth and onset of menstruation can effectively be prevented by supplementation of iron without any significant side effects. According to Leenstra et al., the supplementation of iron increases haemoglobin concentration thus prevents anaemia and increase immune response against malaria (2009, p.174). These findings rule out earlier findings that supplementation of iron increases susceptibility of infections such as malaria.
References
Leenstra, T. et al. (2009).The effect of Weekly iron and vitamin A Supplementation on Haemoglobin Levels and Iron Status in Adolescent Schoolgirls in Western Kenya. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 63(6), 173182.
Polit, F., & Beck, C. (2010). Essentials of Nursing Research: Appraising Evidence for Nursing Research (7th Ed.). Baltimore: Lippincott.
Zhang, Q., Li, Z., & Ananth, C. (2009). Prevalence and Risk Factors for Anaemia in Pregnant Women: a Population-Based Prospective Cohort Study in China. Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology, 23, 282291.
According to the World Health Organization, breastfeeding is the normal way of providing young infants with the nutrients they need for healthy growth and development ( Breastfeeding par. 1). Breastfeeding has a lot of benefits for women and infants. Mothers should be encouraged to breastfeed their children in order to bring them up healthy but at the same time not to ignore immunization.
The topic of breastfeeding is one of the most relevant topics related to public health nowadays. Although such influential health organizations as Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the World Health Organization, and the American Academy of Pediatrics emphasize that breastfeeding is the optimal choice for the infant nutrition, there is a tendency towards decreasing breastfeeding rates in the world. Kornides and Kitsantas underline that the rates of breastfeeding during the first few months of life are lower than expected among mothers in the United States of America (265). Breastfeeding is important because mothers milk gives a child the healthy start that will have a significant impact on the childs future life. Moreover, breastfeeding benefits society. For instance, the Office on Womens Health states that breastfeeding saves lives (deaths among infants could be prevented) and money (medical care costs are lower) and it is good for the environment (no plastic waste) ( Why Breastfeeding is important? par. 10).
The majority of health researchers recommend exclusive breastfeeding for the first four to six months of infancy. Some health professionals insist that breastfeeding should continue as long and often as the child wants. Others state that breastfeeding does not act as a substitute for immunization, and immunization cannot be replaced by breastfeeding. The paper is aimed at highlighting the advantages of breastfeeding for both the mother and the baby with the focus on its influence on childs immune system. The paper describes some essential nutrients found in breast milk. Further, breastfeeding is compared with immunization, and some conclusions are made.
The health benefits of breastfeeding are well-known. Victora et al. (2016) highlight key factors related to breastfeeding. Firstly, it is important to stress that breastfed infants are less likely to get infections, and the level of infant mortality is lower among breastfed infants. Moreover, breastfed children have fewer dental malocclusions and higher intelligence. Aune et al. argue that breastfeeding protects children from overweight and diabetes in future (114). Breast milk is the best option for infant nutrition because it contains a mixed variety of vitamins, minerals, and such useful biologically active components as lipids, proteins and others. Apart from this, mothers also benefit from breastfeeding. Mothers, who breastfeed their newborns, are less likely to suffer from breast cancer. Besides, breastfeeding can prevent diabetes and ovarian cancer.
However, as it is described by the Australian Breastfeeding Association, breastfeeding alone does not provide sufficient immunity to childhood diseases, and parents need to seek appropriate guidance on immunization from their medical advisers ( Media Statement par. 3). It is worth mentioning that breastfeeding is not a substitute for immunization. Breastfeeding does not provide total immunity to an infant to some diseases and illnesses.
To sum up, it is important to understand that breastfeeding is essential during the first few months of infancy. Womans and babys health and wellbeing directly depend on it. There are some health benefits for both the mother and the child. It cannot be denied that human milk can help to reduce risks of some diseases and cancers for the child as well as the mother. Breast milk provides a wide variety of substances from which the babys immune system benefits. Nevertheless, it is necessary not to forget that although breastfeeding supports and develops an infants immune system, and a lot of immunity disorders can be avoided due to breast milk, it cannot replace immunization.
Works Cited
Aune, Dagfinn, et al. Breastfeeding and the Maternal Risk of Type Two Diabetes: A Systematic Review and DoseResponse Meta-Analysis of Cohort Studies. Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases, vol. 24, no. 2, 2014, pp. 107-115.
Kornides, Melanie, and Panagiota Kitsantas. Evaluation of Breastfeeding Promotion, Support, and Knowledge of Benefits on Breastfeeding Outcomes. Journal of Child Health Care, vol. 17, no. 3, 2013, pp. 264-273.
Media Statement. The Australian Breastfeeding Association, 2013. Web.
Victora, Cesar, et al. Breastfeeding in the 21st Century: Epidemiology, Mechanisms, and Lifelong Effect. The Lancet, vol. 387, no. 10017, 2016, pp. 475-490.
Why Breastfeeding is important? The Office on Womens Health, 2014. Web.