Professional Identities for Nurses

Identifying ones self is a significant part of every individuals personal and professional life. Professional identity is an important contemporary issue as it is closely connected with the persons success in the profession and his/her satisfaction with the job. Individuality is based on the features of the particular job and the persons values and preferences (Tsahuridu para. 1). Every persons identity is different, but there are some things in common for all individuals: identity is based on what the people think they are and how they percept themselves. Whether it is a creative or a scholarly profession, whether the person deals with machines or communicates with other people, professional identity is vital for reaching the best outcomes from ones activity and occupying n important place in ones field.

Describing Identity in Sandy McIntoshs Stories

In his book A Hole in the Ocean, Sandy McIntosh describes the stories of meeting famous artists, writers, and other people in Hampton, where he was paving his steps as a poet and started building his career. Each of the stories is a representation of a particular persons world as McIntosh sees it. Each of the people described has a personal identity clearly visible through his or her actions, attitudes, and manner of communication. McIntosh does not agree with all the characters decisions, but he expresses understanding and respect towards them.

The Narration about Illya Bolotowsky

In one of his stories, Illya Bolotowsky: The Bubble Reputation, McIntosh depicts the artistic nature of his English literature professor. The author describes Bolotowskys identity in three dimensions: his appearance, character, and work. Bolotowsky always emphasized he was more than just the professor (McIntosh 50). Having painting for his main occupation, he was also engaged in filmmaking, translating, and writing plays. To his surprise, McIntosh finds out that Bolotowsky has become an amateur plane stunt pilot (McIntosh 50). When the author asks his acquaintance about the reason for taking up the last hobby, he receives an answer that the issue of uncertainty raises the price of his paintings (McIntosh 50). Thus, we see Bolotowsky as an active person involved in various activities which enrich his character and creative abilities, but who is not avoid of some commercial interest even if it may cause him harm. This person is ready to do anything to pursue a successful career and is not afraid of experiments.

Bolotowsky has a distinguished appearance: McIntosh draws particular attention to his Cossack-type mustache whose wingspread measured 14,5 inches (McIntosh 50). The painters identity is further revealed through the description of his visit to the author: he begins his immediate business (McIntosh 50) and asks McIntosh not to publish his story about their mutual filmmaking. As the story included some unpleasant moment, Bolotowsky worries about his reputation (McIntosh 50-51). Here the selfishness of his identity is disclosed: knowing that McIntosh is a writer, he asks him not to demonstrate his work in order for Bolotowsky to sustain the reputation of his own. Later, McIntosh realizes the reason for such behavior. He concludes that Bolotowsky has been working hard his whole life to craft his identity, and he could not allow anyone undermine it (McIntosh 51).

The Story of Peter and Rhea

Another McIntoshs story portrays the life of a couple  Rhea and Peter. They both used to be artists, but Peter forbids his wife to stay in the profession, declaring that there is room for only one painter in the house (McIntosh 38). While Peters self-identification with his work is high, there is a problem with the values which does not allow to consider him a positive character. Peter oppresses Rheas desires and aspirations. Therefore, his identity can be described as aggressive and selfish. Peter does not want to compromise, and his attitude leads to Rheas gradual self-abdication. After her death, Peter calls McIntosh and almost demands from him to come immediately and help with the funeral. The author notices that Rheas passing away has not changed Peters identity to better. On the contrary, he almost relishes in his grief and makes up stories, each next with changed staging (McIntosh 40). In the end, McIntosh is trying to explain Peters identity by remembering his opinion on the importance of spiritual richness. The author recollects Peters words you must construct for yourself a mythology (McIntosh 41). Probably this way Peter is trying to justify his life values and attitudes.

The Significance of Professional Identity in Nursing

There are spheres in which professional identity is of vital importance. One of such fields is nursing. As nurses responsibilities involve taking care of patients and maintaining the most comfortable conditions, their professional identity helps shape the environment in which they work (Snelgrove 355). Sharing ones life experience is considered a very effective method of constructing the professional identity.

Jasna K. Schwinds Experience

A nurse teacher Jasna K. Schwind remembers her first identity notion in connection with the visual determinants. She recollects how in the very beginning of her nursing program she was given her first uniform: blue uniform with short, white-cuffed sleeves (Chan and Schwind 306). Schwind considers it to be her first visible identity (Chan and Schwind 306). Apart from this, she notes the excitement of getting engaged into a new, professional family as her primary nursing identity (Chan and Schwind 307).

Angela Chans Story

Schwinds colleague Angela Chan connects her identity with social factors. She recollects how at the beginning of her study she was made to get rid of a jade bangle given by her mother (Chan and Schwind 307). While in Chinese culture it meant protection from evil, in the nursing school the students were expected not to be wearing any jewelry (Chan and Schwind 307). When Chan was made to part with her national identity, she had a hard time thinking about why the professional and personal identities are so diverse (Chan and Schwind 307). However, she eventually conforms to the rules as she wants to become a good professional.

Comparison of the four stories; advantages and disadvantages of the ways of constructing identity

All of the four described situations have something in common: in all of them, people put the professional identity in the first place. However, each case is different. In the stories about the artists, the characters put their professional identity on such a high level that they forget about sustaining a good relationship with people at a personal level. The story of Angela Chan, on the other side, illustrates how she suppresses her personal feelings to keep up with the professional demands. The advantages of developing identity include a better understanding of ones self and ones profession. The disadvantages incorporate the necessity of sacrificing some personal issues on the way to becoming an esteemed specialist.

Conclusion

Representing oneself to others requires a thorough contemplating and choosing the most appropriate methods. While keeping in mind the importance of being a good professional, one should not neglect the interpersonal and intrapersonal connections. Taking lessons from the experience of other people and shaping ones understanding of the profession are essential for anyone who strives to delineate their identity.

Works Cited

Chan, E. Angela, and Jasna K. Schwind. Two Nurse Teachers Reflect on Acquiring Their Nursing Identity. Reflective Practice: International and Multidisciplinary Perspectives, vol. 7, no. 3, 2006, pp. 303-314.

McIntosh, Sandy. A Hole in the Ocean: A Hamptons Apprenticeship. Marsh Hawk Press, 2016.

Snelgrove, Sherrill Ray. Nursing work in NHS Direct: constructing a nursing identity in the call-centre environment. Nursing Inquiry, vol. 16, no. 4, 2009; pp. 355-365.

Tsahuridu, Eva. . International Federation of Accountants. 2014, Web.

Understanding Multiple Sclerosis

Introduction

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory disease of the central nervous system, which affects both the spinal cord and the brain. MS affects myelin sheaths of the nerves, thus preventing transmissions of nerve impulses in the body.

Myelin sheaths insulate nerves cells in the body, which have a pivotal role of transmitting action potentials from one nerve cell to another. According to Minagar, Jimenez, and Alexander, MS is the leading cause of neurological disability among young people (230). Although MS is a dominant neurological condition among the young people, the disease is still incurable.

However, management interventions are available to alleviate the impact of the condition and help patients to live a normal life. Since the cause of MS is still unknown, most researchers consider it an autoimmune disorder. Therefore, this research paper examines causes, prevalence, types of MS, diagnostic techniques, and management of interventions with a view of enhancing understanding of MS.

Causes

Since the specific causes of MS are still unknown, many researchers have attributed the condition to a complex interaction of genetic, immunological, microbial, and environmental factors.

In the aspect of genetic factors, many cases of MS are attributed to the genetic makeup of an individual. Individuals with certain genetic makeup are prone to MS when compared to the general population. A study done on the United States veterans indicates that prevalence rates of MS are higher among the white veterans than in back veterans (Ramagopalan and Sadovnick 207).

Moreover, epidemiology studies have shown that family members with a patient with MS are susceptible to the disorder. Siblings of the patient are about 30 times more susceptible to MS than the general population. Additionally, variation in the major human histocompatibility system is one of the susceptible causes of MS. Therefore, there is enough evidence to believe that genetic factors predispose individuals to MS.

Immunological factors are also responsible for the occurrence of the MS in the population. When antigens enter the human body, they trigger immune responses, which can be unfavorable resulting into autoimmune reactions. Minagar, Jimenez, and Alexander argue that MS is an immune-mediated disorder where astrocytes, activated inflammatory cells, and oligodendrocytes are responsible for the pathogenesis of the MS (230).

Some of the immunological factors and antibodies may fail to recognize myelin sheaths of the nerves as own tissues, thus begin to attack them. The attack of myelin sheaths results into demyelination of nerves, which consequently impairs transmission of nerve impulses in the body.

Microbial factors are also responsible for the occurrence of MS in a given population. According to Tsang and Macdonell, an individual exposed to Epstein-Barr virus has a high chance of developing MS than an individual who has not experienced any infection of the virus before (948).

Epstein-Barr virus stimulates high titer of antibodies that cause autoimmune disorders. People without Epstein-Barr virus infection have low titers of antibodies specific to the virus, hence less prone to autoimmune disorders. Infections by other microbes also stimulate unfavorable immune responses that cause autoimmune disorders. The autoimmune disorders eventually cause demyelination of the nerves in the body leading to the development of MS.

Other evidence indicates that environmental factors such as sunlight determine susceptibility to MS. Ramagopalan and Sadovnick assert that the extent of sunlight exposure correlates negatively with susceptibility of an individual to MS (212). This aspect explains why people living in high latitude regions are more susceptible to MS than people who live in equatorial regions.

Moreover, it explains why people who take seafood or vitamin D supplements are less prone to MS. In this case, insufficient vitamin D and low amount of sunlight predispose people to MS. Other studies have shown that smoking is an environmental factor that contributes to the occurrence of MS.

Prevalence

Prevalence of MS across the word is about 2 per cent, but it varies from one country to another depending on the presence of predisposing factors. The distribution of MS among populations is random and skewed towards women. Women are three times prone to the MS than men are. According to Racke, Anne, Muir, Diab, Drew, and Lovett-Racke, in the United States, about 350,000 people suffer from MS (700).

Projections show that there is an annual increase of MS cases by 10,000, meaning that prevalence rates are increasing gradually. Additionally, most people who experience MS are young adults belonging to the ages of 15 to 50. Hence, in the United States, MS leads in causing neurologic disability among young people. Therefore, the prevalence rates indicate that MS is a disorder that contributes significantly to the number of young people with disabilities.

In Australia, prevalence rates of MS are lower than in the United States due to the difference in latitude and predisposing factors. According to Tsang and Macdonell, in Australia, 13,000 people suffer from MS, out of which women constitute 73 per cent of the MS cases (948).

The distribution of the 13,000 cases of MS varies from one place to another depending on latitude. Since sunlight influences the level of vitamin D in the body, people who live at high latitudes are likely to develop MS than those who live at lower latitudes. Thus, this aspect explains why prevalence rates of MS vary from 10 cases per 100,000 people in Tasmania to 4 cases per 100,000 people in northern parts of Australia (Tsang and Macdonell 950).

Types of Multiple Sclerosis

There are different types of MS depending on the stage of inflammation. When MS develops, it starts as a relapsing-remitting form. According to Tsang and Macdonell, relapses and remissions characterize initial phases of the MS in an individual (949).

The relapsing-remitting form of MS occurs in about 80 per cent of patients and is unique because it has intermittent flare-ups of symptoms. Intermittent flare-ups of symptoms happen in a period of one to three months after which an individual experiences partial or complete recovery.

A period of remissions can be years and the patient may not feel any symptoms of MS. If a patient with relapsing-remitting form of MS does not receive appropriate treatment, the condition progresses to secondary-progressive form (SPMS). Approximately, 90 per cent of patients with relapsing-remitting form of MS progress to SPMS, which is the second phase of MS that occurs within a period of 25 years.

Primary progressive MS is a severe form of MS as it affects the brain and spinal cord; moreover, it is not responsive to any form of treatment (Tsang and Macdonell 949). It is exceptionally difficult to treat and manage the primary progress MS because it has complex effects on the central nervous system.

Therefore, early diagnosis of the MS is crucial in preventing it from progressing into chronic MS, which is difficult to treat or manage. Other types of MS are benign and malignant MS. Benign MS has little impact on an individual because it does not result into neurological disability. In contrast, malignant MS is extremely complex as it results into neurological disability.

Diagnosis

There are two common methods applicable in the diagnosis of MS, viz. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF). Concerning MRI, the diagnosis involves the use of a computer, electromagnetic device, and radio frequency stimulator. Diagnosis using MRI involves the process of scanning the brain to detect the abnormalities in it.

To diagnose patients suffering from MS, the MRI scan shows the size and position of plagues and lesions in the brain. Presence of lesions in the brain shows that a patient is suffering from MS due to demyelination of nerves in the brain. Thus, MRI scanning provides the status of myelin sheaths in the brain.

The use of cerebrospinal fluid is another diagnostic technique. The method is appropriate in determining disease activity as well as providing the extent of the disease in the spinal cord. The diagnostic technique involves the use of cerebrospinal fluid in detecting the level and type of antibodies.

A patient with MS usually has abnormal levels of antibodies, which shows that there is an infection of the central nervous system or autoimmune activity (Tsang and Macdonell 949). Analysis of cerebrospinal fluid is accurate because it can detect the presence of microbes and antibodies, which MRI cannot detect.

Symptoms

Autonomic dysfunction is one of the symptoms of MS. It occurs due to a range of disorders that affect autonomic nervous system (ANS). Tsang and Macdonell note, Availability of lesions within the brainstem, the spinal cord, and the hypothalamus are the characteristics of this disorder (954). Patients with MS also have impaired thermoregulation because thermo-receptors are not sensitive in this condition.

Hence, impaired thermoregulation leads to fluctuation in the body temperatures depending on the surrounding environment. A patient with impaired thermoregulation easily responds to changes in the internal and external environments. Thus, caregivers of patients with impaired thermoregulation must identify environmental conditions that increase or decrease body temperatures and manage them appropriately according to the demands of the patient.

Other renowned symptoms of MS are cardiovascular dysfunction, sleep dysfunction, and bladder dysfunction. Cardiovascular dysfunction is a symptom of MS characterized mainly by reduction in the rate of heartbeat and low blood pressure. Characteristics of this symptom include dizziness, hypertension, and headache.

Management of the situation requires routine assessment of patients blood pressure and heartbeat rate in response to physical exercise. Sleep dysfunction, on the other hand, is a symptom of MS that causes breathing difficulties, leg muscle spasms, restless leg syndrome, body pains, as well as generating feelings of anxiety and depression (Ramagopalan and Sadovnick 211).

In this case, management intervention is for the patient to seek medical attention from MS nurses or attend sleep clinics to receive appropriate assistance. Bladder dysfunction is also another symptom of MS that renders the patient unable to control bladder function. Proper management of the bladder dysfunction requires use of anti-cholinergic drugs and intermittent catheterization.

Management Interventions

Since there is no feasible treatment for MS, different management interventions have proven significant in dealing with the condition. The main objective of using management interventions is to prevent the disorder from progressing into chronic phase where it causes permanent disability. Chemotherapy is a management intervention that is applicable in alleviating acute relapses of MS.

Acute relapses are symptomatic attacks of MS characterized by tremor, spasticity, depression, pain, anxiety, and fatigue. According to Tsang and Macdonell, intravenous administration of methylprednisolone is an effective chemotherapy that helps the patient to recover quickly and prevent subsequent relapses (951). Although the treatment is effective, it has short-term impact on recovery from relapses.

Chemotherapy is also significant in patients with clinically isolated syndrome. In this context, disease-modifying treatments vary from one country to another depending on the regulatory agencies in different countries. The treatment comes in two phases of treatment, which are effective but have some complications. Interferon and Natalizumab are applicable in the first and the second phases of treatment respectively.

Conclusion

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory disease of the central nervous system, which affects both the spinal cord and the brain. The disorder is common in young adults and is responsible for neurological disability. Despite its impact on humans, researchers have not established the true causes of MS, but they link the condition to many causative factors. Genetic, immunological, microbial, and environmental factors are some of the factors that predispose people to MS.

These factors act in concert and cumulatively increase predisposition to MS. Since MS is incurable, management interventions such as chemotherapy, psychotherapy, and physiotherapy have proved as effective methods in alleviating the impact of MS on individuals. Effective treatment of MS requires early diagnosis using Magnetic Resonance Imaging and analysis of cerebral spinal fluid. Therefore, patients who experience symptoms of MS should seek early medical treatment before the condition becomes incurable or chronic.

Works Cited

Minagar, Alireza, Wenche Jimenez, and Steven Alexander. Multiple sclerosis as a vascular disease. Neurological Research 28.6 (2006): 230-235. Print.

Racke, Michael, Gocke Anne, Mark Muir, Asim Diab, Paul Drew, and Amy Lovett-

Racke. Nuclear receptors and autoimmune disease: The potential of PPAR agonists to treat multiple Sclerosis. The Journal of Nutrition 136.1 (2006): 700-703. Print.

Ramagopalan, Sreem, and Dessa Sadovnick. Epidemiology of Multiple Sclerosis. Neurologic Clinics 29.5 (2011): 207-217. Print.

Tsang, Benjamin, and Richard Macdonell. Multiple sclerosis: diagnosis, management and prognosis. Australian Family Physician 40.12 (2011): 948-955. Print.

Annotated Bibliography

Minagar, Alireza, Wenche Jimenez, and Steven Alexander. Multiple sclerosis as a vascular disease. Neurological Research 28.6 (2006): 230-235. Print.

The article postulates that occurrence of MS could be due to abnormalities in vascular system. It proposes that MS is a vascular disease that occurs because central nervous system connects with vascular components. Hence, the authors argue that endothelia pathophysiology affects blood-brain barrier and allow migration of activated leukocytes into the brain and spinal cord.

Racke, Michael, Gocke Anne, Mark Muir, Asim Diab, Paul Drew, and Amy Lovett  Racke. Nuclear receptors and autoimmune disease: The potential of PPAR agonists to treat multiple Sclerosis. The Journal of Nutrition 136.1 (2006): 700-703. Print.

The authors is article of argue that MS is an autoimmune disease and thus requires interventions that prevent autoimmunity. They assert that T-cells mediate inflammation and demyelination of nerves in central nervous system. Therefore, the article seeks to suggest that agonists of proliferated-activated receptors have potential of treating MS.

Ramagopalan, Sreem, and Dessa Sadovnick. Epidemiology of Multiple Sclerosis. Neurologic Clinics 29.5 (2011): 207-217. Print.

The article focuses on the epidemiology of MS. It mainly examines factors that are responsible for the occurrence of MS. Since there are many factors that predispose people to MS, the authors argue that MS is a product of complex interactions of many factors rather than having one causative agent. Hence, the article suggests that proper understanding of MS is necessary.

Tsang, Benjamin, and Richard Macdonell. Multiple sclerosis: diagnosis, management and prognosis. Australian Family Physician 40.12 (2011): 948-955. Print.

The article examines causes, diagnosis, management and prognosis MS with view of summarizing it. To enhance understanding of MS, the article begins by stating factors that cause or predispose an individual to MS. The article then examines different phases of MS and outlines different management strategies. Eventually, the article proposes that first and second lines of treatment are essential in the management of MS.

John Snow (The Father of Epidemiology)

Introduction

John Snow was a medical practitioner of English descent. He was instrumental in the acceptance of anaesthesia in the medical field. Snow is also hailed for his extensive study and contribution in the field of medical hygiene. However, he is best known for his work in relation to epidemiology. Snow carried out extensive research on the transmission and control of cholera. Due to his efforts, he is rightfully referred to as the father of epidemiology.

Discussion

Whenever there is a sudden occurrence of a disease in a locality, it is expected that medical experts will visit the area to probe on its causes and on possible remedies (Rothman, 2012, p.34). But in the recent past, diseases were seen as a form of punishment from God or as resulting from invincible forces that were unknown to mankind.

John Snow was very instrumental in changing all that. In 1854, the Soho area of London was struck by an eruption of cholera. Snow hypothesised that the disease emanated from water that came into contact with raw sewage (Rothman, 2012, p.44). Back in the day, piped water was not available in homes. People got water from central points that were strategically positioned in the neighbourhood.

In the day, people maintained that cholera resulted from invisible gases known as miasma. John Snow did not subject to this school of thought. Snow drew a map indicating the location of all water pumps and the dwelling points of all the locals who were affected by the pandemic (Rothman, 2012, p.67).

In the end, Snow successfully showed that all the people who were affected consumed water from a specific pump in the neighbourhood. Snow forwarded his findings to the local authorities. They gave credence to snows theory. Consequently, the authorities disabled the central pump and the pandemic ceased.

Scientists constantly disagree on various issues. They evaluate nature by conducting scientific experiments. Scientists change their perception of nature whenever they formulate a new set of ideas on a particular area of concern (Merrill, 2010, p.88). After Snows research, scientists changed their understanding of cholera.

Snows research undertakings in relation to cholera are still relevant in the contemporary field of medicine. From his works, it is evident that the first step in fighting a disease of choleras nature is to establish how the disease is spread from one person to another. This is followed by the execution of preventive measures. Snow opined that the causative agent of cholera was microscopic, cell-like and capable of multiplying (Merrill, 2010, p.97).

Unlike his colleagues in the medical field, Snow directed his energy into determining how the disease was communicated from one individual to another. Snow focused his attention on the social factors that favoured the communication of cholera. The factors were: unavailability of soap and clean water, lack of light to detect contamination, lack of knowledge on hygienic practices and human activities in mines that forced men to dispose their faecal wastes inappropriately (Merrill, 2010, p.112).

Conclusion

Snow is remembered for having studied fields that were dear to human race. He majored on the formulation of a safe and reliable surgical anaesthesia and put immeasurable effort into forestalling cholera. From his studies, it is clear that a disease cannot be treated without a clear understanding of how it is transmitted.

Snows work has largely influenced the modern field of epidemiology. Researchers draw inspiration from his determination and regard for science. Snows research continues to inspire modern epidemiologists in their work. In the recent past, many communicable diseases have been effectively cured through research.

References

Merrill, R. (2010). Introduction to Epidemiology. London: Jones & Bartlett.

Rothman, K. (2012). Epidemiology: An Introduction. London: Oxford University Press.

Can People Have Healthier Lifestyles?

Introduction

Now it seems people (mainly in developed countries) are obsessed with ideas of healthy living and being slim. Hollywood and fashion industry have created the world of slim beauties and fit men. Healthy lifestyles are promoted on TV. There are a variety of books on how to keep fit and be healthy.

However, there are still many people whose health behaviors are not appropriate. In fact, there is still a question whether people have started living healthier lives. As a matter of fact, they have. Nonetheless, the change is almost insignificant. Though people understand healthy life style is important, their health behavior remains largely unchanged. Therefore, it is necessary to understand what can encourage people to changes their lifestyles.

In the first place, it is necessary to understand what a health-related lifestyle is. It can be defined as behavioral choices made by individuals about eating, physical activity, drinking alcohol, smoking tobacco, taking drugs and sexual practices (Thirlaway 9). Clearly, health behavior includes a variety of components and each component requires special attention. Eating behaviors and physical exercise can be regarded as the most important components as they affect all categories of people (children, adolescents, adults, elderly people).

It is necessary to note that the attitude toward eating behavior and physical exercise in the USA has changed. However, the change is very modest. It has been estimated that overall prevalence of healthy lifestyles increased only modestly (from 3.2% to 5.1%) between 1994 and 2007 (Troost et al. 1396).

People still eat relatively insignificant amount of fruit and vegetables and do not do a lot of exercise. Notably, the situation differs in different parts of the country. However, the difference is rather insignificant. There are still many overweight Americans who have a variety of health problems. Moreover, there are a number of surveys that show certain decrease in prevalence of healthy lifestyles (Troost et al. 1395).

These trends are especially surprising as people are literally bombarded by messages concerning healthy lifestyles. Admittedly, there are various helpful books and articles on how to keep slim. There are a variety of programs on TV on the matter. A vast number of TV programs propagate healthy lifestyle and provide tips which help people change their lives for better. Hollywood stars and pop stars also propagate ideas of healthy eating and lots of exercise. Nonetheless, this has quite little effect.

Education

Admittedly, all want to look better, but quite a few do change their lifestyles. There can be a number of reasons that result in this trend. Many people still do not know what exactly should be done. It is believed that such ignorance is due to inappropriate health behavioral patterns acquired in childhood as such behaviors frequently are established during childhood and extend into adulthood (Seal & Seal 429). Therefore, it is quite clear that proper health education can positively affect the situation.

Schools should play major role in developing appropriate health behavioral patterns in children and adolescents. Apart from providing proper food in school canteens, educators should teach children how to live a healthy life. Physical training should not be the only time children move.

Teachers should communicate with parents on healthy lifestyles. Teachers should encourage parents to work out healthy diets. Teachers should also explain that physical exercise is crucial and children should be active at home. Parents should understand that their children should spend less time playing computer games and watching TV.

Summer Camps

Seal and Seal note that children who attended Wellness Camp contributed greatly in terms of health behavior patterns (431). The children first reported that cereals, chips, hamburgers were healthy food. At the end of their being in the camp they reported that vegetables, fruit were healthy. Of course, there are quite many limitations to the survey mentioned above and more data is necessary. However, it is clear that children benefit from understanding what a healthy lifestyle is.

Thus, the US government should also pay a lot of attention to the problem. It is necessary to create various Wellness Camps where children could acquire health behavioral patterns and share their experiences. These camps should be reachable for all groups of children (in terms of their social status, cultural peculiarities, etc.). On the other hand, these camps should also be prestigious.

Conclusion

On balance, it is necessary to note that despite the all fuzz concerning healthy lifestyles, Americans still have inappropriate health behavioral patterns. There is an insignificant increase in prevalence of healthy lifestyles. Therefore, it is important to work out a variety of strategies to address the problem.

Education offers a number of solutions as it is obvious that health behaviors acquired in childhood remain persistent in adulthood. Children as well as their parents should be taught to live healthy lives. Apart from educators, officials and business people can help improve the situation. Wellness camps can be regarded as some of the most effective tools to develop proper health behavior.

Works Cited

Seal, Nuananong and John Seal. Developing Healthy Childhood Behaviour: Outcomes of a Summer Camp Experience. International Journal of Nursing Practice 17 (2011): 428-434. Print.

Thirlaway, Kathr. The Psychology of Unhealthy Lifestyles: Theory and Interventions for Health Promotion. New York: Taylor & Francis, 2009. Print.

Troost, Jonathan P., Ann P. Raffley, Zhehui Luo, Mathew J. Reeves. Temporal and Regional Trends in the Prevalence of Healthy Lifestyle Characteristics: United States, 1994-2007. American Journal of Public Health 102.7 (2012): 1392-1398. Print.

Histopathology: Epidermal Changes

Introduction

The importance of histopathology can hardly be overrated. Defined as the analysis of a tissue sample carried out with the help of a microscope to locate possible health issues (Bennett 2012), the field in question helps locate the factors that may possibly enhance the growth of malignant lumps and, therefore, ensure that the patient should not be exposed to the harmful environment.

Aims

The key goal of this practical is to learn to identify changes in the patients body, which may lead to the development of malignant lumps, as well as prevent or address the specified changes correspondingly. The practical has helped me locate the key symptoms of carcinoma development in a patient, as well as assure that the target audience should be protected from the factors that may possibly contribute to the development of the specified disease.

Additionally, the practical assignment mentioned above has created premises for learning more about the issue of breast cancer. There is no need to stress that this disease remains one of the key threats to womens health worldwide; thus, addressing it properly is the prime responsibility of a therapist.

Methods

The practice in question was carried out with the help of specific equipment; particularly, a microscope was used to identify the alterations in the sample tissue.

Results and Discussion

Normal Skin Histology

Figure 1.

Three key layers of skin are identified. These are epidermis, dermis and hypodermis. Epidermis, or the outer layer, is characterised by ridges and squamous epithelium. Dermis, or the middle layer, is split into a papillary and a reticular level. The former consists of blood vessels, nerves, lymph, etc. The latter, in its turn, includes vascular plexus, lymph, nerves, collagen fibres, etc. (Yong, Woodford & ODowd 2013).

Figure 2.

There are two types of human skin, i.e., the hairy and the non-hairy one. The latter is characterised by a thick epidermis, whereas the former one is represented by a thin on. Among the appendages, which human skin may have, the following ones are traditionally listed: hair, nails, sweat glands and sebaceous glands (Yong, Woodford & ODowd 2013).

Carcinoma

Figure 3.

As the picture provided above shows, the carcinoma appears in the squamous cells of the skin. The type of carcinoma in question can be considered the second most common one in cancer patients (Alam, Bordeau & Yu 2013). Defined as the uncontrolled increase in abnormal cells among the skin squamous ones, the phenomenon in question affects the external layers of skin, i.e., the epidermis, for the most part (Alam et al. 2013).

Figure 4.

In addition, the basal cells of the skin have been affected by the disease. The specified type of melanoma is the most frequently occurring one. Unlike the squamous cell carcinoma, the disease in question occurs in the deepest layer of the epidermis. Though the basal cells carcinoma is not metastatic, it still has to be addressed correspondingly (Alam et al. 2013).

Disease Progress

Figure 5.

As it has been stressed above, BCC does not trigger metastases in the patient, in contrast to SCC (Alam, Bordeau & Yu 2013). The disease typically manifests itself as red sores, scars, etc. As a rule, the disease is caused by a consistent and unceasing exposure to the sun. The SCC, in its turn, also takes the form of red sores in most instances. However, unlike the BCC type of carcinoma, the specimen in question typically develops a crust on the surface of the carcinoma and often bleeds (Alam, Bordeau & Yu 2013).

Therefore, exposure to any form of radiation can be considered the primary risk factor when it comes to the development of carcinoma in patients. The condition in question needs to be treated accordingly; after the excision, the Mohs surgery needs to be carried out. Seeing that the surgery cannot possibly remove every single trace of carcinoma in the patients body in some cases, it may be required to undergo radiation therapy instead (Nouri 2012).

Malignant Melanoma

Figure 6.

A malignant melanoma is a form of skin cancer, which is triggered by the melanocyte cells in the patients skin. The specified type of cancer is usually caused by long-term exposure to UVA and UVB rays. The specified type of skin cancer can be found in the basal layer of the epidermis. As the specimen under analysis shows, melanoma manifests itself as a rapid change in the skin colour in particular spots. Additionally, melanoma occurs as a spot of an asymmetrical shape. Finally, a melanoma has irregular borders, as the example under analysis shows (Barnhill 2012).

Malignant Melanoma in a Patient

Apart from a rapid change in the skin colour on a specific area, which has been discussed above, a malignant melanoma can be identified with the help of the so-called ABCDE principle (Asymmetry, Border irregularity, Color, Diameter, and Evolving). The latter is especially important in diagnosing the malignant melanoma  unlike other types of lumps, the given one grows consistently (Alam et al. 2013).

Figure 7.

However, apart from the test in question, additional checks must be run to diagnose the patient correctly. Particularly, a biopsy must be mentioned among the most evident choices. As a rule, three types of a biopsy are identified; these are the punch, the excisional and the incisional biopsy types. The above-mentioned methods of a skin exam can be considered the most trustworthy in terms of results accuracy (Alam et al. 2013).

Basal Cell Carcinoma

Figure 8.

As the exhibit under analysis shows, basal cell carcinoma is located in the area, where squamous cells grow. The location under analysis can be considered rather typical for this type of carcinoma. The specimen under consideration also displays the typical behaviour of the carcinoma; to be more specific, the fact that the tumour rarely leaves the site of its original location should be brought up. Indeed, by definition, BCC practically never leaves the original site of the tumour development, which contributes to a faster and more efficient recovery of the patient. Therefore, the tissue sample in question can be deemed as a very basic representation of a typical basal cell carcinoma (Alam et al. 2013). The prognoses of the disease in question are usually positive, the patient having rather high chances of recovery as long as the corresponding treatment options are provided to them.

Morphology of a Breast

A womans breast can be defined as the gland that is located under the skin and can produce milk. A breast consists of the superficial fascia, the deep fascia and Pectoralis Major m. There is a potential space between the deep fascia and the breast; as a result, the latter can move. The breast is found in between the second and the sixth rib and is mostly composed of glandular tissue. As a rule, most breast lumps, including breast cancer, occur in the specified area. An auxiliary tail is the breast tissue found on the medial auxiliary wall (Vorherr 2012).

Image 1. Breast Morphology. Source: (Breast n. d.).

As the diagram above shows, the Pectoralis Major m. helps keep the breast in place, whereas the pectoral fat pad serves as the storage for the mammary glands. Lactiferous ducts help conduct milk to the lactiferous sinus, which disperses milk (Moini 2012).

Lobular and Connective Tissue: Ratio

Seeing that both lobular and connective tissue types are represented in a breast, it is essential to determine the ratio between the two so that changes to the breast tissue could be identified easily, and the corresponding measures should be undertaken before the possible lump can develop into a malignant tumour.

It should be noted, though, that the ratio in question often depends on the properties of a particular breast, such as its firmness, elasticity, etc. Therefore, the actual number that he ratio under analysis is expressed by may vary depending on the characteristics of a patient, such as age, environment, etc. Nevertheless, the ratio in question typically equals 1:1 in the women, who are not pregnant and do not have children (infants) (Moini 2012). As far as lactating women are concerned, the specified ratio may reach 1:2 (Bagheri, Bell & Khan 2011).

Pathology of Lobular Hyperplasia

The pathology of lobular hyperplasia can be defined as the emergence of a new and alien type of cells in the breast tissue. In the worst case scenario, the specified term signifies that a tumour has been developing in the patients breast. The phenomenon of lobular hyperplasia pathology also presupposes that the patient is predisposed to a carcinoma (Bagheri et al. 2011). Therefore, a lifelong observation of the patient with regular visits to the doctor and regular checks is strongly advised. As it has been stressed above, the standard ratio of lobular tissue to connective one ranges from 1:1 to 1:2. Therefore, everything that goes beyond the stated limit should be considered a reason for concern. The atypical tissue is quite easy to identify by considering the above-mentioned ratio; as soon as it is out of proportions, the patient needs to undergo a check.

Reasons for Lobular Hyperplasia

The exact reasons for the disease under analysis to develop are not yet known. It is assumed that lobular hyperplasia typically develops due to the alterations in the size of the breast or the effects of the exposure to mechanic forces (e.g., a severe blow to the breast) (Moini 2012). Therefore, it is advised that the patient should not expose themselves to an excessive amount of any kind of radiation, including the solar one. In addition, lobular hyperplasia may be caused by an abnormal BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene (Washington & Leaver 2015).

A lobular hyperplasia typically manifests itself in the emergence of abnormally large cells in place of the breast ducts and lobules in the patient. In order to diagnose the issue, the therapist will have to carry out a biopsy. Afterwards, the patient is suggested to undergo a surgery in case the analysis turns out to be positive (Washington & Leaver 2015). Despite the fact that the disease is treatable, coping with it presupposes undergoing a range of stressful procedures.

Lobular Hyperplasia and Possible Complications

Apart from being rather threatening on its own, lobular hyperplasia may trigger further complications in the patients health. To be more exact, the subject matter may lead to a range of other serious conditions. Particularly, the issue such as breast cancer deserves to be mentioned (Washington & Leaver 2015).

Indeed, even years after diagnosis and successful treatment of the problem, a range of women face the threat of developing breast cancer (Washington & Leaver 2015). According to a recent study, the two phenomena are related directly to each other: Age-related atrophy of breast lobules (lobular involution) has been found to be inversely associated with risk of breast cancer (Boyd, Martin, Yaffe & Minkin 2012). Therefore, it will be legitimate to suggest that a lobular hyperplasia may lead to the development of breast cancer.

Fibroadenoma

Fibroadenoma is a disease that presupposes the development of fibrous tissue in the breast; in other words, the subject matter is an umbrella term for all types of lumps that can be found in a womans breast (Moini 2012). As a rule, the lump is created from the breast gland tissue (Boyd et al. 2012). Due to the increase in the amount of lobular tissue, the ratio of the latter and the connective tissue is likely to grow.

Fibroadenoma: Symptoms

The symptoms of the disease are rather basic; the emergence of movable lumps under the skin of a womans breast traditionally signifies the development of a fibroadenoma. In addition to being mobile, these lumps share the properties such as firmness, rubbery sensation, and a complete absence of any pain (Boyd et al. 2012).

Fibroadenoma Treatment

The disease can be treated in several ways. The first and the most radical treatment concerns the removal of the tissue and, therefore, the breast with the help of lumpectomy, or excisional biopsy. Although the specified approach is traditionally considered the most efficient one in terms of possible recidivism, nonsurgical management is also used (Boyd et al. 2012).

Scirrhous Carcinoma: Description

Scirrhous carcinoma is typically defined as the malignant tumor that grows in fibrous tissue and develops at a comparatively slow pace, yet has drastic effects on the patients well-being (Kobayashi 2012).

Scirrhous Carcinoma: Symptoms

Scirrhous carcinoma can be identified by paying attention to the symptoms such as the emergence of painless, yet rapidly increasing lumps on ones breast. The disease can be considered fairly common, as the key causes of the disease have not been identified yet (Kobayashi 2012). However, further researches may help identify primary causes and develop preventive measures to reduce the number of instances of scirrhous carcinoma development in female patients.

Scirrhous Carcinoma: Treatment

The basic treatment of the disease in question presupposes that surgery should be used as the means of removing the tumour. First, a biopsy is carried out to diagnose the disease and design an appropriate method of treatment for a particular patient. Afterwards, a surgery is performed with the following removal of the lump. Patients with scirrhous carcinoma have high chances for recovery, yet they will have to adopt a very rigid set of lifestyle rules after the surgery (Kobayashi 2012).

Reference List

Alam, M, Bordeau, J S & Yu, S S 2013, Merkel cell carcinoma, Springer Science & Business Media, Berlin.

Bagheri, S C, Bell. B & Khan, H A 2011, Current therapy in oral and maxillofacial surgery, Elsevier, New York City, New York.

Barnhill, R L 2012, Pathology of malignant melanoma, Springer Science & Business Media, Berlin.

Bennett, J M 2012, Controversies in the management of lymphomas: including Hodgkins disease, Springer Science & Business Media, Berlin.

Boyd, N, Martin, L J, Yaffe, M J & Minkin, S 2012, Mammographic density and breast cancer risk: current understanding and future prospects, Breast Cancer Research, vol. 13, no. 6, pp. 223234.

Breast. n. d., Web.

Kobayashi, T 2012, Clinical ultrasound of the breast, Springer Science & Business Media, Berlin.

Moini, J 2012, Anatomy and physiology for health professionals, Jones & Bartlett Publishers, Burlington, Massachusetts.

Nouri, K 2012, Mohs micrographic surgery, Springer Science & Business Media, Berlin.

Vorherr, H 2012, The breast: morphology, physiology, and lactation, Elsevier, New York City, New York.

Washington, C M & Leaver, D T 2015, Principles and practice of radiation therapy, Elsevier Health Sciences, New York City, New York.

Yong, B, Woodford, P & ODowd, G 2013, Wheaters functional histology: a text and colour atlas, Elsevier Health Sciences, Philadelphia Pennsylvania.

Infectious Mononucleosis: Causes and Treatment

The Enemy Microbes

Infectious mononucleosis is a contagious disease that is caused by a virus known as Epstein-Barr. The common name for this disease is glandular fever. Glandular fevers global importance and relevance can be understood by outlining the biological, social, economic, and ecological issues relating to this disease. Biologically, this disease may cause serious pain and damage to the parts of the body. Spleen and eyes are some of the most affected parts of the body. Socially, this disease may limit ones capacity to interact and socialise with others because it is contagious (Gitnick 2012). Economically, it drains the financial resources of the affected families because they have to get proper medication for their loved one. Ecologically, this disease may cause strains to the programs meant to promote environmental conservation, especially when the government is forced to step in and help in fighting the spread of the disease.

The War: Infection and Transmission of the Disease

The pathogen that causes Glandular fever is Epstein-Barr. According to Turgeon (2009), the most common way through which this pathogen is spread from one person to another is kissing. It passes from the host to the recipient through saliva. In rare cases, sneezing, coughing, and sharing of utensils such as spoon may also spread the disease (Yen 2010). In the past, the disease was also spread through blood transfusion. Once the pathogen gets into the body, through the mouth or nostril, it gets into the throat where it replicates itself within the epithelial cells. This results in irritation in this region, causing the disease. The immune response against the development of these cells causes enlarged lymphocytes.

The Defence

When the Epstein-Barr virus enters the body, the system will recognise it as a foreign organism that should be eliminated. The body system fights this virus using adaptive immunity. The body makes an antigen-specific immune response immediately once the virus is detected within the body. Given that it is a virus-fighting, the pathogen using conventional medicines may sometimes be complex (Varadi 2004). The efficiency of the white blood cells may need to be boosted using gargling solutions, antibiotics in case one develops other infections or steroids. However, sometimes these boosters may fail to have any impact on the virus. This virus may evade the immune system for a long time because of its changing shape that makes it difficult to fight it. It is a relief that once a person has been infected, the body develops a defence system against future infections.

The Casualty

Some of the clinical manifestations of the disease include a sore throat that is painful when swallowing anything. The pain is caused by the tenderness of the cells in the throat (Taga & Tosato 2009). The glands around will be swollen as the immune system tries to fight the disease. Flu-like symptoms, malaise, and swollen eyes are other symptoms. In severe cases, ruptured spleen and severe anaemia may be witnessed.

The Victory

A medical doctor may conduct a number of physical examinations to determine if one is suffering from Glandular fever. The tests include swelling of tonsils, rashes on the chest, redness of throat, fever, and enlarged spleen (Kaslow & LeDuc 2014). A blood test will also be necessary to identify the presence of Epstein Barr virus. Currently, there is no vaccine for this disease. The strategies that currently exist to control the disease at the community level is by avoiding instances where healthy people share utensils with infected persons. The United Nations, through the World Health Organisation, advises infected persons to avoid kissing or sharing body fluids with healthy people. The Centre for Disease Control and Prevention and the World Health Organisation have been working closely to find better strategies for managing and preventing this contagious disease.

List of References

Gitnick, G 2012, Modern Concepts of Acute and Chronic Hepatitis, Springer, Boston.

Kaslow, R & LeDuc, J 2014, Viral infections of humans: Epidemiology and control, Springer, New York.

Taga, K & Tosato, G 2009, Diagnosis of Atypical Cases of Infectious Mononucleosis, Clinical Infectious Diseases, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 83-88.

Turgeon, M 2009, Clinical hematology: Theory and procedures, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia.

Varadi, S 2004, Infectious Mononucleosis, The British Medical Journal, vol. 1, no. 4876, pp. 1440-1441.

Yen, O 2010, Diagnosis of Infectious Mononucleosis, American Medical Journal, vol. 280, no. 6230, pp. 1538-1539.

Diarrhea Prevention and Control

Causes of Diarrhea

Although condition of diarrhea is taken lightly by most people, it is a dangerous ailment that can cause death. This ailment is one of the most common causes of infant death in developing countries. Mortality of children is associated with diarrhea in a significant number of cases in developing nation. Poor hygiene practices are the major cause of the ailment (Bostoen et al., 2008). Other factors may cause diarrhea to a less severe extent.

Some species of bacteria are responsible for some of the most severe forms of diarrhea. Vibrio cholerae, a bacterium that thrives in water, causes severe diarrhea that may kill an infant within hours of the onset of the symptoms. A victim of diarrhea suffers loss of water in the body and eventually succumbs to dehydration. Several measures can be undertaken to prevent occurrence of diarrhea and even control the cases that arise (Bostoen et al., 2008).

Risk Factors

A study of over thirty three thousand children revealed that fecal contamination is the leading cause of diarrhea in developing nations. Improper disposal of excreta and lack of necessary disposal facilities are the major factors affecting contamination of water. In some cases, the latrine being used for disposal of excreta was inappropriate or open.

This caused as much harm as open disposal of excreta (Bostoen et al., 2008). An improvement of the method of disposal of excreta was shown to improve the incidence of diarrhea by thirty percent. Although these studies involved observation of trends, they gave a clear indication that proper disposal of human excreta was an effective way to control the rate of occurrence of diarrhea in developing nations.

Once the human excreta are disposed off in an inappropriate manner, there are various ways in which the bacteria contained in it are transmitted to another human individual. Waste may contaminate water, which is then ingested later by an individual. One may come into contact with the excreta and ingest the bacteria during eating or drinking.

When one comes into contact with a person who has contaminated hands through shaking of hands, the bacteria may be passed on. There is only one apparent point of entry of the bacteria into the human body. This is through the oral cavity (Bostoen et al., 2008). After ingestion of the bacteria, it may be passed out in excreta again after multiplication in the gut. If the human waste is disposed off in an inappropriate manner, it may continue to pose a danger of passing on the bacteria to another individual.

The age of the individual exposed to risk is also a significant factor in determining whether diarrhea may occur in the individual. Young people tend to suffer diarrhea more often (Bostoen et al., 2008). Although some organisms can be directly related to diarrhea, it is not possible to know the real cause of the bowel behavior consistent with persistent diarrhea.

Use of Probiotics

Probiotics can be used to treat cases of diarrhea in order to minimize the effects of the bacteria causing the conditions. Probiotics consists of other organisms whose metabolic processes are of benefit to individual experiencing diarrhea (Aponte, 2010). A study in2006 shows that the use of probiotics reduced the effects of the bacteria by controlling the movement of the bowel to a manageable level.

There may be variation in childrens response to the administration of probiotics (Aponte, 2010). Studies have not established the general patterns of the response to the use of probiotics. This is attributed to the fact that these substances are only used in developed nations where close monitoring is readily available.

Thus, it is possible that children in different conditions in developing countries have a different response. However, it is possible to predict that the variation in response will be minimal across the globe. The micro organisms present in probiotics introduce a state of balance in the gut such that the effect of the bacteria that causes diarrhea is moderated. In addition, the effects of bowel inflammation are reduced where the infection has caused a significant level of inflammation (Aponte, 2010).

Effectiveness of Probiotics

Probiotics do not act directly on the diarrhea-causing bacteria. However, the competitive environment they create in the bowel of a person suffering diarrhea makes the pre-existing bacteria to minimize multiplication activities (Aponte, 2010). The mucosa of the gullet is preserved by the use of these substances.

Their action seems to work against most strains of bacteria that cause diarrhea. Moreover, they can be used for treatment of both acute and persistent diarrhea. For more effective action, it is necessary to administer the probiotics early enough for some strains of bacteria (Aponte, 2010). The duration for which the diarrhea lasts can be reduced by more than a week. This reduces the possibility of development of a persistent diarrhea in some cases.

Conclusion

The establishment of improper disposal of human excreta as a major cause of diarrhea is a conclusion of many independent studies. The effects of this problem are evident in developing nations. Probiotics have been found to be effective by studies covering developing nations. However, it is assumed that there is consistency across the globe. Research presented shows that the measures employed to control diarrhea proved effective and resulted to a global improvement of health.

References

Aponte, B. (2010). Probiotics for treating persistent diarrhoea in children. Chocrane Collaboration, 6(1), 2-32.

Bostoen, C., Boisson, S., & Jenkins, F. (2008). Interventions to improve disposal of human excreta for preventing diarrhoea. Chocrane Cholaboration, 5(1), 6-65.

Female Genital Mutilation and Counterstrategies

Introduction

Female genital mutilation (FGM) is a common custom in some Asian, Middle Eastern, and Caucasian countries. FGM is cruel and, in most cases, unsanitary operation conducted at home without any participation by qualified medical workers and with no appropriate medications. The procedure includes the cutting of the clitoris and/or labia minora. According to the World Health Organization (2018), it may also involve such painful processes as infibulation, pricking, piercing, etc. Those who promote this ritual explain that the operation diminishes girls sexuality and prevents premature sexual relations.

However, this practice should be abolished for several reasons. First, as has already been mentioned, the procedure is performed under inappropriate conditions. Second, it prevents females from experiencing sexual satisfaction during their mature years. Consequently, women suffer from depression and stress. Third, it causes serious health problems such as painful urination, vaginal malfunction, and childbirth complications (World Health Organization, 2018). Fourth, this issue is an ethical problem. FGM is certainly not chosen by the girl herself, but imposed on her by her parents and the local society.

This is a burning issue for the whole world as people are free to migrate almost anywhere nowadays. Those who have always practiced FGM at home will continue doing so in the country they move to. To resist this tendency, social workers and nurses should develop strategies aimed at preventing this harmful ritual in families. It is important to note that there are two million girls every year under the threat of FGM (Yoder, Wang, & Johansen, 2013). The strategies below are directed toward eliminating the barriers that delay the eradication of FGM. They may help improve the situations of young girls who are endangered by this cruel tradition.

Strategy One: General Knowledge

It is quite doubtful that legal measures are enough to reduce the number of families practicing FGM. If people do not accept the principles that underlie law, they will resist it. That is why in the case of FGM, educational measures should be taken. There may be several steps that a nurse or a social worker should follow to give a family the basic knowledge that will prevent FGM. For our purposes, it is necessary to imagine a model family to whom the strategies will be applied. Let it be a family from a Middle Eastern country having more than three children, with the parents able to read and write, and the husband having some professional skills. They adhere to Muslim religious beliefs. The ritual of FGM is strictly followed inside their native local society.

At first, it is necessary to give the parents basic information about human physiology. In many traditional cultures, this field of knowledge is openly or secretly tabooed due to religious reasons (barrier 1). More than that, according to Glover and Liebling (2018), most women in traditional eastern families are illiterate. This means that in their everyday life and personal philosophies, they are guided not by common sense or scientific reasons but by religious beliefs and prejudices. That is why even adults are sometimes unaware of certain aspects of human anatomy and physiological processes. Moreover, even in some secular states, various issues of sexuality and reproduction are excluded from biology textbooks. That is why educational measures are essential. They should become the basis for further work with the hypothetical family under consideration and its integration into modern Western society.

Besides anatomy and physiology, the parents should receive basic knowledge about Darwins discoveries, namely evolution, and natural selection. They must clearly understand that the human organism is a system of features that have been forming genetically during millions of years; every existing organ is, in its own way, necessary for life, and its removal leads to health problems, disability, and even death. This knowledge will lead the parents to consider the consequences of FGM for their female children.

The next important point is how to conduct the education process. As the issue of FGM concerns the most delicate and problematic functions of the human body, the helping professional should have regular private talks with the parents. Their religious consciousness will resist the new knowledge, which is why the social worker will have to be calm and careful but persistent. Holding meetings with the parents once or twice a week, he or she should start with less painful questions and gradually address the issues of physiology and anatomy connected with FGM. For this purpose, one should develop a short educational program that includes not only scientific data but also psychological means of persuasion.

This strategy is logical and rational because scientific knowledge is the basis for ridding society of harmful and senseless archaic traditions and religious beliefs. A scientific basis will lead to the development of critical thinking. One should bear in mind that most people practicing such procedures as FGM are completely illiterate or partly uneducated (Glover and Liebling, 2018). To deal with the problem, elementary scientific knowledge should be explained and propagated.

Strategy Two: Sexual Education

In the United States and most countries of the European Union, sexual education (SE) at schools is becoming more and more prevalent. Its main aim is to make children aware of sexual relations, the individuals sexuality, and other physiological and psychological issues connected with this sphere. In traditional societies, education on this topic has remained unacceptable (barrier 2). That is why the helping professional should prepare both the parents and their children so that they accept school-based SE calmly and without resistance.

One should keep in mind that the children in the hypothetical family have been under the influence of their parents religious beliefs for their whole lives. That is why it is necessary to prepare them (especially if they are teenagers) for SE so that the subject is not shocking to them. To perform this task successfully, the helping professional should, first of all, explain to the parents that SE is a part of modern education. One should further clarify that a child is unlikely to grow into a full member of society if he or she does not accept basic social values.

Spreading knowledge is extremely important. According to Diop and Askew (2009), it is worth providing information about the transmission of germs and the importance of hygiene (p. 308). This may help both the children and parents understand why FGM is dangerous for health. To give this knowledge to the children, one should organize meetings with them and (if necessary) with the parents. During these events, the basics of hygiene and womens health should be explained to female teenagers.

This measure is rational and logical. According to Berg and Denison (2012), a systematic review concluded that women who have undergone FGM/C are more likely to experience pain during intercourse and reduction in sexual satisfaction and desire (p. 135). This means that a significant number of females are subjected to the procedure while being more or less unconscious of what is being done to them. That is why a teenage girl should realize that this practice is harmful.

Strategy Three: Social Adaptation

In many cases, a common course of social adaptation may help diminish the risk of FGM. It is especially important for those families who have recently arrived from their native countries. The helping professional should pay special attention to the familys awareness of human rights and equality (being unaware of these concepts is barrier 3). According to Gilbert (2017), one should not mix tolerance to traditions with complicity in a crime. It means that if customs and rituals are harmful to the individual, they should be resisted.

The best way to make the family from an FGM-practicing traditional society aware of human rights and sex equality is to create a written guide in which it should be explained that the procedure is not only hazardous for health but also a criminal action against the individual. Meetings with the family may also be helpful for clarifications and establishing friendly relations so that the family becomes willing to accept the helping professionals arguments. It is rational and logical to do this because, in many countries of Africa, the Middle East, and Asia, women are not treated equally to men (Glover and Lindberg, 2018). This can be observed in such examples as FGM, child marriage, and social preferences given to males.

Summary

One may conclude that there are at least three strategies for a social worker to help families understand the harm of FGM and to advocate against it. The first is giving a basic knowledge of human physiology, anatomy, evolution, and natural selection. The second is educating female teenagers about hygiene and womens health. The third is social adaptation. The latter strategy concerns awareness of human rights and sexual equality in modern Western society.

References

Berg, R. C., & Denison, E. (2012). Effectiveness of interventions designed to prevent female genital mutilation/cutting: A systematic review. Studies in Family Planning, (43)2, 135-146.

Diop, N. J., & Askew, I. (2009). The effectiveness of a community-based education program on abandoning female genital mutilation/cutting in Senegal. Studies in Family Planning, (40)4, 307-318.

Gilbert, L. (2017). Female genital mutilation and the natural law. National Catholic Bioethics Quarterly, 17(3), 475-486.

Glover, J., & Liebling, H. (2018). Persistence and resistance of harmful traditional practices (HTPs) perpetuated against girls in Africa and Asia. Journal of International Womens Studies, 19(2), 44-64.

World Health Organization. (2018). . Web.

Yoder, P. S., Wang, S., & Johansen, E. (2013). Estimates of female genital mutilation/cutting in 27 African countries and Yemen. Studies in Family Planning, (44)2, 189-204.

Psychotropic Medication Effects on Human Behaviour

What are the effects of antipsychotics, antidepressants, and anti-anxiety medications on the brain?

Antidepressants are medications used for treating depression. There are many types of antidepressants and each works in a different way. Nonetheless, all types of antidepressants increase the concentration of different neurotransmitters in the brain (Tung 7). Neurotransmitters trigger depression if their reproduction is depleted due to conditions such as emotional upset, hormonal disorders, and some mental illness among others. Antidepressant medications have various effects on the brain.

One type of antidepressant is called tricyclic antidepressants. They work on the brain by increasing the concentration of serotonin and norepinephrine. Each type of tricyclic depressants increases the various neurotransmitters in different quantities. For example, an antidepressant known as clomipramine increases the concentration of serotonin more than norepinephrine and desipramine do vice versa. The other type is called the monoamine oxidase inhibitor antidepressants that help to keep the concentration of the neurotransmitter in the brain at levels that aid in mood improvement. Some of the drugs under the second type include moclobemide and phenelzine (Tung 8).

Antipsychotic medication treats psychosis. People suffering from schizophrenia, psychotic depression, and other psychotic disorders use antipsychotic medication. There are two types of antipsychotic medication: the typical and atypical antipsychotic medication, the former are the older ones and the later newer ones. Both types of antipsychotic medication have effects on the brain. A study done on schizophrenia patients under antipsychotic medication shows that the use of antipsychotic affects brain structure. The patients on atypical antipsychotics showed an increase in the size of their left and right thalamus. On the other hand, the patients on typical antipsychotic medication showed an increase in the grey matter in the right lenticular and a decrease in the right insula, left precuneus, and paracentral lobule. Furthermore, the typical antipsychotic leads to a decrease in the grey matter in the left middle temporal gyrus (Scherk and Falkai 147).

The anti-anxiety medication slows down the brain functions and acts as tranquilizers. The medications help to reduce feelings of tension and anxiety and they bring sleep. The anti-anxiety drugs affect the brain by binding to the neurons responsible for producing chemicals that cause anxiety. The anti-anxiety medication affects the body because continued use can lead to dependence. In order to avoid dependence, the medication is prescribed for a short period. The medication should be withdrawn from the patient slowly to avoid sudden negative withdrawal symptoms such as relapse back into anxiety (Mental Health Medications 1).

There has been an increase in the various nitrite inhalations since the 1970s. Discuss the trend and history and report the dangers of using these drugs

Nitrate inhalants are very popular because of the cheap thrill they give to the users. Nitrate inhalers are chemical compounds. A Scottish physician Sir Thomas Lauder Brunton started the use of amyl nitrate for medicinal purposes. Amyl nitrate was used in the treatment of angina pectoris in order to help in dilating the coronary arteries and improve the blood flow. The chemicals also cause euphoria hence its use as a recreational drug (Merci 1).

The use of various nitrite inhalants for recreational purposes started with homosexual men for sexual enhancement. It was easy to buy the drug over the counter. The word about its sexual enhancement abilities spread everywhere and within no time, many people were using the drug. Many gay men wanted to use the nitrite aphrodisiac hence, its usage increased until the U.S Food and Drug Administration (FDA) changed the chemical to a prescription-only drug. After the ban of over-the-counter sale of amyl nitrate another variety called, butyl nitrite was introduced into the market. The new chemical was easily sold under different trades for example, Jack-Aroma and Locker Room (Merci 1). Butyl nitrate and a foul smell but that did not stop people from inhaling it to satisfy their curiosity. The drug was hot in the 1980s and the usage spread from gay men to clubs and the public.

More varieties such as Isobutyl, isopropyl appeared in the market after FDA banned each subsequent one. The chemicals are introduced into the market disguised as other products in order to bypass the FDA and avoid a ban. Currently, the drug in use is called cyclohexyl nitrite, which is sold guided as a head cleaner for VCRs hence bypasses the ban. The nitrite inhalants have remained popular over time because of the reputation people hold that they are sexual enhancers. Moreover, the inhalants are readily available and cheap hence affordable to many users. Users like them because they have a very quick reaction and give intense effects of short-lived euphoria. Thus, users have to keep inhaling more and more to enjoy leading to tolerance (OConnor 1).

Nitrite drugs cause health risks to users. The continued use of drugs causes short-term challenges such as headache and feeling of pressure in the eyes. A user may also experience the feeling of nausea, faintness, and vomiting especially if they use other drugs too. In addition, the inhalation of nitrites causes a user to experience blackouts that may pose a risk especially in crowded areas such as clubs (OConnor 1).

On the other hand, continued use of the drug can lead to health problems such as glaucoma. The condition of glaucoma is caused by the damage of the red blood cells found in the eyes because of the increment of pressure in the nerves by the nitrite chemicals. Eventually, a user loses the ability to see and becomes blind. The other danger of drug use is contracting the HIV virus. The use of nitrites impairs the immune system and makes one vulnerable to AIDs. Moreover, the use of the drug especially among gay men increases the risk of contracting HIV because of having unprotected sex. The drug leads people to casual sex because they believe it is a sexual enhancer and it poses a danger if used together with other sexual enhancement drugs because it can lead to death and a case of severe hypotension (OConnor 1). The drug also causes Blood cell damage. Nitrite chemicals destroy the red blood cells that are responsible for carrying oxygen hence the cells cannot transport oxygen. The damage occurs especially to the users who swallow the drug.

Discuss the problems and effects of caffeine upon the brain, the body, and behavior

Caffeine is a chemical substance occurring in coffee and tea (Peters 1). It is a nervous, respiratory, and circulatory stimulant. It is also a diuretic that means increases urination. Its bitter alkaloid stimulates the nervous system and helps one to be alert. Some people report long moments of wakefulness once they use caffeine. Caffeine affects the brain by binding some receptors in the brain. The bound receptors are responsible for causing sleep hence a person remains awake due to reduced activity of the sleep-causing receptors (Peters 1). Moreover, caffeine leads to an increase in dopamine, which increases the feeling of pressure by activating the pleasure parts. The pleasure derived from caffeine consumption causes addiction.

Caffeine affects the body through the increase of adrenaline hence give the body more energy. Studies show that caffeine eliminates fatigue symptoms and increase bodily labor. For example, some swimmers who consumed caffeine prior to the exercise exhibited extended performance (Caffeine and the Effects on the Body 1). On the other hand, caffeine affects behavior. People under caffeine are alert, energetic, and more likely to be social. Other individuals who consume excess amounts of caffeine may experience anxiety (Smith 1244). However, in low doses caffeine does not have identifiable effects on the mood. Anxiety occurs in caffeine doses higher than 600 mg. In other cases, caffeine reduces fatigue but leads to nervousness. The lack of in the body causes jitteriness and restlessness.

There are a number of problems associated with the consumption of caffeine. One of the problems is causing headaches, irritability, and restlessness. It also keeps the body in an emergency state all the time and it is not healthy. The long-term use of caffeine may lead to dependence and an increase in the level to achieve the initial effects. The use of caffeine causes dehydration because it is diuretic and promotes fluid loss in the body. The loss of fluids is not useful for fitness activities especially restraining training (Caffeine and the Effects on the Body 1).

Another problem with caffeine is its effect on sleep. Caffeine has a lifeline of about six hours in the body and it keeps one alert. However, if one falls asleep cannot enjoy the benefits of deep sleep. Deep sleep is beneficial to the body because it enables the body to relax thus a person on caffeine wakes up feeling tired because the body did not rest completely during sleep (Smith 1250). Lastly, withdrawing from caffeine does not have threatening effects but mild symptoms such as headaches, irritability, and fatigue occur. Fortunately, they clear in a matter of days.

Discuss the Federal Drug Administrations procedure to approve medications. Why is this important and needed or why is this not important or not needed?

The Federal Drug Administration (FDA) is a government agency in the U.S charged with the responsibility of approving new medication before it finds its way into the market (Seligman 1). FDA has the responsibility of ensuring that new medication is safe and effective for human consumption. The body follows a procedure during the approval of any medication. The procedure of approving drugs is very important because it has major implications. The process involves a minimum of twelve phases. The first phase occurs after the FDA allows a new drug to enter the investigation. During the initial phase, about twenty to eighty healthy volunteers are recruited to be put under the new drug for about a year to test its safety on human beings. The volunteers are given low doses of the new drug and closely monitored (Lipsky and Sharp 365).

The level of the dosage is increased eventually and if the drugs pass the initial safety process, the next phase begins. Phase 2 involves the study of the effectiveness of the new drug and few volunteers are used to minimize the risk to a large group of people. About one to three hundred volunteers suffering from the condition the new drug targets to treat are given a dose. Researchers determine the most effective way of administering the drug for example intravenous or oral. They also monitor the dosing intervals and supervise the volunteers closely. Some of the drugs fail to pass this phase because of ineffectiveness and others have very serious side effects or safety problems. The drug that passes phase two proceeds to phase three. In phase, three researchers pass involve a large number of people in the study to confirm the findings of phase two. The studies done in stage three may last for two to ten years. The studies determine the effectiveness and dosage of the drug. It is important to note that many drugs fail to pass in spite of the rigorous tests done prior to reaching the phase (Lipsky and Sharp 365).

The first three phases are called the clinical tests and after a drug passes them, a new drug application is made to the FDA. The application may be accepted or rejected. In case of a rejection, the FDA gives the applicants reasons why the drug failed the approval and what can be done to pass approval later. Some drugs get tentative approval has to correct a minor deficiency in order to get. A drug that passes the application becomes approved and it is allowed to sell in the market.

The procedure of approval of drug medication is important and needed to ensure that the new drugs in the market are safe for humans. The FDA ensures that drug companies meet the required regulations before a drug is put into the market and hence protect consumers from companies that may put profits first before safety and sell substandard or unsafe drugs to the public. Furthermore, the FDA continues to monitor drugs after they enter the market to ensure their continued safety and performance in the larger population. Thus, FDA can take appropriate action if a safety issue arises in a certain drug already in the market (Seligman 1).

From the book, pick any psychological disorder and discuss the medication treatment for this disorder, and from the book pick any psychological disorder and pick the drug that caused it, and discuss how this disorder can be a direct result of drug use

Schizophrenia is a severe psychological disorder. A person suffering from the disorder experience hallucinations and hear voices. The patient can become withdrawn especially if they believe that other people plan to harm them because they become paranoid and fearful. For some patients holding down a job is difficult and may become reliant on others. It may difficult to tell a person is suffering from schizophrenia until one talks about the things on his or her mind. People suffering from can help the treatment to help them cope with the disorder (How is Schizophrenia Treated 1).

Medication is given to help manage the symptoms of schizophrenia in patients because the exact cause of the disorder is unknown (How is Schizophrenia Treated 1). The medication given is called antipsychotic because it helps to reduce the psychotic symptoms patients show. One or two medications may be subscribed for a particular patient to help the patient get the maximum benefits of the drugs. Certain medicines are effective in treating schizophrenia especially the newer antipsychotic medications or the second-generation antipsychotics. The newer antipsychotic work faster compared to the rest of the medications (Treatment for Schizophrenia 1).

The newer antipsychotic medications such as olanzapine have some side effects for the patients. The side effects include sleepiness, increased appetite, weight gain, and dizziness among others. Moreover, older antipsychotic drugs such as haloperidol are given to some patients and they are likely to have side effects such as shakiness and muscle stiffness. Studies show that both newer and older antipsychotic medications are effective. However, some schizophrenia patients fail to respond to antipsychotic medications and they are given an alternative treatment called electroconvulsive therapy. Children suffering from schizophrenia are not treated with all the medications used to treat adults.

Other medications such as mood stabilizers are used to treat schizophrenia patients with a mood disorder. The mood stabilizers may take a longer time to show any positive results than the antipsychotic medications. Some of the medications require to be monitored closely for blood levels and if taken by pregnant women can cause birth defects. Moreover, antidepressants are used together with antipsychotics for patients suffering from depression because it often accompanies schizophrenia (Treatment for Schizophrenia 1).

Other treatment methods for schizophrenia include psychosocial interventions for family members and caregivers to help the patients and avoid a relapse. The other is substance abuse treatment for the patients because many of them deal with the problem of substance abuse. The schizophrenia patients are given cognitive behavioral therapy to enable them to understand the change in their patterns and how to deal with them. The method is effective because it helps them to function in society well. Moreover, antipsychotic medications may cause weight gain, and patients are educated about weight management (How to Treat Schizophrenia 1).

Drug use can cause some psychological disorders. The long-term substance use of a drug called ecstasy leads to depression a psychological disorder. The long use of ecstasy derives the brain from the function of serotonin (Drug Abuse and Mental Illness 1). Serotonin has many functions in the brain and its reduction leads to depression a psychological disorder. The decreased levels of serotonin lead directly to symptoms associated with depression (Function of Serotonin 1). A person suffering from depression is treated through medication that increases the reproduction of serotonin to alleviate depressions. Hence, abuse of ecstasy leads directly to depression as users use it to experience euphoria and fall deeper into addiction. The continued addiction to the drug decreases serotonin levels in the brain and depression becomes severe for the users.

Works Cited

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National Institute of Mental Health. 2011. Web.

Lipsky, Martin and Lisa Sharp. From idea to market: The drug approval process.JABFP 14.5 (2001): 362-367.

National Institute of Mental Health. 2011. Web.

Merci, Susan. Nitrous oxide and nitrite inhalants. Feb. 2011. Web.

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Scherk, Harald and Peter Falkai. Effects of antipsychotic on brain structure. Current Opinion Psychiatry, 19(2006): 145-150.

Seligman, Paul. FDAs role in identifying and communicating drug safety issues. FDA U.S Food and Drug Administration. 2009. Web.

Smith, Andrew. Effects of caffeine on human behaviour. Food and chemical Toxicology, 40 (2002): 1243-1255.

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Tung, Anthony. How antidepressants and antipsychotic medications work. Visions Bcs mental Health and Addictions Journal, 4.2 (2007):7-8.

Final Exam: A Surgeons Reflections on Mortality by P. Chen

In her book Final Exam: A Surgeons Reflections on Mortality, Pauline Chen concentrates on the problem of doctors attitude to the fact of patients dying and analyzes the doctors behavior in relation to her own experience and practice. Dr. Chen states that death as a situation is traditionally depersonalized by doctors in the hospital. However, it is important to deviate from the general discussion of the problem of mortality in hospital and pay attention to Dr. Chens considerations about the possibility to provide the patients with the opportunity to die at home instead of staying in the hospital. Patients should receive the chance to die at home where the surroundings are familiar, the relatives are present, and death is perceived as a sacred act.

According to Dr. Chen, the doctors approaches to resolving the situation of the patients dying are rather confusing because of the fact the patients death is the real challenge not only for relatives but also for doctors. The possibility to provide the necessary care and treatment at home for those patients who are incurables is a good alternative to avoid a lot of problematic situations in hospital. Moreover, dying at home, sick people can feel the relatives attitude to them and their care in the situation when the humane attitude is significant, but many doctors often resist the desire to express their empathic emotions to the patients and their relatives. Dr. Chen supports her argument with examples from real practice according to which it is possible to conclude that the decision to let incurable patients die at home is the effective method to resolve the ethical aspects of the medical problem of mortality in hospitals.