Category: Health & Medicine 13691

A list such as the one above can be potentially highly beneficial to new medical coders. Most importantly it will increase effectiveness and accuracy by providing a quick cheat sheet that can be referenced to when one is not sure about a certain term and abbreviation. Rather than attempting to remember (and potentially being wrong) or looking up, this chart will offer the right term at a quick glance. Coding accuracy is incredibly important, not only for the financial aspect, for the hospital to receive insurance reimbursement, it also contributes to the patients further treatment and safety, as their health history is essentially told by codes. Diagnosis specificity can positively impact patient care while also necessary to follow quality care standards (Signature Performance, 2016).

Reference

Signiature Performance. (2016). Why accuracy matters in medical coding. Web.

Opioid use is a problem of current interest in Anytown, mainly due to a recently increased mortality rate because of unintentional overdose deaths. Although opioids are prescription painkillers, misusing them may lead to opioid use disorder (OUD), a severe illness associated with morbidity and mortality. Aside from that, the opioid crisis negatively affects the general cultural level because it severely slows the personal development of young people who are addicted. The economy suffers too, as addicted people do not perform effectively at work, leading to a productivity decrease followed by an economic collapse. The opioid crisis appears to be a nationwide problem in the United States, though Anytown experiences much heavier troubles since there is no intervention program for helping opioid addicts. Therefore, it is crucial to find resources and immediately implement such a program in Anytown, because otherwise, its citizens well-being might be in danger.

The recent observational studies can explain the need in the program mentioned above regarding the problem. For instance, Haffajee et al. (2019) report that most of the U. S. counties have high rates of opioid overdose deaths along with low availability of medications for opioid use disorder. The researchers applied spatial logistic regression models to measure the correlation between those two indicators (Haffajee et al., 2019). According to the results of their study, 46.4% of all the U. S. counties and 71.2% of the rural U. S. counties currently lack a publicly available provider of medications for opioid use disorder (Haffajee et al., 2019). Since Anytown is not an exception, these indicators excellently exemplify one of the main reasons the opioid crisis occurred: the absence of required medications, which leads to the inability to assist opioid-addicted people.

High mortality rates caused by opioid overdoses appear to be the most significant problem of the opioid crisis. Jiang et al. (2019) observed a sample of 2239 with opioid overdose diagnoses who visited the emergency department. According to the researchers findings, 137 (6.1%) of patients died within a year of the index visit; 81 (3.6%) of them died within the first six months, and 24 (1.1%) died within a month. The results of this study show the gravity of the opioid crisis and the possible dangers of ignoring the problem.

However, there are ways to contain the opioid crisis which are successfully applied in certain counties. The authors of the previously described study name the next specificities of the counties that are protective against high opioid risk:

• Primary care provider density;
• Greater traversability;
• A higher proportion of the population is under age 25 (Haffajee et al., 2019).

This study results can identify specific primary steps for introducing the proposed intervention program to Anytown. The indicator of primary care density, among other things, includes the mentioned above lack of unavailability of medications for opioid use disorder. In addition, there is a chance that Anytowns medical practice might lack the confidence and qualification required for the proper treatment of opioid use disorder. These issues are to be solved before containing the opioid crisis in Anytown will have become possible. However, the program cannot achieve this goal without the help of external stakeholders.

First of all, the intervention program should address the local government of Anytown with the request for legal approvement of the program as mentioned earlier, financial help, and other resources needed. The rationale for this selection is that Anytowns officials are the most interested party in finding a solution to the occurred problem since their duties concern control of the health care system. Besides, the particular issue of opioid use affects the citizens health and the local culture and economy too, as explained previously.

The generalized studies on opioid use show that different factors may cause the opioid crisis similar to the one that occurred in Anytown. According to Samuels et al. (2021), opioid overdoses often occur in hotspots identified by geographic and temporal trends. Therefore, the intervention program creators need to unite with the local government of Anytown to analyze the neighborhood and community-level factors that might cause the high rates of opioid overdose deaths.

Another stakeholder to which the intervention program will appeal is local social organizations, community centers, and volunteer groups. The realization of the program will require the support of interested third parties who are willing to contain the opioid crisis. The local community center can organize educational meetings for people who are addicted because not all people will be ready to ask for medical help directly. Some people will need social support and psychological help before dealing with opioid use disorder. Since the intervention program aims to help people first, it is a primary concern to ensure the patients willingness to gain that help.

Another significant reason for involving the psychologists in the program is the psychological symptoms of patients during the opioid use disorder treatment. According to the findings of Rosic et al. (2020), there is an association between psychological symptoms and treatment outcomes. The authors also state an ongoing need to optimize integrated mental health and addictions services for patients with opioid use disorder (Rosic et al., 2020). Besides, researchers consider the prevalence of suicidal ideation in this area (Rosic et al., 2020). Since it is the most undesirable outcome, it is crucial to provide the patients with proper psychological help and social support and guarantee their mental condition is stable before treating them with medications.

The next step in realizing the intervention program is successively introducing it to Anytowns policy. The intervention program suggests using extended-release naltrexone (XR-NTX) and buprenorphine-naloxone (BUP-NX) to treat patients with opioid use disorder. According to the research done in the intervention program report, both these medications are safe and effective. Thus, another significant stakeholder should join the intervention program  Anytowns local hospitals. It is essential to secure the availability of these medications and, if necessary, arrange the medical supply into Anytown with the help of its officials. The local hospitals administrations should present these medications to their workers and instruct them on their prescription, simultaneously explaining why these medications are introduced in the first place.

The following actions should address the doctors qualifications, especially in the field concerned. As it is a significant medical issue, the professionals who directly solve the crisis must be prepared and competent. The intervention program for helping people with opioid use disorder will be as effective on the whole as the separate actions of its implementation. There is no actual reason to doubt the professionalism of the hospitals workers. Still, there is a strong need to ensure the effectiveness of the intervention program by any means possible.

In addition, an anonymous hotline should be created for people suffering from opioid use disorder and seeking help because it will increase the patients response and the intervention programs efficiency. The hotline should be completely free and available around the clock and provide callers with supportive conversation and proper advice, leading the caller to appeal to the medical center for further help and treatment. Forming such a hotline will require additional funding, yet the intervention program must work properly and achieve the set goals.

The final part of the intervention program involves launching a massive media campaign in Anytowns local media resources so that the citizens could stay aware and well-informed about the opioid crisis. It is a matter of particular importance for families with children because parents should oversee their children and inform them about opioid use and its consequences in case of need. The intervention program concerns both helping addicted people and preventing others from becoming addicted.

As for the goals of the program, it aims to achieve the following outcomes:

• Reduced number of opioid overdose deaths by at least 20% over 18 months.
• Reduced amount of non-prescribed opioid use for recreational purposes by at least 20% over 18 months.
• Improved opioid prescribing practices in Anytowns health care.
• Ensured constant availability of supportive services for addicted people who want to recover, including the free hotline and the unique facility providing psychological help and general aid.

Here is the list of the stakeholders to help in completing the program:

• Local government.
• Hospitals and medical centers.
• Local social organizations and community centers.

Finally, suppose the intervention program will succeed and appear effective in Anytown. In that case, it will be the motivation for improving it and expanding to a more wide-scale level for the benefit of the general population. Anytown is not the only place going through an opioid crisis, as described earlier. Many counties in the U. S. have the same problems, and this intervention program may be an excellent solution. Still, the situation in Anytown is the primary concern at the moment. Thereby it is essential to concentrate the efforts and introduce this program as soon as possible. The faster it happens, the more people can get help and recover from opioid use disorder.

This proposal aims to convince the addressee of the significance of the matter under discussion. The opioid crisis in Anytown affects several fields, such as health care, citizens social lives, and economics. Therefore, it is not just a matter of fighting this crisis for decreasing morbidity and mortality rates, and it concerns the actual life of Anytown and the future of successive generations. In brief, this intervention program is designed to reduce the morbidity and mortality rates of an opioid use disorder and stabilize the local economy. However, it is not achievable without the help of third parties, namely the stakeholders mentioned above. This intervention program is developed to help people and make Anytown a safer and healthier place. It is an opportunity to assist addicted people in need and contain the crisis from expanding and end it once and for all. That is why funding this intervention program is an adequate budget allocation. The goals set by the program concern one of the most challenging issues of the current time and ignoring it might lead to irredeemable consequences.

References

Haffajee, R., Lin, L., Bohnert, A., & Goldstick, J. (2019). U.S. Counties with high opioid-overdose mortality and low capacity to deliver medications for opioid use disorder: An observational study. Journal of Clinical and Translational Science, 3(S1), 129-129. Web.

Jiang, A., Godwin, J., Moe, J., Buxton, J., Crabtree, A., Kestler, A., Scheuermeyer, F., Erdelyi, S., Slaunwhite, A., Rowe, A., Cochrane, C., Risi, A., Ho, V., Brar, R., Brubacher, J., & Purssell, R. (2019). One-year mortality of patients treated in the emergency department for an opioid overdose: a single-centre retrospective cohort study. CJEM, 21(S1), S14-S14.

Rosic, T., Worster, A., Thabane, L., Marsh, D., & Samaan, Z. (2020). Exploring psychological symptoms and associated factors in patients receiving medication-assisted treatment for opioid-use disorder. BJPsych Open, 6(1), E8.

Samuels, E., Goedel, W., Conkey, L., Koziol, J., Karim, S., Scagos, R., & Marshall, B. (2021). Characterizing opioid overdose hotspots for targeted overdose prevention and treatment. Journal of Clinical and Translational Science, 5(S1), 84-85.

Description of the Organization

The Ontario Nurses Association (ONA) is a trade union that represents registered nurses and other allied health professionals in the province of Ontario, Canada. The organization has its headquarters in Toronto but also operates regional officers in other Ontario towns. Founded in 1973, ONA represents over 65,000 members working in hospitals, public health, long-term care facilities, and community agencies throughout the province (ONA, 2020). ONA represents over 14,000 nursing students who are members of the Canadian Nursing Students Association (CNSA) (ONA, 2020). It is a member of the Canadian Federation of Nurses Union (CFNU.

Historically, ONA is known for its rapid growth in the country, making it the largest trade union for nurses in Canada. In March 2019, members of ONA unanimously vote to go on strike against the 1% raise in the proposed Windsor-Essex County Health Unit (ONA, 2019). After several weeks of negotiation, ONA won an annual 1.5% pay raise for three years, which is a 4.5% total increase (ONA, 2019). Also, ONA successfully negotiated for increased family medical leaves and the prohibition of discrimination based on gender identity, sexual orientation, and gender expression.

Current or Previous Labor Relations Strategy and its Collective Bargaining Priorities

ONAs labor relations are generally based on the Ontario Labor Relations Act (1995) which governs the relationship between unions and employers in the province. This law defines the rights and responsibilities of each worker and those of their employers and unions. Each nurse and student nurse has the right to join the union of choice and become an active member. ONAs labor relations strategy is to advocate for the workers rights and responsibilities. For rights, each nurse is protected from discrimination, interference, restriction, coercion, and intimidation. ONA also agrees that there will be no strikes

ONAs collective bargaining priorities are based on its mission and vision. The mission is to be a proactive union with a commitment to improving the economic welfare and quality of life for its members while also enabling them to provide society with high-quality care (ONA, 2020). The union ensures that all of its members are well represented and that their rights under the collective agreement with the government of Ontario Province are protected. In addition, the union strives to ensure that the members achieve the best possible terms and conditions of employment

Union Structure and Purpose (or Mandate) in Supporting Its Membership

A Board of Directors (BoD) is the highest decision-making unit in ONAs organizational structure. The BoG comprises the President, who is the head of the entire organization, the CEO, the General Counsel, the Administration Coordinator, and board members. Below the BoG are six senior executive officers responsible for finance, labor relations, communications, negotiation, and legal matters. Under each of these departments are managers holding various offices responsible for different functions and responsibilities (ONA, 2020). Since ONA has 5 regional offices, each is headed by a First Vice President, it has 5 different Region Presidents.

Internal and External Factors Affecting ONA

The shortage of nurses is a major internal factor that is affecting ONA, in the same way as other unions and the Canadian public health sector in general. Due to an aging workforce and the general population, Canada is increasingly facing a shortage of nurses. It is expected that by 2022, the country will see a shortage of about 60,000 nurses (Nowrouzi et al, 2016). Although Ontario has been hiring more nurses during the Covid-19 pandemic, reports show that many nurses are leaving the profession after serving for a short period (Dykes & Chu, 2020).

ONA, like many other unions in the healthcare sector in Canada and other parts of the world, is facing a major problem due to the advancement in technology. Improved technology is a threat to the human element in nursing and healthcare as it progressively replaces workers with machines as well as person-person interactions between nurses and patients. Robots are replacing nurses in some areas, which might lead to reduced demand for nurses and reduced membership at ONA. There is a need to address this problem through bargaining by ONA

Identification of Articles in the Collective Agreement

In this case, the first article identified is Article 6.05 Occupational Health and Safety under the Collective Agreement between ONA and the hospital.

Present provision: This article provides that when making some occupational health and safety decisions, the Hospital should not wait for full scientific or absolute certainty before it decides to take reasonable actions that might reduce risks and protect the nurses.

Proposal

The proposal under the article is that when faced with occupational health and safety decisions, the hospital should never await full scientific or absolute certainty before the stated reasons. In this case, the actions shall include the provision of personal protective equipment that the employees require based on their clinical and/or professional judgment, which plays a role in reducing risk and protecting those specific employees.

Identification of Articles

2) 10.07 (f)-Job Posting

Present provision

If a nurse is selected because of a posted vacancy or a Request for Transfer, he or she should need to be considered for a further permanent vacancy for a period of six months starting from the date of selection. However, this does not apply to the nurses who are applying for vacancies or requesting a transfer to full-time or regular part-time job positions posted as per provisions under Article 10.07 of the collective bargain agreement. Also, it does not apply to the nurses who have been posted or transferred as a result of a layoff.

Proposal

If a nurse is selected because of a posted vacancy or a Request for Transfer, he or she should not be considered for a further permanent vacancy for the next six to nine months from the date of selection. Nevertheless, this should not apply to the nurses who are applying for new vacancies or requesting a transfer to full-time or regular part-time positions advertised according to the provisions under Article 10.7 of the same agreement.

Factors that May Impact ONAs Bargaining Power

Strength of the Union: Collective bargaining power is affected by the strength or weakness of the union in various ways. If the union is weak, then it will not be in a position to bargain effectively. Luckily, ONA is a strong union with good leadership and a membership of more than 65,000. Therefore, it will be easy to bargain because the union is strong.

Legal factors: ONA will face some legal issues. For instance, there are no laws forcing hospitals and other healthcare institutions to develop specific types of leadership. Rather, hospitals are free to adopt any fitting leadership structure and style.

Managerial attitudes: Hospital managers are likely to have negative attitudes toward some demands by ONA such as adopting authentic leadership styles, striving to improve the work environment, and decreasing burnout.

Bargaining Strategy, Proposals, and Rationale

It is necessary to use the integrative bargaining strategy. The rationale for using the integrative bargaining strategy is to create a win-win rather than a win-lose situation. ONA will be seeking to ensure that a new supportive style is adopted by hospitals. Secondly, ONA will demand safety-conscious supervisors in hospitals who will help nurses reduce their intention to leave, which can help in fighting nurse shortages in Ontario. The third proposal is to ensure that hospitals have adequate training facilities for IT that will train nurses to adopt technology in their work.

References

Dykes, S., & Chu, C. H. (2020). Now more than ever, nurses need to be involved in technology design: Lessons from the COVID19 pandemic. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 16, 10-14. Web.

Lee, H. F., Chiang, H. Y., & Kuo, H. T. (2019). Relationship between authentic leadership and nurses intent to leave: The mediating role of work environment and burnout. Journal of nursing management, 27(1), 52-65. Web.

Mundlak, G. (2020). Organizing matters: Two logics of trade union representation. Edward Elgar Publishing

Nowrouzi, B., Rukholm, E., Lariviere, M., Carter, L., Koren, I., Mian, O., & Giddens, E. (2016). An examination of retention factors among registered nurses in Northeastern Ontario, Canada: Nurses intent to stay in their current position. Work, 54(1), 51-58. Web.

ONA. (2019). Our campaigns.

ONA. (2020). ONA: About us. Web.

Strudwick, G., Booth, R. G., Bjarnadottir, R. I., Rossetti, S. C., Friesen, M., Sequeira, L., Munnery, M., & Srivastava, R. (2019). The role of nurse managers in the adoption of health information technology: Findings from a qualitative study. JONA: The Journal of Nursing Administration, 49(11), 549-555. Web.

Zaheer, S., Ginsburg, L., Wong, H. J., Thomson, K., Bain, L., & Wulffhart, Z. (2019). Turnover intention of hospital staff in Ontario, Canada: Exploring the role of frontline supervisors, teamwork, and mindful organizing. Human resources for health, 17(1), 1-9. Web.

Therapy that is supported by scientific data is referred to as evidence-based treatment. As described in the video by Veterans Health Administration (2014), tests have been undertaken, and a substantial study on a specific treatment has been published, and it has proved to be effective. Moreover, the studies that demonstrate the use of treatment should be done in accordance with research standards and evaluated by experts to be considered evidence-based. The purpose of evidence-based therapy is to increase the use of known, safe medicines while reducing the use of untested, potentially dangerous treatments.

The evidence-based treatments have great value for healthcare facilities administrators. Namely, applying information obtained from extensive clinical studies to patient care enhances the uniformity of therapy and aids in the formulation of public patient quality care. Moreover, it establishes criteria for measuring and rewarding performance-based clinical procedures. Hiring clinicians who support evidence-based healthcare helps to ensure that ones healthcare institution can benefit from evidence-based medicine and enhance patient care and results. Furthermore, the availability of multiple evidence-based individual treatments allows for satisfying patients needs, ranging from budget to lifestyle content. Thus, patient satisfaction, which is one of the primary concerns for administrators, might increase and enhance the quality of care even further.

Yet, even such a well-established approach in medicine as evidence-based treatment can meet resistance among clinicians. This unfortunate event is possible when the doctors are either not qualified for their job or qualified but have not renewed their medical license (for example, older adults working in health care). The adverse reactions toward evidence-based practice could be dealt with by explaining the intricacies of the method to the disagreeing personnel and arranging the training.

Reference

Veterans Health Administration. (2014). Evidence-based treatment: What does it mean? [Video]. YouTube.

As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, many social health problems have intensified. This paper is a discussion of the current situation in Ruskin Vale and the causes of factors exacerbating social inequality. Among the three aspects discussed, the authors distinguish poor housing, unhealthy or poor diet. Ruskin Vale plans to build and redesign its technological and digital infrastructure to promote health and well-being through digital inclusion. The context in which it is supposed to be done includes numerous aspects of social life.

First of all, the authors note changing demographics, which means shifting the number and structure of the human population. In particular, it is caused as a result of processes such as mortality exceeding the birth rate (Beech and Porteus, 2021). At the moment, the predominant segment is the aging population with complex health care needs. The ratio between the number of generations born recently and those born a long time ago is shifting in favor of the latter (WHO, 2018). In proportion to the increase in life expectancy, the number of diseases in the elderly also increases, which is why there is a special need for enhanced medical care.

Moreover, among the trends playing a role is the rapid fall in the birth rate. The cost of medical care for the aging population should also be noted, which is noticeably increasing. Older people are more likely than young people to have health problems, which is why they often need expensive medical care. Patient and service user expectations are constantly growing. In this case, the authors are talking about how the patient represents the process and the result of the service provided. This makes it difficult to analyze the quality of medical services based on patient expectations.

Geographical factors in the case study determined the percentage of minorities in the population and their access to various means of communication, which has an impact on various factors of social inequality. Innovation and technology are new and competitive technologies for the production and use of medicines and diagnostic medical research, as well as the latest methods of patient treatment (Barlow, 2017). Key legislative and policy initiatives that provide Ruskin Vale with a foundation for innovation and entrepreneurship have a great impact. The legal structure of innovation regulation is based on their division into industries, institutions, and other structural elements.

In the context of this paper, legislation means a system of regulatory legal acts in healthcare. It regulates organizational, property, and non-property relations that arise in connection with the provision of medical and preventive care to citizens, the conduct of sanitary and epidemic measures. The three pieces of legislation are preventing, delaying, or reducing hospital admissions. They are applicable to the Russian Vale case study because the implementation of each of these points will reduce social inequality in the health sector.

The Ruskin Vale HealthCare initiative does meet the guiding principles of the Care Act 2014 (Bessant and Tidd, 2021). It presupposes financial assistance to provide medical and social assistance to citizens who are unable to work due to their age. I do think it will enrich the lives of the patients, service users and customers. This is due to the expansion of medical care opportunities and access to previously too expensive medical services.

The Ruskin Vale HealthCare initiative will reduce isolation and loneliness among elderly patients. Large financial difficulties often accelerate the departure from the active life of the old people. This initiative is aimed at maintaining the economic condition, which will positively impact the possibilities of social activity, allowing to overcome loneliness. It will promote active participation because the organization of medical care will take into account the peculiarities of the psyche of elderly and senile people and an understanding of the mechanisms of aging.

The other acts link to regulating medical activities: they reflect the legal relationship between the institution and the patient, the insurance company, and the clinic. In addition to this initiative, other documents regulating certain aspects of medical activity participate in the regulation of the medical practice. The Social Value Act 2012 benefits the public healthcare sector based on the patients economic and social environment (Bessant and Tidd, 2021).

The characteristics of The Equality Act 2010 are the protection of citizens from discrimination (Lorenzo et al., 2018). In a narrower sense, this legislative initiative is also applicable to healthcare. It helps to create equal opportunities for access to medical care for different groups of the population. The case study mentions social, environmental, and economic inequalities. They respond by putting forward various legislative initiatives that regulate the current situation and reduce the gap between different segments of the population and access to quality medical care.

The Health and Care Bill adopted in 2021 changes many of the positions implemented by the Health and Social Care Act 2012 (Lorenzo et al., 2018). This is due to the fact that, as a result of changes in many social factors, half of the points of this act are outdated. Thus, the influence of environmental, social, and economic factors changes over time and, if not regulated by law, it affects the increase in inequality in the field of public medicine.

Reference List

Barlow, J. (2017) Managing innovation in healthcare. London: World Scientific.

Beech, L. and Porteus, J. (2021). The TAPPI enquiry report: Technology for our aging population, Panel for Innovation, 1, 1-56.

Bessant, J. and Tidd, J. (2011) Innovation and entrepreneurship. UK, West Sussex: Wiley.

Lorenzo, O., Kawalek, P. and Wharton, L. (2018) Entrepreneurship, innovation and technology: A guide to core models and tools. Oxford: Routledge Focus.

World Health Organization. Aging and health: Key facts. (2018) Web.

Why is this important?

At present, the global community is concerned about the well-being and health of people, which is the basis for the harmonious development of society. Food insecurity is one of the most pressing public health issues relevant for both developed and developing countries. This problem is defined as a household-level economic and social condition of limited or uncertain access to adequate food (as cited in Seligman & Berkowitz, 2019, p. 320). In other words, food insecurity describes a situation where a household cannot afford to buy an adequate amount of food. In recent years, the medical community has been paying more and more attention to the problem of world hunger, trying to find ways to provide proper nutrition for affected people.

The growing concern of the global community with the problem of world hunger is due to the sharp increase in the level of food insecurity after the pandemic. United Nations reports that in 2020 the number of people affected by this problem has increased by almost 10% (Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations, 2021). In particular, according to estimates, from 720 to 811 million people in the world 2020 face food insecurity (Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations, 2021). Although most undernourished people live in less developed regions, including Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean, even in developed countries like the US, the number of food-insecure citizens reaches over 11% (Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations, 2021; Miller & Thomas, 2020, p. 1). Thus, the problem is global in nature, and its scale is growing every year, which requires the development of appropriate public policy measures.

Food insecurity has a number of negative health and well-being implications, making it a primary public health concern. In addition to being associated with metabolic disorders, food insecurity can lead to chronic diseases, including diabetes mellitus type 2, hypertension, coronary heart disease, and congestive heart failure, dyslipidemia, and chronic kidney disease (Seligman & Berkowitz, 2019, p. 321). This problem has a particularly significant negative impact on children, contributing to the development of developmental disorders that result in health problems during their lifespan (Hartline-Grafton & Hassink, 2021). It is also important that the general deterioration in the populations health, the development of chronic diseases, and the decline in well-being among children lead to increased health care costs. Food insecurity from a global perspective, leads to a slowdown in economic development, which is relevant for both developed and developing countries.

Recommendations

In order to form a recommendation within the framework of public policy, it is necessary to determine the causes of the existing problem. The researchers note that the main source of food insecurity is financial instability and economic distress, which have been exacerbated by the pandemic as a result of job losses and a general reduction in economic growth trends (Hartline-Grafton & Hassink, 2021; Seligman & Berkowitz, 2019). In developing countries, these factors are also supported by the low availability of quality food, especially in remote areas (Hartline-Grafton & Hassink, 2021). Thus, public policy should focus on expanding financial opportunities and economic support for the affected population. The public policy provides the following recommendations for addressing food insecurity problems in the world:

• Expansion of financial support programs for affected groups in developed countries through increased benefits under the programs of supplemental nutrition assistance;
• Introduction of similar programs in developing regions through the financial support of international organizations;
• Simplification of the procedures for applying for participation in financial support programs for people affected by the problem;
• Improving the availability of quality food in geographically remote areas prone to food insecurity.

Thus, the basis for this public policy is the introduction and expansion of support for supplemental nutrition assistance programs. For the affected population, achieving a greater level of economic stability is most important, which is possible through the provision of monthly food benefits. In the long term, this policy may result in an overall increase in food security, an increase in the economic well-being of the affected population, and a restoration of economic development. The key aspect of the policy involves international collaboration on the dissemination of economic support programs. To achieve significant results, the cooperation of international and local public organizations is necessary. In particular, funding for the program within the policy is provided by local resources for each country or region. At the same time, international organizations will provide an advisory function to develop appropriate plans and strategies for the implementation of programs on the example of already existing achievements.

References

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2021). The state of food security and nutrition in the world 2021. FAO. Web.

Hartline-Grafton, H., & Hassink, S. G. (2021). Food insecurity and health: Practices and policies to address food insecurity among children. Academic Pediatrics, 21(2), 205-210.

Miller, D. P., & Thomas, M. C. (2020). Policies to reduce food insecurity: An ethical imperative. Physiology & Behavior, 222, 1-5. Web.

Seligman, H. K., & Berkowitz, S. A. (2019). Aligning programs and policies to support food security and public health goals in the United States. Annual Review of Public Health, 40, 319-337. Web.

Abstract

Reliability and validity are important constructs in quantitative research. Researchers must enhance the validity and reliability of the study test, scale, and measurements to generate significant findings. This paper examines the approaches the researcher will use to boost the validity and reliability of research examining the effect of social/medical support on the medical compliance of African American women with HIV.

Levels of Measurement

A level of measurement is the relationship among the different values of a study variable (Creswell, 2009, p. 141). Each variable, whether discrete or continuous, contains ordered categories or constructs that can be assigned values. The study will use an ordinal measurement to rank the values of each construct or item included in the interview. A level of measurement operationalizes the attributes of a variable, enabling the researcher to determine the appropriate statistical analyses for the data.

In the study, the independent variable (IV) includes medical/social support while the dependent variable (DV) is the level of medical compliance. The key measures of the IV will include perceived informational support, emotional support, and support networks (Zuckerman & Antoni, 2009). According to Nation (2007), ordinal and nominal scales give the researcher more degrees of freedom than higher-level measurements such as interval and ratio scales. In this view, the study will use an ordinal scale where the attributes of a construct are rank-ordered with the distance between the categories having no meaning (Nation, 2007, p. 17).

In addition, medical compliance (DV) values of CD4 count, symptom remissions, and quantity of metabolites in urine can be coded in numerical values. Thus, an ordinal scale will be useful in constructing meaningful ranks or orders for the attributes of the variables. The patients aggregate score on the variables will predict how well he or she adheres to the treatment guideline.

Validity

In content validity, the researcher cross-checks each operationalized construct against its content (Blaxter, Hughes & Tight, 2006). It entails defining the criteria that make up the attributes of the content of a program or intervention. In the proposed study, the content domain of the intervention will include a description of the target population (HIV positive African women), age, information of ARV use, and self-care methods, among others. The criteria will be used as a checklist to measure the extent to which the IV and DV represent the constructs of the content domain.

Empirical or statistical validity measures the predicting ability of an operationalized construct. In the study, it is theorized that a measure of medical/social support should predict medical compliance in HIV-positive patients. The researcher will test the measures of the IV, i.e., informational support, emotional support, and support networks, on in-patients under treatment regimen. A strong correlation between the values will give evidence for the empirical validity of the measures to predict medical compliance in the target group.

Construct validity estimates the extent to which the conclusions made correspond to the theoretical concepts of the constructs. It entails generalizing the implemented measures to the concept of the measures (Trochim, 2006). A valid construct evaluates the attribute it was meant to measure. In this study, it is hypothesized that informational/medical support, emotional support, and support networks will enhance medical adherence among the target patient population. The researcher will seek to prove that this theoretical relationship occurs in reality, using tests of significance, such as t-test and ANOVA (Frankfort-Nachmias and Nachmias, 2008, p. 57). Significant test scores will indicate that the level of association between the concepts and the attributes measured, and thus, evidence for the validity of the theorized constructs.

Reliability of the Measurement

In quantitative research, reliability describes the repeatability of the measures (Shuttleworth, 2011, para. 11). It reflects the quality of a studys measures. A reliable measurement procedure yields valid results. One way the investigator will enhance the reliability of the measurements will involve utilizing multiple types of research and statistics provided by different HIV clinical program coordinators. The statistics, collected through interviews, will highlight the educational and medical programs implemented in the United States. In this study, more than one coordinator will provide the data, which will help eliminate researcher bias and measurement bias that affect reliability.

The coordinators use structured interviews to score the impact of social/medical support on compliance over a specific duration. Researcher bias may arise due to adaptation effects, i.e., gaining experience over the course of the study. Thus, relying on data from different coordinators will help filter the measurements for internal consistency to eliminate researcher bias. Researcher bias limits the reliability of measurements due to systematic errors in measuring the constructs. Using multiple interviewers can minimize the effects of researcher bias and enhance the reliability of the results.

The second method will involve the computation of the correlation between the datasets provided by different coordinators to estimate their reliability. According to Shuttleworth (2011), inter-rater reliability using SPSS estimates the extent of the agreement between measurements (para. 7). Thus, the approach will help determine how reliable the statistics are for the study. The study will draw data from coordinators stationed at distinct locations across the US. The investigator will cross check data submitted by each coordinator for internal consistency. A strong association between the individual values will indicate the reliability of each coordinators measurements.

Strengths and Limitations of the Measurement Instrument

The study is based on statistics provided by coordinators who interviewed the subjects on compliance and social/medical support. A key strength of closed-ended interview protocols is the ability to yield precise information pertinent to the research. Thus, they enhance content validity because the interviewer can cross-check the responses with the predefined checklist items.

In collecting data, interviews can be used to confirm theoretical relationships between measures, and thus, ascertain construct validity. Fraenkel and Wallen (2003) identify exploration and confirmation as they cornerstones of interviews (p. 112). Thus, the ability to achieve construct validity and content validity is a key strength of the interview protocol. A well-structured interview protocol can be applied to different respondents. The coordinators used the same item list on the interview protocol to interview the respondents, obtaining simultaneous measurements. Thus, the ability of the protocol to generate comparable measurements makes it a reliable instrument.

The weakness of the interview protocol lies in the accuracy of the responses expressed as scores. The recorded score may not depict the true value of the response due to measurement errors (Clark & Watson, 2007). As a result, measurements may be overestimated or underestimated. A systematic error may arise due to social desirability bias, whereby the participant gives responses deemed favorable during the interview. Acquiescence bias wherein participants agree or disagree with every statement also weakens the reliability of interviews (Clark & Watson, 2007, p. 312). Unstructured questions may also elicit inconsistent responses from the respondents, affecting the reliability of the measures.

The Appropriate Scale for the Study

The study will use a 5-item Likert or summative scale to measure the variables. The scale relies on a unidirectional rating of the participants responses from one to five or one to seven (Bertram, 2010). A social/medical support scale, the multidimensional perceived social support scale (MPSSS), is appropriate for this study for three reasons (Smallbone & Quinton, 2004, p. 157). First, the study will attempt to estimate the degree of social/medical support (informational, emotional, support networks) as perceived by the respondents. Therefore, a 5-item social/medical support scale will indicate each respondents level of agreement with the concepts, and thus, enable the researcher to find an aggregate rating.

Similarly, the dependent variable (medical compliance) can be rated on a 5-point scale indicating how often a respondent enrolled in the social/medical support program takes his/her medicine. Second, the MPSS, which is a Likert-type scale, generates ordinal data, which can be analyzed with non-parametric tests to compare responses. The study uses the ordinal measurement, and therefore, a Likert-type scale would be appropriate for measuring the variables. Third, the MPSSS, unlike multidimensional scales, requires little effort to read and complete, making it appropriate for measuring the perceptions of the participants. In this study, the structured interview questions in the MPSSS used by the coordinators contain rank-ordered responses from the lowest to the lowest rank.

Reliability and Validity of the Scale

Various methods will be used to ascertain the validity of the scale. The principal components analysis will be used to ascertain the construct validity of the factors, i.e., the variance within a dataset (Shuttleworth, 2011). The data will be drawn from multiple sources to reduce the effect of acquiescence and social desirability bias. The Cronbach coefficient will be used to estimate the reliability of the developed scale to measure perceived medical/social support by African American women with HIV. The value of the Cronbach coefficient determines the reliability of the scale. In general, a value greater than 80% (± = 0.80) is statistically significant, indicating that the scale is reliable for the measurements (Lyubomirsky & Lepper, 2007).

Measurement errors affect the reliability of the scale. The study will use test-retest method to ascertain the reliability of the medical/social support scale over time (Shuttleworth, 2011). The respondents will take the test after completing one medical/social support program and before enrolling for a next one. It is anticipated that a significant correlation (r = 0.9) will exist between the test and the retest, confirming the reliability of the scale. A second method involves the split-half test, whereby similar results between two halves confirms internal reliability (Drost, 2009, p. 109). The reliability of the scale will be enhanced using the split-half approach.

Parallel forms reliability is another method the researcher will use to test the scale. The method involves formulating questions that focus on a particular construct and dividing them into two categories (Shuttleworth, 2011). The questions are then administered to a respondent sample. The level of correlation between the two categories indicates the level of reliability of the scale. The researcher will create several items that address the same construct and administer them to the same respondents to estimate reliability and consistency of the responses. Reproducible results will indicate that the scale is not prone to measurement errors, and thus, can give reliable estimates of the constructs.

The Appropriate Test

The study will use a specific test to measure medication adherence by the respondents participating in the social/medical support programs. The Medication Event Monitoring System (MEMS) tests medical compliance over a specific duration (Kaya & Celik, 2012). The MEMS is an appropriate test for this study for measuring hospital visits, hospitalizations, and fatalities involving African American women with HIV. The test will also be used to monitor key variables such as CD4 count and weight in patients.

The MEMS is a criterion-referenced test or CRT. According to), CRTs measure a participants understanding of a particular body of knowledge and skills (National Center for Fair and Open Testing, 2007, para. 6). They often entail multiple choice questions to test the participants knowledge and skills pertinent to a specific subject area. The MEMS qualifies as a criterion-referenced test because it evaluates the respondents medical adherence over a duration using variables such as hospital visits and CD4 count. Therefore, it is possible to distinguish compliant patients from noncompliant ones based on a predetermined passing score. Higher scores would predict medication adherence by the patient enrolled in the social/medical support programs.

The passing score is determined from the set performance standards. The content of the social/medical support programs for African American women with HIV in the US is professionally determined. The aim is to ensure that the programs cover important skills that would make the participants proficient in self-care. Thus, MEMS, which is based on standards of social support, will be an effective test for self-care proficiency and medical compliance.

The Population Used for the Scale and Test

The MPSSS scale can be applied to a patient population to measure their perception of the social/medical support received. In this study, the scale will be used with African American patients with HIV receiving support from various programs across the country. The MEMS test monitors drug adherence among patients. It compares baseline data with individual scores on key variables during the study. The MEMS is usually used with heart disease patients under treatment regimen. Medication compliance in this population predicts patient outcomes, such as hospital visits or death.

References

Bertram, D. (2010). Likert Scales: the Meaning of Life. Web.

Blaxter, L., Hughes, C., & Tight, M. (2006). How to Research. Berkshire: Open University Press.

Clark, L., & Watson, D. (2007). Constructing Validity: Basic Issues in Objective Scale Development. Psychological Assessment, 7(3), 309-319.

Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Drost, A. (2009). Validity and Reliability in Social Science Research. Education Research and Perspectives, 38(1), 105-114.

Fraenkel, J. R. & Wallen, N. E. (2003). How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Frankfort-Nachmias, C., & Nachmias, D. (2008). Research Methods in the Social Sciences. New York, NY: Worth Publishers.

Kaya, M., & Celik, E. (2012). Projective Identification: The Study of Scale Development, Reliability and Validity. The Online Journal of Counselling and Education, 1(2), 29-43.

Lyubomirsky, S., & Lepper, H. S. (2007). A Measure of Subjective Happiness: Preliminary Reliability and Construct Validation. Social Indicators Research, 46, 137155.

Nation, J. R. (2007). Research Methods. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

National Center for Fair and Open Testing. (2007). Criterion- and Standards-Referenced Tests. Web.

Shuttleworth, M. (2011). Validity and Reliability. 

Smallbone, T., & Quinton, S. (2004). Increasing Business Students Confidence in Questioning the Validity and Reliability of their Research. Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods, 2 (2), 153-162.

Trochim, W. M. (2006). Introduction to Validity: Social Research Methods. 

Zuckerman, M., & Antoni, M. (2009). Social Support and its Relationship to Psychological, Physical Health, and Immune Variables in HIV-infection. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 2(4), 210-219.

Introduction

In the last century, the United States decided to exempt non-profit medical organizations from paying taxes. One of the main requirements of the tax service is the exemption of hospitals from taxes through the provision of charitable assistance to the population in the treatment. First of all, it considers the financial capabilities of each organization. Health promotion is included in the concept of gratuitous aid and is the main criterion for non-commercial organizations in freedom from paying taxes.

At the same time, hospitals must meet several other points, including the presence of a modern emergency department, where everyone is treated, regardless of their social and material status. In addition, the organization undertakes to join the Medicare and Medicaid programs and to have a government that represents the interests of the society. Moreover, organizations provide a full and open report on charitable activities. Thus, the expectation of hospitals is to increase direct patient care benefits and initiatives to improve the health of the population. Furthermore, the policy of hospitals is aimed at spending in relation to the protection of public health. This may include organizing educational events and helping the population to learn about their health. However, the State ran a massive program from 2010 to 2016 to ensure that hospitals meet these expectations.

Expectations of Hospitals

Participation in the Medicare program consists in insurance of medical organizations. At the same time, the organizations assistance in paying medical bills comes from trust funds. The main expectation from the organization is that the hospital will provide free care primarily to the elderly over 65 years of age (Cox & Westbrook, 2017). Simultaneously, the organization accepts patients with disabilities and dialysis, regardless of their income. Organizations expect patients to pay deductibles to cover their budget. However, no more premiums are required each month to provide non-hospital coverage.

At the same time, participation in Medicaid is important for hospitals. They expect the government program to cover their health care costs for people whose resources are deemed limited. At the same time, non-profit organizations will be able to save their budget without significant losses and participate in the tax exemption program (Cronin, 2017). Moreover, Medicaid includes additional benefits for people, which is important for hospital costs. The franchise, which pays for medical manipulations for patients, takes on most of the costs, which allows the organization to plan and set material expenses.

Hospitals are looking forward to providing an accessible emergency room, which can be achieved through tax exemptions. Organizations have a budget dedicated to improving the hospital environment for visitors. In doing so, the tax program allows them to fund their money into more development and modern technology for the emergency department. At the same time, hospitals hope for the help of federal programs for non-profit organizations. Helping those in need is the inherent responsibility of every medical organization, so every non-profit hospital is committed to fulfilling its duty in accordance with state policy.

Equally important, organizations should be involved in education and research programs aimed at improving the protection of public health. Hospitals and their management conduct large-scale employee training and retraining of personnel. Moreover, through the joint collaboration of non-profit organizations and state health organizations, activities are carried out to research and educate the population in health care and livelihoods.

Efforts Taken by State

Community Benefit Insight tracks the efforts each state is making to meet these expectations. From 2010 to 2016, the State of Washington provided for many important points in the provision of healthcare assistance and took into account the regulation for non-profit hospitals. In 2010, the Medicaid program received the most attention, resulting in $690 million in spending with 98.3% of all non-profit healthcare organizations participating (State Analysis, n.d.). At the same time, financial assistance at a cost of about $230 million was spent on supporting organizations to implement their policies. However, a relatively small percentage was allocated to research programs.

In the following year, some changes in the distribution of the budget can be noticed. In 2011, the Medicaid program received the same active attention, with a budget of $670 million (State Analysis, n.d.). The amount of financial aid has increased to approximately $2 million (State Analysis, n.d.). Moreover, the state has stepped up the subsidized medical services it borrowed after training in the medical professions. In addition, the last place in the amount of $8 million is occupied by public construction, which is not given attention (State Analysis, n.d.). In 2012, the states policy does not show much shifts and the main items of expenditure retain their position in the rankings. Public construction and research take the last places, with a small budget expenditure. State policy funding for community health improvement and community benefit operations has increased. spending on cash and in-kind contributions to community groups has decreased and spending on subsidized health services has enlarged.

The trend towards the distribution of the budget for social benefits will continue in subsequent years. However, it is worth noting that in 2013 the number of non-profit organizations participating in Medicaid decreased to 97.6% compared to previous years, where the total number was above 98% (State Analysis, n.d.). It is important to add that at the same time the number of hospitals participating in health professions education insignificantly increased.

In 2014, Medicaid remained at the top of the list in social welfare spending. At the same time, the costs for everything else were significantly reduced for all other categories. Subsidized health services have moved into second place in terms of spending, and the number of healthcare organizations in this category has increased further (State Analysis, n.d.). The overall budget for all other categories was reduced and the state did not allocate large subsidies.

Some significant changes in different categories are observed in the following In 2015, financial assistance at cost reached 100% participation of non-profit organizations. However, participation in health professions education has dropped to almost 80% (State Analysis, n.d.). This is the lowest figure for the entire period from 2010 to 2016. The study remained the lowest category of social spending, which may indicate that the state is not interested in such activities. The overall budget remains at a reduced level compared to 2010 and 2011 (State Analysis, n.d.). The total spending on social benefits in 2016 on Medicaid exceeded one billion dollars, more than in all other years. The participation of hospitals in Cash and in-kind contributions to the community group has increased and amounted to almost 90% (State Analysis, n.d.). However, at the same time, funding for this category amounted to just over $22 million (State Analysis, n.d.). This slightly reduces the results achieved by the state in the early years.

Conclusion

Thus, based on the analysis, it can be said that the state pays enough attention to the Medicaid program in implementing tax exemption policy for non-profit medical organizations. Moreover, throughout the period from 2010 to 2016, the trend in spending on certain categories of social benefits continued, which indicates high stability. However, it should be noted that some categories are not given due importance, which may indicate stagnation in the system.

References

Cox, K., & Westbrook, D. H. (2017). Hospital Leadership Recognizes Need to Create Partnerships to Treat Consequences of Poverty. Current problems in pediatric and adolescent health care, 47(9), 229-232.

Cronin, C. E. (2017). The prevalence of community benefit participation in the hospital region and its relationship to community health outcomes. Journal of Health and Human Services Administration, 98-132.

State Analysis. (n.d.). Community Benefit Insight.

Introduction

The article written by Benjamin Dean and Christopher Little is aimed at discussing the fractures of phalanges and metacarpals. In particular, they focus on the selection of the most appropriate management plan. The authors provide a sound and convincing rational for examining this question. They argue that these orthopedic injuries increase medical costs and reduce a persons productivity (Dean & Little, 2011, p. 43). Therefore, medical workers should find an optimal way of helping this people. The scholars do not rely on any theoretical framework while discussing this problem. Moreover, they do not conduct any empirical research. The scholars do not single out any specific hypothesis that can be tested. Benjamin Dean and Christopher Little use such a method as literature review; however, this method can throw light on the question that the authors intend to discuss. The writers speak about the background studies that describe the complications associated with the fractures of the metacarpals. The results of this review article can be used in clinical setting. The authors use a wide range of sources, but some of them were published more than two decades ago. Additionally, they explain the need to systematize the knowledge which is now available to researchers.

Method

As it has been said before, the authors rely primarily on literature review. Therefore, one cannot speak about such issues as sample size, the selection of participants, or ethical issues that can be related to the study. Additionally, the researchers do not identify dependent or independent variables. Furthermore, it is not possible to speak about the measurement of these variables. Moreover, the scholars do not use any statistical methods in their review article.

Discussion

This review article does not contain a separate discussion section. There are several sections describing various metacarpal fractures. Moreover, the authors do not speak about possible limitations of their study. In the concluding paragraph, the scholars say that physicians should consider such factors as the length of rehabilitation or the possibility of complications while selecting a treatment method (Dean & Little, 2011, p. 56). Additionally, they do not speak about the need for further research. This is the main shortcomings that can be identified.

Last Statement

This article can be considered by physicians who treat the fractures of phalanges and metacarpals. However, this study cannot be used as a guideline because the scholars do not study empirical data. Moreover, some of the sources have become out-of-date. Therefore, the recommendations offered by researchers should be viewed critically.

Management of metacarpal fractures

Introduction

In their article, Thomas McNemar, Julianne Howell, and Eric Chang (2003) discuss the management of metacarpal fractures. The authors give a compelling rational for the research by noting that metacarpal fractures constitute at least 30 % of various hand injuries (McNemar et al., 2003, p. 127). Therefore, one should identify the rules which can help physicians to avoid complications. The scholars do not carry out an empirical study. Moreover, they do not speak about any theoretical framework. This article does not contain a hypothesis or a research question. More likely, researchers try to identify treatment options that are most suitable for different types of metacarpal fractures. By relying on empirical findings of other scholars, the authors can identify the most effective treatment methods. Overall, this scholarly work is primarily related to everyday practices of physicians who treat patients with metacarpal fractures. In this article, the writers give a review a various empirical studies describing the best practices in treating metacarpal fractures. However, the authors do not show that there is a need to fill a certain knowledge gap. This is one of the limitations that can be singled out.

Method

Researchers rely primarily on the empirical studies carried out by others. They do not conduct any independent research. Moreover, they do not try to examine the relations between some independent and dependent variables. Thus, one cannot speak about sample size or selection criteria. Furthermore, the researchers cannot control the validity of research methods, randomization, and other aspects of research design.

Discussion

This article does not include a discussion section which can provide an interpretation of the main findings. The authors do not speak about the limitations of their study. This is of the problems that can be distinguished. Furthermore, they do not show how this study can be continued.

Last Statement

On the whole, this study should be taken into account by physicians or students because McNemar et al., (2003) give a detailed description of fractures and how they can be managed. However, the authors do not identify a set of step-by-step instructions that should be followed. This is one of the drawbacks that should be taken into account.

Operative treatment of metacarpal fractures of the hand

Introduction

In this article, Brian Sennett (1997) examines the operative methods of treating metacarpal fractures. The rationale for studying this research is based on the premise that metacarpal fractures are very widespread injuries; moreover, they can result in many complications such as deformity or even disability (Sennett, 1997, p. 127). Therefore, it is vital to single out the best treatment options. It seems that these reasons are quite acceptable. The author relies on the empirical data gathered by other researchers, but he does not carry out an independent empirical study. Moreover, Brian Sennett does not speak about theoretical model that can form the basis of the study. Furthermore, the author does not single out a hypothesis that should be tested. Brian Sennett shows that his study is related to the work of surgeons who should treat patients with metacarpal fractures. It should be noted that the scholar uses studies which became obsolete even at the time when the article was published. Moreover, the scholar does not explain why an additional study is necessary. This is one o the problems that should not be overlooked.

Method

Brian Sennett relies on such a method as literature review. Yet, he does not rely on the data collection procedures that are typical of empirical studies. He does not select a sample from a specific group of people. Moreover, it is not possible to speak about dependent, independent, or extraneous variables. The author does not employ any statistical tools that can be used to analyze information.

Discussion

There is no section in which the author discusses the major findings, their validity or limitations of the research methods. Moreover, Brien Sennett does not speak about the way in which his study can be extended. This is one of the aspects that can be singled out. Additionally, the scholar does not speak about the implications of this research.

Last Statement

Despite possible limitations of the research methods, the article can be of great use of physicians because the author provides clear-cut instructions describing operative treatment of metacarpal fractures. However, the methods recommended by Brian Sennett are acceptable only when operative intervention is the only option available to a physician.

Reference List

Dean, B., & Little, C. (2011). Fractures of the metacarpals and phalanges. Orthopaedics and Trauma, 25 (1), 43-56.

McNemar, T., Howell J, Chang, E. (2003). Management of metacarpal fractures. Journal of Hand Therapy, 16(2), 143-151.

Sennett, B. (1997). Operative Treatment of Metacarpal Fractures of the Hand (Excluding Thumb Metacarpal Fractures). Operative Techniques in Orthopedics, 7(2), 127-133.

Contemporary consumers tend to practice a variety of eating habits caused by health, ethical, and sustainability issues. In particular, a versatile number of restrictive diets have become very popular in the recent past. They include vegan baking trends, vegetarian diets, gluten-free, paleo, nut exclusion, and others. These frequently observed consumer eating habits will be explored in this paper. Their particularities and reasoning will be discussed based on research findings.

There are different reasons that people use to motivate their dietary choices. According to Cruwys et al. (2020), weight loss, moral principles, and social identification are the most frequent factors influencing restricting diets. The vegetarian diet is one of the popular habits that excludes meat consumption. However, the latest trend is a vegan diet, which excludes any animal-related food, namely eggs, dairy, meat, and honey. Recent developments in science have triggered addressing nut allergies and gluten intolerance in peoples diets by choosing nut-free and gluten-free products (Zopf et al., 2018). Moreover, the paleo diet is based on the preference for products that were available in the Paleozoic era and excluded the products of farming (Zopf et al., 2018). According to this diet, people can eat lean meat, fish, nuts, fruit, and seeds, but no whole grains or dairy.

Thus, modern trends in consumer eating habits include frequent shifts to diets that eliminate a particular product for its adverse effect on health or for ethical or sustainable reasons. In such a manner, people adhere to vegetarian diets, eliminate the consumption of gluten, and exclude nuts from their nutrition. In addition, people often practice vegan and paleo diets, which are within their ethical and nutritional considerations of the benefits of an eating regimen that derives from authentic products.

References

Cruwys, T., Norwood, R., Chachay, V. S., Ntontis, E., & Sheffield, J. (2020). An important part of who I am: The predictors of dietary adherence among weight-loss, vegetarian, vegan, paleo, and gluten-free dietary groups. Nutrients, 12(4), 1-17.

Zopf, Y., Reljic, D., & Dieterich, W. (2018). Dietary effects on microbiota  new trends with gluten-free or Paleo diet. Medical Sciences, 6(4), 1-13.