Category: Health & Medicine

Telemedicine has indeed transformed the manner in which healthcare services are delivered to patients who may be located in remote locations. It deploys the knowledge obtained from information and telecommunication. It has assisted in eradicating the barrier created by distance in the delivery of healthcare services (Kontaxakis et al 1096).

In addition, emergency situations and critical care cases have significantly benefited in the technology derived from telemedicine. Oratier Technologies in Pakistan is one of the global companies that spearheaded the development of telemedicine in the Middle East.

The latest advances that have been made in the fields of information and communication technologies are instrumental in necessitating the application of telemedicine (Hoffman 1). As such, medical staff and patients can now communicate quite easily and confidentially due to limited hindrance. In addition, telemedicine has made it possible for healthcare professionals to transmit health informatics, imaging and general medical information to various locations.

The contemporary telemedicine has been integrated with modern diagnostic methods and advanced video-telephones. Moreover, home care in remote or distant locations has been facilitated using server applications mounted on the modern Information Technology (IT) infrastructures (Kontaxakis et al 1094).

Telemedicine is a broad application in the field of medicine. This explains why it has been subdivided into three key areas. To begin with, telemedicine offers real time interactive healthcare services to patients. Under this category, patients may be visited in their homes by healthcare staff.

They may also be engaged in fruitful conversations through online portals or phone calls. There are myriads of activities that may be carried out during such interactive sessions. These include ophthalmology assessments, physical examination and reviewing past medical records of patients (Hoffman 1).

It is prudent to note that such interactive clinical services are relatively cheaper than physical visits to a healthcare establishment. MedPhone Corporation was the first American company to design a system that could use interactive telemedicine. This machine was specifically meant to resuscitate patients suffering from cardiac arrests. A cellular version in form of a mobile telephone was introduced one year later by the same company.

The second classification of telemedicine deals with the storage and subsequent transmission of medical data to the respective medical experts. Some of the information that can be handled using this method includes bio-signals and medical images (Kontaxakis et al 1097). Therefore, the concerned medical experts are supposed to work on such data while they are offline.

This implies that the simultaneous presence of both the patient and medical expert is not required when this method is used. Asynchronous medical attention can therefore make use of specialties such as pathology and dermatology when this method is applied.

The third category of telemedicine is remote monitoring. Quite a number of medical devices can be used by medical professionals to assess patients who are located in remote locations (Kontaxakis et al 1093). This method is also referred to as self-testing.

Although it is a common form of telemedicine, it is most appropriate when there is need to assess and control chronic infections such as asthma and cardiovascular diseases. Remote monitoring may offer the required satisfaction to healthcare recipients compared to traditional clinical visits. Improved outcomes have also been reported when this method is used to monitor long term infections even in locations that cannot be easily accessed by medical experts.

Works Cited

Hoffman, Jan. When Your Therapist Is Only a Click Away. 2011. Web.

Kontaxakis, George et al. Integrated Telemedicine Applications and Services for Oncological Positron Emission Tomography. Oncology Reports 15 (2006): 1091– 1100. Print.

Introduction

Nations and individuals will do everything within their abilities to ensure human health is given the first priority. Wellness is an important human need that must be taken care of despite all other challenges like poor economy, availability of food and security. People cannot do constructive work when they are unhealthy; therefore, it is an indispensable aspect in life (Dreifus 2).

Consequently, various organizations have established departments to conduct research and present ways of improving human life through nutrition, treatment and measures to prevent diseases. One of the most controversial ways of managing diseases is through race-based medicine. This paper supports the argument that scientists and doctors should develop and use race-based medicine.

Definition

Race-based medicine refers to all drugs and prescriptions given to individuals based on their skin color and area of ancestral origin (Isaac 3). Scientists and doctors use these distinctions to determine the prescription to give an individual. Even though, this issue has faced a lot of criticism from sociologists it still remains a viable option for treating chronic diseases. The following reasons support this argument.

Race is a Sociological and Not a Scientific Concept

Even though, people define race according to the skin color of individuals this has been amplified by sociologists to mean other factors. The origin of racial discrimination dates back to the age when slavery used to thrive and people used to manage their issues with reference to racial considerations.

In addition, colonialism played a significant role in promoting racial stereotypes that have played significant roles in creating racial disparities (Isaac 64). For instance, most people born before the 21^st century experienced various forms of oppression based on racial preferences.

This period was marked by an increase in the gap between whites and blacks as the former sought to outdo their counterparts in various issues. There was a serious struggle between these two races as they tried to seek identity and own various resources (Dreifus 4). This period is know to have developed the origins of racial discriminations and laid a fertile future for conflicts between these races.

Therefore, mass actions and protests gained a different face and people mistook this for racial differences. However, diseases do not recognize that an individual is white or black. They attack everybody who is exposed to them and patients must seek medical attention irrespective of their races (Isaac 3).

Race-based medicine ensures that scientists develop effective remedies for treatment of various diseases that affect human beings. Recent research has established that some races are prone to some diseases and this call for different approaches to manage these conditions. Therefore, this medicine should be developed to ensure these diseases are managed.

Doctors Just Want to Pick the Right Drug for the Right Patient

A significant medical principle recognizes the need for patients to consult medical practitioners before taking drugs. Doctors will examine them and prescribe drugs that will help them to recover their health (Dreifus 2). This means that all physicians have knowledge and skills regarding different diseases and their cures. Patients go to hospitals because they do not have adequate skills to identify what is good for them. However, doctors have trained on various diseases and have adequate experience to treat different ailments (Isaac 72).

This means they are better placed than any other people to handle different ailments. A parent takes his child to school to ensure he gets quality education and becomes a productive person in the future and a broken car is taken to a mechanic to be repaired. The teacher and mechanic have experience, skills, knowledge and education to manage the problems presented to them. In the same way, it does not matter what the doctor prescribes to an individual provided it works to alleviate the problem.

The development and research conducted on the effects of a controversial drug called BiDil revealed that it reduced the number of deaths of the black Americans in a significant way than their counterparts (Dreifus 3). This means that instead of using this drug to cure the disease of the white Americans it should be used in their counterparts.

This will minimize unnecessary expenses in treating diseases that will not be cured. In addition, the research opened ways for scientists and doctors to continue doing research to identify what will be effective in treating heart conditions of the white Americans. This narrowed down their research to base on issues that were not considered in the previous research.

Race-based medicine is the best approach of handling chronic diseases that have different presentations in different races. Therefore, doctors must be given opportunities to use their knowledge to treat these diseases. People have never complained about the dosages prescribed to them by doctors since they trust that the drugs will cure them (Isaac 102).

This means there is no need to argue about race-based medicine developed to cure diseases. In addition, the process is aimed at helping the sick people to recover from their conditions and not to worsen them. Therefore, they should be given opportunities to explore all possibilities available in race-based medicine as a remedy for alleviating the effects of chronic ailments.

Don not Avoid a Drug that could Save Your Life

Death is an irreversible occurrence and this makes many people to fear it. They will do anything and pay any amount of money to ensure they are alive for a very long time. People have traveled to different places to look for cures for their diseases. At the moment HIV/AIDS is a very challenging condition since it does not have a cure.

When the cure for this condition will be discovered people will cure for long hours and spend a lot of money to get it (Dreifus 4). This means that people are ready to do all it will take them to get well. Scientists conduct research that will offer answers to the problems that people face in their daily lives.

This means that they will sacrifice their lives and conduct risky experiments to develop cures for different diseases. This means that they are motivated by the need to save lives at the expense of their lives (Dreifus 3). Patients should appreciate these efforts by taking drugs developed to cure their disease. It is very unwise to refuse a drug because it was developed on a racial-based research.

Conclusion

Race-based drugs are specifically developed to cure diseases of patients from different racial groups. Therefore, it should not be viewed from a sociological perspective since it is a good development towards managing chronic diseases like diabetes and blood pressure. In addition, scientists and doctors cannot develop or prescribe drugs that will affect human life but instead they will struggle to save people from diseases. Patients should never ignore drugs that will help them even if they are based on racial issues.

Works Cited

Dreifus, Claudia. A Conversation with Troy Duster. A Sociologist Confronts ‘The Messy Stuff’. New York Times 18 Oct. 2005. Print.

Isaac, Lydia. Race, Ethnicity, and Health: A Public Health Reader. New Jersey: Jossey – Bass, 2012. Print.

A calorie is a measure of energy producing potential in food. If not consumed, the energy is converted to fats that the body stores. Excess stored fat results in obesity. This is a major source of contention with some people arguing that limiting the amount of food intake regardless of calorie content can result in weight loss.

Others are of the opinion that the rate of metabolism of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates determines the amount of weight loss. The latter group seems to support a contradicting opinion that dieting involves limiting the intake of specific kinds of food. This argument forms the basis of the discussion in this paper.

Obesity can be explained by an increased intake of high fats diets (Myers & Allen, 2013). Most westernized dietary patterns consist of energy dense foods such as processed foods, red meat, and high fats food products.

According to Meyers and Allen, different foods created or modified by processing contain a combination of refined cereals, sugars, and vegetable oils (2013). In addition, processing of food increases the salt and fat content. Excess energy intake due to such foods increases the accumulation of and adipocyte stress. Factors such as lipid accumulations are proven to interfere with the balance of systemic cell signaling (adipocytes and cytokines) to favor a pro-inflammatory environment.

The research design used in the study is experimental. The findings seem to be convincing, however, a factor such as the sex of the participants is a variable that is not carefully considered. Weight loss varies across the sexes. The researchers note this variable, but do not control it adequately in the experiment (Myers & Allen, 2013). This is likely to have yielded conflicting results as biological makeup of males and females are a significant factor in determining weight gain or loss.

Berg and colleagues in 2008 seem to hold a slightly differing opinion (Myers & Allen, 2013). They assert that the nutritional value of the food intake cannot be ignored in examining the dietary habits that lead to weight gain. This is a conclusion that they make after conducting a study on male and female participants.

Food patterns that promote obesity and related disorders are identified. Groups that consume regular and medium fat, milk, cheese, white bread, sweets, snacks, and alcoholic beverages and take in relatively low amounts of fruits, vegetables, and low fat foods are found to have a high body mass index and an equally high waist-to-hip ratio. The above group is compared to those who eat more fiber, less sugar and lower fats.

Esmaillzadeh and Azadbakht, in a study of major dietary patterns in relation to general obesity and central adiposity among Iranian women, confirm the same point (Meyer & Allen, 2013). They also realize that Western dietary patterns when likened to healthy diets of fruits, vegetables and wholegrain are associated with a higher Body Mass Index (BMI). In addition, it results into an elevated waist-to-hip ratio and waist circumference.

Those in the Western diet have higher chances of being obese than those taking the healthy diet of fruits, vegetables and whole grains. Abstaining from certain types of food, therefore, can result in significant loss of body weight. However, in this analysis the researchers rely on self-report in filling the questionnaires. The subjects might conceal important information or answer some questions with bias because of social desirability effect.

A diet containing an elevated level of proteins is better in weight reduction according to Layman, Clifton, Gannon, Krauss, and Nuttal (2008). In addition to weight loss, diets that are rich in carbohydrates when substituted by proteins (with or without fat) result in improvements in body composition, plasma, lipids, and lipoproteins.

Lipoprotein reactions due to changes in protein and carbohydrate intakes are complex. They reflect varied genetic and metabolic differences in individuals. Some factors can influence lipoprotein responses. The factors include baseline lipoprotein patterns (the genetic phenotype), the rate of insulin receptiveness among the subjects and the overall energy intake.

However, metabolism of carbohydrates and proteins is highly dependent on individual factors such as sex besides the genetic factors. This, however, cannot be ignored as part of weight loss strategy. A suggestion by the researchers Layman et al. (2008) that cannot be overlooked is that dietary plans work best when individualized. An individual’s food preferences should be prioritized in an effort to reduce energy intake.

Hence, one-size-fits-all tactics for weight loss do not work. The general idea of limiting the intake of certain foods to lose weight cannot hold in all situations. This is because of the existence of individual differences. Food types with similar nutritional values can be substituted, for example, it is possible to substitute animal proteins with plant proteins.

A study done by Paramsothy et al. in 2011 is a cross-sectional evaluation of sterol markers of cholesterol absorption. Cholesterol absorption markers are low in the findings, whereas cholesterol synthesis markers are high in the cohort of insulin-resistant participants who have a one-third to one-half increase in cholesterol with egg feeding.

Insulin resistance and obesity are associated with diminished cholesterol absorption, whereas leanness is associated with increased cholesterol absorption. This is still another indication that the rates of metabolism of proteins and fats are factors in weight loss of an individual.

Reduction of the intake of certain foods and the rate of metabolism of fats, proteins and carbohydrates determine weight loss. However, restrictions of certain kinds of food seem to have a better effect than observing the rate of metabolism of essential foods in the body.

In most cases, those people determined to watch their weight are likely to cut on the amount of sugar and fats they ingest. From the evidence presented especially by Estruch et al., a decrease in intake of certain foods (in this case carbohydrate) has a direct effect on weight loss of an individual (2013).

The rate of lipid absorption in the blood leads to accumulation of calories that subsequently cause weight gain is determined by many factors (Paramsothy et al., 2011). Factors such as individual characteristics, for example, height, sex, individual lipid absorption rate, and age determine the rate and ease of metabolism of macronutrients. It is also challenging to determine the exact extent of metabolism. Other factors such as cardiovascular activities can influence metabolism.

Low-carbohydrate diets are effective for weight loss. Most of the experiments were affected adversely by the fact that the participants were volunteers. An accurate representation of the population was thus not attained. The approach of determining weight loss by measuring the metabolic rate is inaccurate to some extent. Thus, the most explicit way of weight loss remains restrictive dietary practice. Avoiding certain foods, therefore, proves successful in weight loss without considering the amount of calories present in the food.

References

Estruch, R., Ros, E., Salas-Salvadó, J, Covas, M., Corella, D., Arós, F., Gómez-Gracia, E., Ruiz-Gutiérrez, V., Fiol, M., Lapetra, J., Lamuela-Raventos, R. M., Serra-Majem, L., Pintó, X., Basora, J., Muñoz, M. A., Sorlí, J. V., Martínez, J. A., & Martínez-González, M. A. (2013). Weight loss with a low-carbohydrate, Mediterranean, or low-fat diet, New England Journal of Medicine 368(14), 1279-1290.

Layman, K. D, Clifton, P., Gannon, C. M., Krauss, M. R., & Nuttal Q. F. (2008). Protein in optimal health: Heart disease and type 2 diabetes1, 2, 3, 4. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 87(5), 1571-1575.

Myers J. L. & Allen C. J. (2012). Nutrition and inflammation: Insights on dietary pattern, obesity, and asthma. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine, 6(14), 1419-1420.

Nordmann, A, J., Briel, M., Keller, U., Yancy, S.W., Brehm, B. J., & Bucher, C. H. (2006). Effects of low-carbohydrate vs. low-fat diets on weight loss and cardiovascular risk factors, a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Archives of Internal Medicine, 166(3), 285-293.

Paramsothy, P., Knopp, H. P., Kahn, E., Retzlaff, B. M, Fish, B., Ma, L., & Ostlund, O. E. (2011). Plasma sterol evidence for decreased absorption and increased synthesis of cholesterol in insulin resistance and obesity, The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 94(2011), 1182–1188.

Hydrocephalus is a nervous system disorder characterized by increased intracranial pressure and enlargement of the head. Increased intracranial pressure is a direct consequence of fluid accumulation in ventricular system. This condition can affect almost all animal species including domestic animals like cattle, dogs, and cats (Rousseaux & Ribble 31).

The disorder is mostly diagnosed in young animals. However, animals may develop the disease during adulthood. Two general types of hydrocephalus exist; communicating hydrocephalus and non-communicating hydrocephalus. This paper analyzes causes, signs and symptoms, diagnostic techniques, treatment, and prevention of the condition.

Communicating hydrocephalus is brought about by buildup of cerebrospinal fluid in the brain channels due to either over secretion or faulty absorption. In communicating type the ventricular system and subarachnoid space are connected (McGavin & Zachary 864). It is not clear what causes excessive production or defective absorption but inflammatory processes could be involved.

In some cases cerebrospinal fluid absorption occurs but is insufficient. This type occurs mainly as a congenital disorder. Congenital anomalies arise from exposure to chemicals, drugs and other teratogenic agents during pregnancy. Chromosomal mutations have been noted in animals with hydrocephaly. Genetic alterations are passed from parents to offspring.

Cerebrospinal fluid cannot move from ventricles to subarachnoid space in non-communicating hydrocephalus. Obstruction could either be within the ventricular system or at the foramina connecting ventricles and the subarachnoid space. In this type, cerebrospinal fluid production and absorption are normal. Blockage is caused by a number of factors. They include tumors, injury to the brain, inflammation within the channels, and infections. Viral infections are by far the most common cause of obstruction.

Most signs and symptoms are nonspecific to the condition. The disease is manifest through enlargement of the head. In some animal species, enlarged skull takes a characteristic shape. For example, dogs with the abnormality have dome shaped skull. Other signs and symptoms result from neurological deficits caused by compression. They include seizures, tremors, abnormal gait, feeding difficulties, growth retardation, and malformation of limbs. Animals with the disease are unable to lead a normal life.

Diagnosis of hydrocephalus relies on physical examination by a veterinary doctor who then recommends other tests. Imaging is used to determine the location of the lesion in the brain (Nam 59). Laboratory tests are also done to rule out other causative agents like viruses and bacteria. Samples for laboratory tests include blood, cerebrospinal fluid and biopsies.

Management of the disorder is divided into medical and surgical interventions. Medical treatment is done using steroids and diuretics. Steroids are anti-inflammatory agents while diuretics reduce intracranial pressure by increasing frequency of urination. Surgical management is done by a veterinary surgeon to improve drainage of cerebrospinal fluid. Shunting of fluid is achieved through ventriculoperitoneal shunting and ventriculoartrial shunting (Woo et al 499).

Control and prevention of the disease can be achieved through screening of animals and removal of causative agents. Animals should be screened early in life for genetic abnormalities. Animals with defective genes should not be allowed to reproduce because they can pass problematic genes to their offspring (Hitlock 58). Pregnant animals should not be exposed to teratogenic agents. Animals should be immunized against some causative organisms like viruses.

This paper analyzed causes, signs and symptoms, diagnostic techniques, treatment, and prevention of hydrocephalus. The disorder is caused by excessive production, defective absorption, and obstruction of flow. It can be managed using drugs and surgery.

Works Cited

Hitlock, BK. “Heritable Birth Defects of Cattle.” Applied Reproductive Strategies Conference Proceedings Nashville. (2010): 146-153. Web.

McGavin, MD. & Zachary, JF. Pathologic Basis of Veterinary Disease, St Louis, MO: Mosby Elsevier Publishing, 2007: 863-864. Print.

Nam, Jung- Woo. “Evaluation of hydrocephalic ventricular alterations in maltese dogs using low field MRI.” Intern J Appl Res Vet Med. 9. 1. (2011): 58-67. Web.

Rousseaux, CG & Ribble, CS. “Developmental Anomalies in Farm Animals II. Defining Etiology.” Can Vet J .29 (1988): 30-40. Web.

Woo J. N et al. “Application of ventriculoperitoneal shunt placement through fontanelle in a hydrocephalus dog: a case report.” Veterinarni Medicina. 54.10 (2009): 498– 500. Web.

Wisconsin has a considerable number of uninsured women and children ranging in hundreds of thousands. Tommy Thompson, the governor and legislature of Wisconsin set out to reduce this number in the late 1990’s. This paper seeks to briefly describe the beginning and enactment of BadgerCare program. It also seeks to demonstrate the evolution and expansion of the program to become BadgerCare Plus. The evolution of eligibility requirements for the program participants will be examined. The paper will also look into the number of residents affected by the expansion of BadgerCare into program into BadgerCare Plus.

BadgerCare is a family based health care plan in the state of Wisconsin. This program owes its enactment to the governor and legislature Thompson back in 1997. BadgerCare program ensures availability of healthcare to the working poor and uninsured families. The families covered have incomes falling between the current Medicaid limits and 185% of FPL (federal poverty level).This program is financed with both federal Title 19 and Title 21 funding, premiums paid by families with over 150% of FPL incomes and state revenue (Families USA, 2007).

Initially, BadgerCare was planned to be launched on 1^st July 1998. However, this was delayed by state and federal officials’ negotiations concerning the structure and financing of the program. The agreement was at last made in January 1999, and later the program commenced on 1^st July 1999. During the approval of BadgerCare program, there existed an impasse between federal and state officials. There were two primary impediments to federal endorsement of the program. The first issue was the extent of federal Title 21 funds to be spent for adults. The other issue was whether Title 19 (Medicaid) funds were to be utilized in a non-entitlement program (Wisconsin Council on Children &Families, 1999).

At first, the state proposed to finance BadgerCare with federal funding under Title 21, the Child Health Insurance Program (CHIP). The federal Health Care Financing Administration (HCFA) insisted that the Child Health Insurance Program legislation was the Congress primarily intention of the extension of health care for under-ages. In addition, it contained a very narrow exemption for taking care of adults. The federal Health Care Financing Administration accomplished that majority of the parents proposed covering were not within that exemption. The officials of federal Health Care Financing Administration suggested to the state that the program could be approved if the Medicaid funds and CHIP funding for children were used.

This required a 41% state match for the majority of the parents. Nevertheless, state officials welcomed the suggestion of a hybrid approach. This was due to entitlement state of Medicaid program. It was hard to use it as a part of the funding mix because the BadgerCare legislation openly states that it is not a prerogative program (Leininger, Friedsam, & Dague, 2009).

The negotiations lasted for two years and three months, after which an agreement was reached. The procedure of the compromise outlined by HCFA in August 1998 was to be followed. This accord required federal Title 21 funds to be utilized for children and to some extent, a small division of parents. In general, parents were to be funded under Title 19, with a 41% state match. The agreement allowed the state to ascertain a method of setting minimal income eligibility. The accord accommodated the major concern of those who insisted the program to be non-entitlement. This was done by mandating the state to restrict its financial accountability.

The accord also satisfied a group of people who were concerned about keeping prerogative state of Medicaid. The agreement protected the families in that they were not to be affected by the lowering of income eligibility limit. This meant that the families were not to be removed from the program as long as they met the eligibility criteria that existed when they were first enrolled. A noteworthy aspect of the accord was that the state was allowed to utilize premiums of about 3.5% of family income to capture federal corresponding finances.

BadgerCare was open to parents and children with incomes above 185 percent of the FPL. Registration in the program was fundamentally doing well. In January 2007 about 30,000 children and more than 66,000 parents had been covered by the program. Additionally, enrollment of children in Medicaid had enlarged considerably since BadgerCare program was initiated. The success of the program however did not enroll all the residents in the state of Wisconsin.

Statistics indicated that the state still had a significant number of uninsured residents. Uninsured residents accounted for about 11.5% of the state population below the age of sixty five. Moreover, state investigations indicated a rise in number of uninsured children. To counter the predicament, the governor of Wisconsin Doyle Jim proposed BadgerCare Plus to make the program more affordable to the vast population. This agenda was designed to make health coverage financially reasonable and reachable to all children.

Kaiser commission observes that even in the wake of economic recession, BadgerCare plus program has effectively built upon Medicaid, covering approximately 770,000 residents of the state of Wisconsin. This is approximately 235,000 more than what the program covered when it was initiated back in 2007. BadgerCare plus program has successfully combined the Wisconsin’s three distinctive Medicaid programs for parents, children and expectant women into one complete health coverage program. It has also stretched out eligibility to give a widespread coverage for minors and larger coverage for parents and adults with no children. Implementation of BadgerCare Plus program for parents, children, and pregnant women took place in February 2008. The childless adult expansion was launched about one year later in January 2009.

BadgerCare Plus program operates on a concrete base of employer sponsored health care and Medicaid in Wisconsin. Sixty eight percent of non elderly residents in 2008 had been covered through an employer, in comparison to sixty percent nationwide. Statistics indicate that before the program was initiated, levels of Medicaid eligibility in the state were 185% of FPL (federal poverty level). Notably, levels of coverage for children lagged behind other states. The state of Wisconsin presented a wider coverage for low-income parents. The state of Wisconsin also has a comparatively low uninsured rate compared to other states. About ten percent of the non-elderly residents are uninsured. This is in line with Wisconsin’s objective which is to guarantee that at least ninety eight percent of its residents are covered with an affordable health care.

BadgerCare Plus program has expanded to cover more of Wisconsin residents. The program has evolved to cover the children, parents and pregnant women and grown-ups without children. The eligibility requirements have also evolved to cover new participants in the program. Uninsured children under nineteen years of age have been covered regardless of financial capability of their families. The program provides incentives to children with family income up to 300% FPL. Those above 300% pay the full cost while those with less than 200% FPL are not requisite to pay their premium. Notably, new participants in BadgerCare Plus program are the legal immigrant children.

These children were in the past unable to acquire Medicaid coverage until they lived in United States for five years. Statistics indicate that over 445,000 children were already covered in April 2010. This is 135,000 more than those enrolled under Medicaid before BadgerCare Plus began (Friedsam, Leininger, & Bergum, 2009).

BadgerCare Plus also stretched out coverage for parents with incomes up to federal poverty level of 200%. These are the parents who lacked access to employer sponsored health insurance for the past twelve months. In addition those with incomes below 150% federal poverty level do not pay a premium. For those with less than 300% FPL have their premiums limited at 5% of their income. Evolution of eligibility requirements of BadgerCare Plus is notable for pregnant women and young adults. Expectant mothers with family income of 300% Federal Poverty Level are covered with no cost sharing and premium requirements.

Young adults taking care of themselves, and who are not under foster care are also eligible. Statistics indicate that as of April 2010 about 86,500 extra parents were covered under Medicaid. In addition, approximately 3,200 added expectant women were covered before the program begun. The evolution of the eligibility requirements encouraged new participants to be included in the program. The program enlarged the coverage to childless adults earning up to 200% Federal Poverty Level. Initially, this group had been ineligible for the program, starting with those already registered in county-financed medical programs. Other childless adults who met the financial prerequisite, and had not been covered privately in the past one year also became eligible. More than 60,000 childless adults were already enrolled in the plan as of April 2010.

BadgerCare Plus provides two special advantage plans for families. These include the benchmark plan and the standard plan. The standard plan covers families with incomes less than 200% federal poverty level. This includes the same set of complete covered services as was offered in the preceding Medicaid programs for families. Families with more than 200% federal poverty level are covered in the benchmark plan. The later is designed after the state’s biggest low-cost commercial health insurance plan (Witgert, 2009).

The state of Wisconsin has sought to ease its enrollment and outreach process for the healthcare program. In addition to widening the coverage BadgerCare Plus, Wisconsin has also sought to assist and abridge enrollment and restitution of the program. The state has joined with community-based organizations (CBOs) and health care practitioners to recognize and sign up deserving families and children. Furthermore, CBOs can routinely register children with family income falling below 250% Federal Poverty Level, and expectant mothers with family income falling below 300%.

The state has also made the registration process to be easy by forming a centralized and electronic application system. The electronic system is completely incorporated with an online tool. The online tool let individuals and families to establish their eligibility for diverse programs. It also allows online applications for benefits, and checking the status of application. Health coverage can be applied electronically and some coverage information is automatically confirmed.

An increased demand for coverage and a budget crisis in October 2009 were as a result of economic recession. This made the state to limit the number of BadgerCare plus Plan joiners. Roughly 30,000 applicants who were qualified for the program had been kept waiting. In attempt to take care of those who had been kept waiting, Governor Doyle suggested the BadgerCare plus basic plan. The proposed plan would let those waiting to purchase a health plan at full-cost. Consequently, the law forming this new program was enacted on 30^th April 2009. Compared to the core plan, the basic plan provides more limited advantages. It comprises of one hospital visit, ten physician visits, and five outpatient visits annually. In addition, the participant is entitled to access general prescription drugs. The basic plan is associated with a premium of $130 per month, and registration commenced on 1^st June 2010 with coverage starting in July 2010.

Kaiser commission considers BadgerCare plus as a lesson for other states and the national health reorganization. Many states continue to struggle in order to preserve the present health care programs. This has proved difficult due to the widening demand for coverage and the current economic recession. Nevertheless, the state of Wisconsin keeps on expanding its health coverage to almost all its residents. BadgerCare plus program can be applied as a good example of how coverage expansions can grow on Medicaid to present a concrete platform for national health reorganization. In this program, parents, children, childless adults and pregnant women of different financial capabilities are all registered under one rationalized program. The organized program can operate even during the wake of economic recession. In conclusion, BadgerCare plus program is an organized masterpiece that should motivate any administrator in healthcare.

References

Families USA. (2007). Wisconsin’s 2007 Health Care Proposal: BadgerCare Plus. Web.

Friedsam, D., Leininger, L., & Bergum, A. (2009). Wisconsin’s BadgerCare Plus Coverage Expansion and Simplification: Early Data on Program Impact. Web.

Leininger, L. J., Friedsam, D., & Dague, L. (2009). Wisconsin’s BadgerCare Plus Reform:Impact on Low-Income Families’Enrollment and Retention . Web.

The Kaiser Commission. (2010). Wisconsin’s BadgerCare Plus Program: Moving Forward on Health Reform Amid a Recession. Web.

Wisconsin Council on Children &Families. (1999). Wisconsin’s BadgerCare Program. Web.

Witgert, K. (2009). BadgerCare Plus: Medicaid and Subsidies Under One Umbrella. Web.

Introduction

A clear comprehension of old ages in relation to sex functioning is a very essential aspect. There is only one direction in human growth that is from the youth to the old. Physical health and sexual functioning are related and therefore taking time to dig deep about sexual functioning for the later years to come is very helpful in terms of medication and biology. Undesirable sexual functioning can be the starting point of very disturbing health conditions. An astonishing revelation about erectile dysfunction found in most men is the major cause of asymptomatic coronary artery sickness and obviously damaged endothelial utility.

Out of all people infected with the HIV/AIDS in the United States of America, adults of at least 50 years comprise of nineteen percent (Delamater and Karraker, 2009 p.2). Another important thing to note is that there exists a relationship between happiness and sexual welfare/comfort as years progress. This explains that an enhanced and stable state of mind along the age progression line is an important component towards attaining a prolonged sexual function (Delamater and Karraker, 2009 p.2).

Definition of sexual functioning and dysfunction

Sexual functioning is the ability to perform any sexual related activity within the scope of sex. This may incorporate the ability to bring about the urge for sex, arousal, reaching satisfying orgasm, as well as a reasonable sustained duration of sexual activity (Delamater and Karraker, 2009 p.3). However, this definition may vary based on factors such as the absence or presence of a sexual partner and the regularity of intercourse as years progress. Sexual dysfunction may refer to the inability to perform one, some, or any of sexual or related activities. It is impairment to genital activity that leads to orgasm. There is always a postulation that sexual quality reduces with age but this may actually change if men/women but not all, attain greater control which is voluntary especially the control over ejaculation (for men), despite the frequency of the activity (Mc Anulty & Burnette, 2006 p.169).

Determinants of sexual functioning and change

The factors expounded below affect the sexual functioning offered in the following areas of psychological, social, biologic and relations/interactions.

Psychological factors

These factors are very essential for sexual functioning.They can affect the expression of other determinants of sex functioning. For instance, emotional and interpersonal motivation dictates the impact of sexual drive in the case of sexual attractiveness. Motivation can help in attaining the desired attitude about sexuality, which is another part of sexual desire. It can also compensate for reduced physiologic desire for sexual activity especially resulting from declining testosterone stage. Due to old age, Psychological situation like depression contributes a lot in sexual function especially in adults due to accruing responsibilities.

It plays an integral part in that even the medications used to treat it are associated with sexual dysfunction such as erectile dysfunction, low libido, and analgesia, which can go on long after discontinued medication (Delamater and Karraker, 2009 p.3). A case where woman responds to sexual activity not from her own initiative but from her partner will have low sexual desire. Whether the initiative is voluntary or not this psychological factor is independent from sexual functioning.

Social factors

The presence or accessibility of a partner is an important factor in sexual function. In old age, sexual function is much higher in male that in females but the difference is much smaller for those females with partners. The overall difference in performance between men and women is attributed to the relative scarcity of men due to longevity in among women and disparity in ages between men and women with men being older than their partners are. Sexual satisfaction and relationship satisfaction change concurrently and this may affect sexual functioning. It‘s more severe in old age. (Delamater and Karraker, 2009 p.5).

Relations / Interactions factors

This refers to the ways in which physical health relates to sexuality and how it affects it. For example, diabetes is attributed largely to consistent undesirable eating habits. This will ultimately decrease sexual functioning adults in the later stages of life (Delamater and Karraker, 2009 p. 5). It is not possible to look into all potential interactions and response mechanisms that may influence sexual function.

Biological factors

Sexual function reduces with age although measures used to explain sexual function keep on varying. Self-imposing health is strongly related to sexual troubles than age. Occurrence of men reaching orgasm too quickly declines with increase in age. It is similar to women experiencing pain during sexual intercourse. The association is biologic (Delamater and Karraker, 2009 p.5).

Changes in sexual functioning in older adults

Events within the realm of life

Sexual functioning can change positively or negatively in old adults. Positive changes can be due to factors like lack of fear of pregnancy and having no children in school (Delamater and Karraker, 2009 p.5).Negative changes can have the outcomes due to financial and employment status change, parents taking up the care giving roles, death and illnesses, change of partnership through separation, divorce or new found love (Mc annuity& Burnette, 2006 p.169).

Gender

Many women in their old age are met by the problem of vaginal lubrication and inability to climax while their counterpart frequently report erectile difficulties.However,many women in there old age experience positive changes in sexual functioning mostly related to sociocultural factors(Mc annuity& Burnette,2006 p.170).This is not the same to their counterpart males.

Race and ethnicity

Change in sexual functioning may be as a result of the different approaches in seeking health services by race and ethnicity as well as various genetic inheritances that alter the vulnerability to sexual dysfunction (Mc annuity& Burnette, 2006 p.170).

Interventions through healthcare system

Physical health is the best measure of predicting and managing sexual functioning level than the chronological age. A more defined healthy eating should be adopted and positive changes in sexual agency adopted. Medication which is adult-oriented and which is channeled towards addressing sexual functioning should be administered. This procedure is also referred to as pharmaceutical option. Clitoral therapy, penile therapy, sessile focus exercise, orgasm consistency training, communication training, sexual education programs can bring an effect (Mc Anulty& Burnette, 2006 p.168).

About the sources

Reference was made from the book: Sex and Sexuality.

The information contained therein is very relevant and up –to –date. The topic of sex and sexuality if exhaustively addressed with some of the major topics including psychology and human sexuality, sexual disorders and sex customs. I find it useful, relevant, and valid in my clinical studies. It provides an insight into the wide spectrum of the subject study offering very relevant explanations and guide on the same. The global sexual study on attitudes behavior on male and female adults as well as health and aging project are reviewed.

The article on Sexual functioning in older adults was also referred.

I found it useful in that, it reviews on the recent medical and social science information on sexual functioning in older adults. It provides a wide explanation of sexual functioning and collaborated forms of sexual functioning. There is a recent literature on the impact of aging and physical health. It is written at the doctoral level, hence becomes absolutely relevant and valid. The ideas are well expressed and easy to understand. In depth discussion on the topic is well achieved.The information is therefore comprehensive and helpful.

To analyze the peculiarities of the mechanisms of selective visual attention in humans, it is necessary to concentrate on its specific spatial and temporal characteristics. Selective attention and its definite mechanisms as the main brain processes are traditionally assessed separately with the help of such modern technologies as Position Emission Tomography (PET) and e.r.p. recording. However, in their article “Combined Spatial and Temporal Imaging of Brain Activity during Visual Selective Attention in Humans,” Heinze and the group of psychologists and neurologists provided the results of the research in which they concentrated on studying these mechanisms with the help of using the combination of PET and e.r.p. recording methods (Heinze et al.). The main task of the research was to present the description of the cortical anatomy and the time course of the selective attentional processes (spatial and temporal features) with the help of their imaging (Heinze et al.).

The group of healthy young humans was chosen for participation in tests. Their definite reactions in which the brain processes were involved were provoked with the help of bilateral stimulus arrays, which were flashed rapidly (Heinze et al.). The fixations of their gaze and changes in regional cerebral blood flow were measured using PET and electro-oculographic methods (Heinze et al.). Possible activations were visualized, and the images were analyzed by the researchers properly. It became possible to analyze the peculiarities of all the significant activations, including ones in the fusiform gyrus of the extrastriate visual cortex (Heinze et al.).

To prove the results of the assessment, thee.r.p. recording was used in order to focus on the spatial characteristics. To study the peculiarities of the correlation between the results of PET and e.r.p. recording methods, the dipole models were worked out. Thus, the peculiarities of the attention effects were examined and proved with references to the results of several tests and the created models (Heinze et al.).

The findings and the tests’ results showed the level of effectiveness of using combined measurements such as PET and e.r.p. recording methods for assessing the characteristics of spatial attention, which influences processing in the striate cortex and temporal features in comparison with the separate usage of these methods. Definite attentional modulations were also examined. As a result, it was stated that spatial attention influences activity in the human ventral stream of visual processes, and these processes depend on the work of certain brain structures, including the work of the posterior parietal lobe and anterior cingulate cortex (Heinze et al.).

The results of the research are interesting and significant for the further investigation of the subject because they help to understand the processes of how stimulus information can be selectively chosen and transformed by the personal attentional systems and focus on the processes which take place in the brain. Moreover, this knowledge can be effective for learning the physiological fundaments of attention processes and for examining the alternative psychological models of attention.

It is possible to consider the findings of the study as rather original because they are based on the complex analysis of the images of neural activity during selective attention, which are the results of the increased regional cerebral blood flow in the fusiform gyrus. Thus, the researchers presented an interesting method to examine the peculiarities of selective attention from both the spatial and temporal aspects at the same time using the combination of technologies under the same stimulus conditions.

Works Cited

Heinze, Hans-Jochen, George Mangun, William Burchert, Hermann Hinrichs, Martin Scholz, Till Munte, Alexander Gos, Michael Scherg, Sigfrid Johannes, Hermann Hundesshgen, Michael Gazzaniga and Steven Hillyard. “Combined Spatial and Temporal Imaging of Brain Activity During Visual Selective Attention in Humans”. Nature 372.8 (1994): 543-546. Print.

Introduction

Increasingly, a number of parents are reported to be seeking children healthcare provision in hospitals, healthcare centers, traditional healers, and doctors just to mention but a few. However, research report affirms that many children are insufficiently attended to by the aforementioned providers and their parents are not well educated in the process (WHO 1).

This is more compounded in the developing world like Kenya where some healthcare systems are dysfunctional or not existing, and drugs are sometimes unavailable.

Broadly speaking, most of the services provided do not offer comprehensive services, and oftentimes, rely on history and obvious systems in their course of treatment (WHO 4). Because of these factors, the World Health Organization (WHO) and UNICEF are seeking to mitigate these dilemmas by introducing the Integrated Management of Childhood Illness (IMCI) Strategy (WHO 6).

Simply defined, ICM refers to an ’integrated approach to child health that focuses on the well-being of the whole child’ (WHO 6).

The objective of this system strategy is the elimination and maintenance of diseases and conditions leading to reduced child mortality and disability within a child’s first five years. It encompasses both ‘preventive and curative’ methodologies of disease prevention, treatment, and management incorporated in families and communities (WHO 9).

Components of IMCI Strategy

Generally, the components are three as follows:

• Improving Case Management Skills of Health-Care Staff;
• Improving Overall health Systems;
• Improving Family and Community Health Practices (WHO 8).

IMCI in Kenya

In Kenya, good steps in implementation and evaluation of the progress of IMCI strategy have been made. Regardless, full implementation of it remains largely narrow (Goodman and Mullei 2). Government priority in IMCI implementation is key in reduction of deaths.

However, regardless of this implementation details and attempts, child mortality has not been fully tackled and remains high, indeed, statistically, 115 of every 1000 children born die before they are five years of age (Goodman and Mullei 9). The causes of the child mortality have been identified as mainly associated with pneumonia, malaria, measles, malnutrition, and diarrhea. These have remained largely problematic killers for children due to lack of proper primary healthcare in the country (Goodman and Mullei 9).

In the year 2007, most districts in the country were already executing IMCI, with a saturated bias towards enhancing skills in Case Management and ‘Health Care Delivery Systems’ (Goodman and Mullei 8). The good news to this has largely been that a number of developmental organizations working in the country have training anchored and facilitated to main healthcare workers and managers in most marginalized parts of the country (Goodman and Mullei 8).

Basically, the Components of IMCI, which are being implemented, are as identified the World Health Organization as follows.

Improvement of Case Management Skills

This entails attendance by health workers training course that lasts 11 days. The training usually encompasses illumination into the common diseases and conditions that affect children. In the process, assignments related to the training are given and followed up within a period of 6 to 8 Weeks (Goodman and Mullei 7).

Improvement of Healthcare delivery systems

This is done through the enhancement of quality facilities in terms of quality and appropriateness of drugs and health care equipments. Beyond this, health care providers are sufficiently supervised.

Community IMCI

This is about Community and Family education, as well as their participation in health matters. It involves among others, awareness creation and campaigns against practices that facilitate some disease acquisition or inhibition of seeking health care when some diseases are discovered. Moreover, it fights both cultural and religious impediments towards better health practices and promotion.

Challenges of Implementing IMCI in Kenya

Claeson & Wagstaff (88) note that a number of developing countries trying to implement IMCI program face some challenges; regardless of some of the facts that some insurmountable steps have been made, full implementation has been identified as the main challenge in relation IMCI in Kenya. The challenges can be summarized as low training coverage, in absolute obedience to guidelines by workers, and barriers associated with communities in the access of services provided in IMCI.

Low training coverage can be seen in a number of ways in Kenya. These include the expense of training, which is largely high, as well as insufficient resources that would fully support the system. Beyond this, there are widespread lethargy by the government and other stakeholders to finance IMCI programs, besides lowly detailed pre-service course training to healthcare providers (Goodman and Mullei 10).

The other challenge is lack of obedience to protocol by the taught workers in health. This is seen in a number of areas including in the evaluation of time-period that a child is sick. Other than this, job aids are largely inadequate and indifferent set of attitude of medical practitioners especially nurses and doctors, as compounded by insufficient supervision (Goodman and Mullei 11).

The barriers are also largely seen to be concentrating in the community aspect of the whole programme. Overall, households are exposed to fundamental barriers in right of entry to services of primary healthcare. Therefore, the immediate impact in relation to this is that the intentions of IMCI are then not fully realized. The cause of this can be broadly categorized as high cost of ‘user fees’ in the health facilities namely dispensaries, clinics and hospitals, as well as high fees that comes with referrals.

On the former, the conceptualization is the twenty shillings charged to take care of outpatient services in the health facilities. This is regardless of the fact that children under the age of five should be medically taken care of free of charge. The rationalization of this practice is pegged on laboratory tests, unavailable or high cost drugs, and the government intention of raiding revenue to deal with some expenses (Goodman and Mullei 14).

The latter is a fundamental aspect of IMCI programme in regard to children who suffer serious illnesses and conditions. Regardless of the fact that it is recognized as weighty component, oftentimes, parents and other caregivers have notably been reluctant in stringently keeping with the demands of referrals designated to district hospitals.

This is mainly due to associated expenses such as transport fee (Goodman and Mullei 15), given the fact that such district hospitals are always far apart while transport system is as efficient as it would be expected to be.

The Underlying causes

On examining the causes aforementioned, it is imperative that we illuminate of the underlying initial causes leading to this point in IMCI. These include the following. One is that the there were gaps right at the process of policy introduction. Being at WHO strategy in a holistic sense, it lacked the fundamental specificity in terms of fitting into the Kenyan situation.

This can be conceptualized in a number of dimensions such as the countries budget system and the structure of health services provision, which have traditionally not taken proper care of training, and other bureaucratic tendencies tailored on staffing. This was clearly more of directive approach hinged on top-down strategy, and pushed by international development agencies who stressed the need to keep their defined standards. This has largely led to a gap in implementation.

No wonder today most of these international stakeholders are supporting ‘flexibity’ in IMCI implementation which Kenya is increasingly reluctant to formulate and implement. Instead, the Kenyan Government has remained steadfast in applying the set guidelines by WHO and the phobia associated with bending the rules.

Secondly, it must be seen with the context of local leadership at the grassroots level. At the inception of this strategy and up until now, many districts do not have fully trained leadership to take care of IMCI implementation.

Way Forward for Kenya in its implementation of IMCI

A number measures have been identified to improve IMCI implementation. These include the following

Building support and securing resources for IMCI Strategy

This is viewed by many health practitioners as a way forward to ensure holistic approach. The argument is that, support in terms of awareness creation will help to further build a child’s health issues and anchor IMCI in our psyche. Ondimo (40) reasons that the target groups here should be policy makers/politicians to influence the legislative framework in pushing for budget consideration for child health, doctors, as well as other opinion leaders who would be instrumental in shaping full adoption of IMCI.

Scaling up in service training coverage

This means that alternative training structure should be established to soften the cost associated with training. Here, the options should include reducing course duration or incorporating training and supervision while on job. Beyond this, a comprehensive budget plan running for a long period of time should be considered by stakeholders in the field of health (Goodman and Mullei, 2008).

Comprehensive Appraisal of `pre-service training’

This implies that the government should take the lead role in advocating for the integration of IMCI into the medical syllabus so that students have prior knowledge before getting into the practice (Goodman and Mullei 16).

Improvement of Supervision

Supervision has been identified as one of the bottlenecks in the implementation of IMCI. Addressing it will certainly improve the adoption and execution of the program (Evans 19).

According to Evans (19), the way to do it should include among others including it in “routine integrated supervision visits, based on the routine supervision checklist.” The intended checklist should be comprehensive in scope and its development should be finalized by the government for implementation. The other tailing to this is that, the case management should be done by district managers annually.

Addressing facility-level implementation Challenges

According to Goodman and Mullei (2008), this implies addressing a number of areas that hinder facility implementation. This includes increasing the number of employees in the health sector as far as IMCI is concerned. In addition, drug supplies must be beefed to sufficiently respond to the increasing demands of IMCI. Additionally, giving health workers both moral and incentive support to fully embrace IMCI would be instrumental.

Other strategies in this would be enforcement of establishment of rehydration corners, and facilitation of observation of patients in terms of dosage take, with the direct concern for children aged five years and below (Evans 19).

Further, provision of guidance and counseling to trainees, patients and other stakeholders should be part and parcel of the programme. This should be done by the directors when trainees are undergoing training, at the phase of supervision by the district managers of the programme. This strategy can also be anchored by peer reviews by stakeholders during formal meetings in health facilities.

Conclusion

Certainly, some strides have been made in the implementation of IMCI system in Kenya. Much as it has rolled out the plan, its full execution largely remains a challenge; so, a number of issues must be ironed out because this is tenet (implementation remains largely insufficient) to facilitate the full realization of the benefits that IMCI portends in health management.

Broadly speaking, the main challenges as far as the full implementation package go include “low training coverage, lack of framework for health workers to follow a template guideline, and the fact community members meet impediments to the accessing IMCI Services” (Goodman and Mullei, 2008).

In summery, these bottlenecks are indicative of both specific and general problems in the Kenyan healthcare system. Thus, they necessitate a well crafted plan of action in evaluating a number of dimensions of medical training in the medical colleges and universities, upgrading internship, and seeking to explore facilities in the execution of IMCI and enhancement of monitoring and evaluation strategies in the programme (Amin et al 44).

Works Cited

Amin, Samia et al. Are you being Served?: New Tools for Measuring Service Delivery. Washington DC: World Bank, 2008.

Claeson, Miriam and Wagstaff, Adam. The Millennium Development Goals for Health: Rising to the Challenges. Washington DC: World Bank, 2004.

Evans, Judith, et al. Africa’s Future, Africa’s Challenge: Early Childhood Care and Development. Washington DC: World Bank. 2008.

Goodman, Catherine and Mullei, Kethi. Implementing IMCI in Kenya. DFID. 2008. 11 April 2011. http://www.crehs.lshtm.ac.uk/downloads/publications/IMCIbrief_2009.pdf

Ondimo, Kennedy. Child Exclusion Among Internally Displaced Populations in Rift Valley and Nyanza Provinces of Kenya. Addis Ababa: OSSREA, 2010.

WHO. Integrated Management of Childhood Illness. 2011. 11 April 2011. https://www.who.int/maternal_child_adolescent/en/

The study of aging has not fully developed as a discipline. It borrows heavily from other traditional disciplines such as psychology, education, biology among others. This suggests that there are as many approaches to aging as the disciplines from which gerontology benefits from. Studies in aging are necessitated by the latest discoveries that people discriminate against the elderly. While such discrimination is usually unconscious, it has major implications on the quality of ones life. Additionally, rising population of the elderly means that societies have to change how they perceive aging. Biologists explain that aging is cosmetic since it only affects the biological components of a human being.

As such, other non-biological abilities such cognition remains stable and are not affected by age. Like biologists, psychologists lend to this debate and argue that despite there being strong evidence on diminished psychological functions, this has no significant effects on an individuals psychological abilities. Likewise, sociologists assert that despite the negative attitude towards aging, attainment of old age does not mean diminished social significance. On the contrary, the elderly still play significant social roles. These findings confirm that despite the strongly held beliefs that aging results to diminished social worth, the elderly have multiple skills which make them useful members of the society. Such skills can only be reinforced through training and education (Cunha and Heckman 2007). Studies in aging thus seem relevant since societies gain deeper insights into aging as well as emphasize on the need for life long education.

Gerontology is a relatively new discipline, and as such, is interdisciplinary. This implies that gerontology spans the borders of traditional disciplines among them biology, psychology and sociology (Peace et al. 2007). As a result numerous approaches on aging emerge from such interdependency. These approaches shape how people perceive aging. To understand the concept of aging, it is imperative to dispel some of the underlying misconceptions. According to Harwood (2008) aging is the “passage of time for an individual”. Harwood’s (2008) definition implies that aging is not the decline in motor abilities. Neither is it change of social roles and family roles that an individual plays, or progression towards retirement. Even though some of these issues are associated with aging, merely referring to them as aging is inappropriate. Thus, according to Harwood (2008), aging is the unavoidable “chronological change, from year to year, in a person age”.

Such misconceptions bear heavily on how people approach aging. As such, debate is rife on whether it is important to study aging as a discipline. As a result, numerous researches have been conducted, based on among other perspectives demographic, biological, sociological and psychological. In countries such as the United States of America, socio-demographic phenomena such as the baby boomers shape current thinking in Gerontological studies. Economists, healthcare experts among other professionals voice their concerns on the increasing number of the elderly. What is most appalling is that this concerns fuel negative perceptions about the elderly.

Bowling (2007) asserts that such negative perception leads to stereotyping and discrimination against the aging population. Bowling’s (2007) assertions have led to various studies on ageism being conducted. Perdue and Gurtman (1990) argues for the automaticity of ageism and conclude that discriminating people based on age is unconscious and occurs due to strongly held misconceptions about age and how it bears on individual’s identity formation. As such, people have a biases and prejudices against the aged (Palmore 2009). Such prejudices and biases are prevalent in econoncentric societies (Gutman and Spencer 2010). Since the aged are perceives as economic liabilities rather than assets, they are treated with disdain, are less respected, and are perceived as lesser members of the society.

Despite the fact that ageism is not merited, it is seems to influence various approaches to aging. Biologists refer to aging as the biological changes that occur to an individual. Aging is perceived as the biological symptoms evident as a person’s passes from one stage of life to another. Chronic illness, reduced motor abilities, flaccidity of the skin as well as reduced activity are some of the biological symptoms associated with aging, and which result to perceived diminished productivity.

Such notions seem to be informed by able-bodyism, a concept in which an individual’s worth is perceived relative to physical ability. As such, this approach fuels the social stereotype and discrimination against the aged. However, such view seem to overlook the fact that such symptoms of old age can be reversed through proper dieting, exercise and healthy living habits. This implies that aging is cosmetic and thus does not affect much of an individual’s non-biological activities. This perspective tends to be confirmed by studies which reveal that biological aging has limited effects on an individual’s cognitive ability (Craik, and Salthouse 2008). As evidenced by Harwood (2008) an individual can continue with education past the age of 75. As such the ability to learn does not diminish with age.

Much of the psychological theories on aging follow a similar approach to biologists’. Most psychologists have been able to demonstrate that an individual’s psychological ability diminishes with age. There exists strong evidence that memory and the ability to recall are significantly affected by age (Waddell 2002). While these findings have an element of truth, they are nevertheless one sided. Continuity theory overlooks these diminished abilities by overemphasizing the psychological abilities not affected by age. As such, an individual’s personal tastes, interest, hobbies and preferences remain stables through out a person’s life. Psychosocial Activity theory lends more support to this notion and asserts that active individuals are much more likely to remain active even in old age. Therefore, the Psychosocial Activity theory tends to confirm Harwood’s (2008) assertions that one’s ability is not significantly diminished with age.

According to Roberts, Robins, Caspi and Trzesniewski (2003), an individuals identity is socially constructed. This view lends itself to social constructionism, and argues that individuals’ personality is shaped by the society within which they live in. Sociologists also portend that social structures are formed based on race, age and gender. From this assumption, the elderly are lumped into one social group. This group is perceived to have diminished social worth.

As such, to prepare for old age, societies prepare economic structures, such as pension and proper health services, to avoid old age dependency. This implies that aging is a social construct. Sociologists who follow the Political economy perspective oppose this view and insist on the need to encourage integrated living: allowing the old and the young to live together with mutual dependency (Estes 2001).This view is based on the findings that the aged are significant care givers within many societies (Hawkes, 2006).

Biologists, psychologists as well as sociologists adopt different and almost conflicting approaches to aging. These contribute to understanding the purpose of the later life. From this approaches it is evident that an individual’s ability is not significantly altered as a result of aging. Biologists portend that, despite the decline in physical abilities, other abilities such as cognition remains stable. This indicates that there is need for compulsory education for the aged.

Questions abound on what type of education that should be provided for the aged. According to psychologists, a person’s preferences are not affected by old age. Since the cognitive ability of aging individuals is not affected by age, this indicates that the elderly can be training on areas which address their preferences, interests and hobbies. Additionally, compulsory education for the elderly is a way of keeping them actively engaged in the later stages of life. Contrary to popular belief that the social significance diminishes with age, sociologists confirm that retirement does not indicate the end of one’s social significance. Within many societies, the aged still play crucial roles, most common being care givers. These findings indicate that the elderly possesses multiple skills. As Pfeiffer and Reub (2007) affirm, skills cumulated during ones lifetime remains intact and can be used to acquire other skills. The higher the level of accumulated skills, the higher the outcomes achieved by reinvesting in those skills (Cunha, Heckman, Lochner and Masterov 2006).

Since education is the most appropriate method of reinvesting in cumulative skills, this emphasizes the need for compulsory education for the aged. The need for life long compulsory education is further intensified by the aging of the baby boomers. More baby boomers are aging, driving the aging population even higher (Ala-Mutka et al. 2008). Compulsory life long education not only prepares the baby boomers to live a comfortable mature adult life but also to avoid dependency in old age.

The need to understand the purpose of later life has led to the rise of gerontology as a discipline. Even though not fully developed, other traditional discipline lends support to it. As a result, many perspectives on aging have emerged. For instance, biologists equate aging to diminished biological function. This implies that non biological abilities are not affected by age. Similarly, psychologists and sociologists affirm that aging does not diminish person abilities. Psychologist asserts that a person’s preferences, interest and hobbies are not altered by old age (Harwood 2008). This view tends to confirm Pfeiffer and Reub’s s (2007) findings that skills grow stronger as a person with age. As such, the elderly possesses valuable skills which can be enhanced through education. Such skills include the ability to give care to other members of the society such as the grandchildren. These findings also suggest the possibility of the elderly being multi skilled: intact cognitive abilities, socially activity and still possession of valuables lifelong accumulated skills (Cunha, Heckman, Lochner and Masterov 2006).

Additionally, the increase in the population of the again adds to its significant. These demographics present new realities and further emphasize the need to evaluate the underlying perceptions on aging and how such demographic bears on them. These varied of perspectives on aging add on the continuing debate on the need to understand aging and the consequent implications. As a result of the continued research new evidence is emerging to lend support on the need for compulsory life long education.

Reference List

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Craik, F., and Salthouse, T., 2008. The handbook of aging and cognition. London: Taylor and Francis. Web.

Cunha, F. and Heckman, J., 2007. The Technology of Skill Formation. The American Economic Review, Vol. 97, No. 2, pp. 31-47. Web.

Cunha, F. Heckman, J. Lochner, L. and Masterov D., 2006. Interpreting the evidence on life cycle skill formation. Amsterdam: Hanushek and Welsch. Web.

Estes, C., 2001. Social policy and aging: A critical perspective. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Web.

Gutman, G. and C Spencer, C., 2010. Aging, ageism and abuse: moving from awareness to action. London: Elsevier. Web.

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Hawkes, K., 2006. Grandmothers and the evolution of human longevity. American Journal of Human Biology, Vol. 15, pp. 380–400. Web.

Palmore, A., 2009. Ageism: negative and positive. London: Springer Publishing Company. Web.

Peace, S. et al. 2007. Ageing in society: European perspectives on gerontology. London: Sage. Web.

Pfeiffer, F. and Reub, K., 2007. Age-dependent skill formation And returns to education: simulation based evidence. Web.

Roberts B., Robins, R., Caspi, A., and Trzesniewski K., 2003. Personality trait development in adulthood. New York: Kluwer. Web.

Perdue , C. and Gurtman, M. 1990. Evidence for the automaticity of ageism. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 26, No. 3, pp.199-216. Web.

Waddell, M., 2002. Inside lives: psychoanalysis and the development of personality. London: Karnac Books. Web.