Category: Hatshepsut

There goes a saying that “every ancient civilization has had at least one great female ruler” and looking back on our history, that statement reigns true. Despite this, we’ve seen over and over again examples of women being criticized, demonized or even erased from history simply for the fact that they were women. That, of course, isn’t to say that women were the only ones to get erased, the only ones to cause such an uproar in the ‘natural’ way of things. Far from that, Geta Severen was a Roman Emperor who showed his Senate that he was unwilling to share power and tried to split his empire solely between him and his brother, Carcalla. Because of this, he was then murdered by his decentors and most of his references and records from Roman history were erased. The key word in that sentence being most, as if he had been completely stricken from their recorded history, I wouldn’t be using him as an example. But notice in Geta’s case the reasons for his erasure. He was power hungry, he went against what the Roman’s believed. He wasn’t a woman. We see time and time again women and other marginalized groups being overlooked and deemed unnatural, their own accomplishments being taken and passed as someone else’s. But why? Why are these actions so common throughout our history?

The ancient Egyptians are said to have been the first to practice historical revisions, which is probably true due to the fact that they’re one of the first civilizations to keep tangible historical records. While this revolutionary fact may be interesting, it creates many problems, especially for historians. When it comes to piecing together an ancient societies history, it doesn’t help that effort when said society has omitted important sections, so important that it happened to be an entire pharoah’s 20 year rule. Queen Hatshepsut ruled Egypt from 1473 – 1458 BCE. After the death of her husband and half-brother, Thutmose II, she was left widowed at the age of 30. Left with a daughter and an infant step son, she acted as regent until her step sons eventual taking of the throne. For her 20 year rule, it’s said that it was one of the most prosperous times for Egypt, where instead of focusing on a military campaign, Hatshepsut focused instead on stabilizing her economy, trading with outside nations, and building extravagant temples and obelisks. Things went well for Egypt under Hatshepsut, so much so that she’s often regarded as one of the best pharaohs their civilization ever saw. It’s unknown exactly who tried to erase her and her legacy from history, and whether it was one successor or multiple. Some historians say it was her son, Thutmose III, who wanted his lineage to succeed directly from Thutmose I, Thutmose II, and finally to him, Thutmose III, without having a woman disrupt the timeline. Others say it was Thutmose III’s son, Amenhotep II, who called for her to be stricken, since his connection to the royal family and claim to the throne was weak, being born to a royal father and a concubine mother. And on yet another side of the debate, there are those who argue that it was Thutmose III who ordered for her erasure to legitimize Amenhotep II’s eventual rule. It should also be noted that Amenhotep was known for trying to take credit for many of the accomplishments Hatshepsut achieved during her rule. Knowing this, it’s clear to see that while there were no explicit laws preventing women from being pharaohs at the time, this being especially highlighted that Hatshepsut wasn’t the first, with there being as many as 5 and as few as 3 other women previously holding the position, her predecessors seemed to have a problem with it.

Skipping ahead in time to the Tang dynasty of ancient China. Empress Wu Zetian, the second out of the five empresses China ever had, came into power through a series of manipulative and political power moves that even rival some of the horrible acts of backstabbing and treason that were already happening with previous emperor’s at the time. Empress Wu was born into a very wealthy family, where her father actively encouraged her to learn to read, write and learn politics, something very uncommon for women to do at the time. She was then hand picked by Emperor Taizong to be one of his concubines at the age of 14. She often spoke of Chinese history with him, showing the Emperor and many other powerful political figures just how much she knew and how incredibly smart she was. This attracted many people to her, including the emperor’s own son, Gaozong. While Taizong was still alive, Wu and Gaozong had an affair, cementing Wu into the royal family. After Taizong’s death, Gaozong became emperor, and Wu Zetian became his official consort. Despite already having a wife, Gaozong heavily favored Wu, which caused intense jealousy in his first wife. Wu eventually gave birth to a daughter, who died at a very young age. There is evidence to suggest that her daughter was strangled to death, which Wu then blamed Empress Wang, Gaozong’s first wife, for. This caused many problems, especially for Empress Wang, who was seen by witnesses by the child’s room before being found dead. With the lack of an alibi and the inability to clear her name, Wang soon found herself being replaced by Wu, as Gaozong considered Wang’s childlessness a perfect reason to dispose of her. As customary legends will in general depict Wu as a power hungry women with no consideration for who she hurt or what she did, the most mainstream hypothesis is that Wu executed her very own kid so as to frame Wang. Different ways of thinking contend that Wang without a doubt murdered the kid out of envy and contempt toward Wu since Wang had no offspring of her own. The third contention is that the child died because of suffocation or crib death, taking into account that the ventilation frameworks of the time were non-existent or of low quality. Absence of ventilation joined with utilizing coal as a warming technique could prompt development of exhaust that would prompt carbon monoxide poisoning. Regardless of what caused the demise of the child, Wu accused Wang for it and Wang was expelled from her situation as Empress. The narrative of Wu’s murder of her daughter and the confining of Wang to gain control is the most notorious and regularly rehashed story of her life, yet there is no way of knowing whether it occurred as the historians recorded it. At the hour of the homicide, it was Wu’s assertion against Wang’s, and later historians chose to agree with Wang against Wu; however this doesn’t mean they picked the correct side.

Any historian who has composed on Wu has pursued the story set somewhere around the later Chinese antiquarians beyond a shadow of a doubt, yet these students of history had their own plan which did not include applauding a woman who ruled like a man. The historians consistently depict Wu as heartless, scheming, conspiring, and murderous, and she may have been these things, she may have even killed her girl to gain the royal position, yet any of these cases should just be acknowledged after considering their source.

Just by looking at these two cases, many things seem to repeat when it comes to how historians regarded each of these rulers.

Tang Empress Zetian was born in 625AD in Ch’angan China. She was born to a wealthy family, educated and taught to read. She passed away on December 16,0705AD. She effectively ruled China from 690AD-705AD. Pharaoh Hatshepsut was born 1525 BCE near Thebes, Egypt. She was born to Egyptian royalty and was born during a time where women were becoming more active in political affairs. She was educated in a multitude of areas and was taught to read and write at an early age. Pharaoh Hatshepsut died around 1482 BCE, though her final resting place is unknown as she was probably assassinated. She peacefully ruled Egypt from 1478 BCE- 1458 BCE. I chose to compare female rulers of history because we grow up being told how little power and influence women had historically. These are women who rose above their station and stood as equals. They may have had to do it in unconventional ways, but they did it.

After their rule, they were both favorable looked upon for what they accomplished. These rulers lived in very different cultures separated by many years. Tang Empress Wu Zetian lived in a time where females were merely valued for procreation and sexual gratification. She was educated by her father, who insisted she learn to read, write, and study history. That education is what elevated her status once she was a concubine. Pharaoh Hatshepsut was born in a time where women were beginning to take a more active role in the political front and educated beyond her gender expectations. She did have two brothers, but they died young. She was married to her third brother, which was not uncommon among Egyptian royalty, but he was weak as well and died soon after their union. Both women were put in a unique situation that allowed them to rule indirectly then eventually in their names. During their respective rules, both left a positive impression on their people for actively listening to their citizens and addressing issues of the commoners.

While their similarities could continue, the way they ruled were vastly different. Tang Empress Wu Zetian was well known for her ruthlessness and murderous ways. She had a lot of positive and great things attributed to her rule, but she got to her position with manipulation, murder, and treason. Concubine. She was the key strategist in the war against Korea that reduced them to practically nothing. Her husband got the credit, but it was her calling the shots from the shadows. Pharaoh Hatshepsut came directly into power after her husband died, as the next heir to the throne was an infant. She ruled by strengthening her countries already existing ties with other countries and not on conquering or murder. She spent a lot of time repairing damage from previous wars, which only further increased her popularity. Pharaoh Hatshepsut insisted on being addressed and portrayed as male even though everyone knew her gender. Her statues and monuments also depicted her as male. She is even mentioned in the Valley of the Kings. Empress Wu Zetian ruled front the shadows mostly but finally came to be the only female ruler of China to rule under her name, though brief as it was. Pharaoh Hatshepsut ruled under her name the entire time but chose to present herself as a man. I do wonder her reasoning, though it is still incredible these women’s ability to consider themselves equal in a time where the world was built against them.

Egypt’s culture has historically been kinder to women, but not by much. The most resistance to Pharaoh Hatshepsut came from the royal line, mostly from the heir apparent after he became of age and not from the citizens. Women were able to hold political office, own property, land, and livestock. Egypt focused on intellectual advancements of its people and believed their Pharaohs to be Gods in human form. China was a little late on the women’s right resolution, though the Empress did a lot for the advancement of women in her time. China-focused mainly on farming and weapons advancements, with many rulers all reporting to one head Emperor, whom they believed to have been selected by the heavens. Both countries were in the middle of successive periods of their history and were having cultural revolutions.

In the modern world, women hold offices all the time. We have achieved equality for the most part. After researching current female world leaders, I found two that best resembled the Empress and the Pharaoh. Yingluck Shinawatra is the former Prime Minister of Thailand. Her only ties to the political world at the time are from her family, her brother to be exact. Her brother was in exile, and his political party elected Yingluck to office in 2011. Though she was selected due to some manipulation, she accomplished some great things for the people of her country, like free public Wi-Fi access, and free tablet PC’S for school-aged children. She also helped garner some peace with public relations in Cambodia. She was the first female Prime Minister. I feel like her rise to power was very similar to the Empress, and though it does not seem like things were not on the level, she did accomplish good things for the citizens of Thailand. Kamla Persad- Bissessar is the former Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago. She hailed from a wealthy, prominent family and went straight into the family business it seems as her early years were spent as a successful lawyer. She spent her term fighting her country’s growing murder rate, boosting pensions and fighting poverty for her people. She also took in her niece and nephew after her brother was tragically killed in an accident. She is a true believer in peace, which is why she reminds me so much of the Pharaoh. Both the Empress and the Pharaoh were incredible people for some similar and very different ways. They left lasting impressions on their people and in history.

When I started this assignment, I had not anticipated the amount that I would learn. I learned about two women who would help make the path for women in the future who were trying to stand on equal ground with the male leaders. Learning from the past helps shape the future. I also learned about our current female world leaders who, honestly, I did not know existed before this assignment. This fact alone made me evaluate the current world revolving around me. I will be paying closer attention around me for sure.

“Art is something that makes you breathe with different kind of happiness”. Art has been a part of our life for as long as humanity has existed. For thousands of years, people have been creating, looking at, criticizing, and enjoying art. During my trip to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, I observed many interesting paintings, sculptures, and artifacts. The three exhibits I had to choose to for my report were (the Seated Statue of Hatshepsut), (Image with the Crucifixion), and (Mihrab). After seeing these artworks, I realize that art needs lots of creativity and it is important for our society. Art has existed for many years in our society. We have seen paintings in caves and rocks. However, many of us don’t take art very seriously. We think it’s something that anyone can do. But art needs lots of creativity and it is important for society’s beliefs and preserving their culture.

There are different types of language around the world. You might not understand a language where art is a universal form of communication. Everyone can understand it. With art, you can share your ideas and thoughts with other people. It talks about culture and society. When we look at the paintings made in caves and rocks by the ancient people, it gives us an idea about their culture. So, art is a form of preserving culture. Also, it attracts tourism where people love to visit many places to see artworks.

Ancient Egypt, one of the first complex art in history, is home to numerous innovative artwork such as the famous Great Pyramids of Giza, a complex writing system composed of hieroglyphic characters, and many well-preserved rulers through the process of mummification. In the Egyptian context, the title given to these rulers is the King of Egypt or the pharaoh. The pharaoh was the authority figure within the Egyptian society, who played an active role in order, law, morality, and justice in ancient Egypt. More specifically, scholars have classified this position within ancient Egyptian society as primarily male-dominated after the analysis of Egyptian artwork. It seems strange to think that Queen Hatshepsut- the first female pharaoh of ancient Egypt saved from many years. “Queen Hatshepsut reined Ancient Egypt between the years of 1479-1458 BCE, a reign that about two decades” (Keller).

The Seated Statue of Hatshepsut shows an idealized, strong image that shows the strength of the female ruler from ancient Egypt. Since she was the female ruler to grace Egypt, she had to create an image that depicted herself as a ruler whom chosen by the god to take right decisions for her people. Also, to show them that she was going to be there for them and to guide them. After observed this statue I see, her almond-shaped eyes give off a look of confidence and self-reliance, are both expressed from the posture of Hatshepsut’s face. As she was the first of her kind as a female pharaoh, she had to prove herself in a manner of ways.

In the Seated Statue of Hatshepsut, the viewer can easily see that Hatshepsut has chosen to herself more like a man. Queen Hatshepsut looks a bit abnormal at first as it combines the physical aspects of both the male and female genders. At first, when I see her in my class, I assumed this is a sculpture of a man pharaoh. She is made by granite, she wears royal attire which includes a headdress, fake beard, and kilt. I find this statue incredibly beautiful and delicate.

A mihrab is made for religious purposes and marks the wall that Muslims face to pray towards Mecca. Mihrabs have grown in importance over the years in Islam. “The mihrab became a significant part of all mosques, suggesting that they represent the location where the prophet, Muhammad would lead the prayer” (James). It is the place where Muslim imam or scholars leading five times daily prayer in the mosque.

In the museum, I observed, the mihrab is made by mosaic from ceramic tiles, whole structure is angular shaped. Also, if you view it closely then you will see it is geometrically designed with Arabic words from holly Quran. Also, dynamic designs ornament with words from Quran includes in mihrab which serves religious purposes too. Geometric patterns such as polygons or stars adorn in mihrab with linear patterns and calligraphy. The calligraphy is Quranic verses or devotions to God and is the path of how God’s word reaches the people. A human picture is not allowed in Muslim prayer place so there is no depiction in mihrab. Although this mihrab was originally from Isfahan, Iran. The outermost border contains a verse from the Quran which means; There is no god but He, -the living, the Self-Subsisting, Eternal. The niche border has a hadith about the five pillars of the Islamic faith while the middle portion says that all who believe in one God are welcome.

The word icon (from the Greek eikon, or image) signifies a holy image that provides a conduit from the worshipper to Christ, his mother Mary, or other saints. The Byzantines accorded icons extraordinary, even miraculous powers to answer prayers, heal the sick, and provide protection. This is one of the most important icons that survive from Byzantium’s dark ages. Images of the Crucifixion were central in the debates about how Christ could be represented and venerated in Christian imagery. In the icon we see Christ crucified with his eyes closed which probably signifies he is dead, or more specifically, that his human body is dead.

In the museum, I saw, that the piece is Byzantine style and is made of ivory. “The Icon with the Crucifixion is left with no specific name because it is a broken remaining from a triptych from the mid-10th century” (John). The piece is very small, around only 15.1 x 8.9 x 0.8 cm. The piece depicts Christ slumped on the cross in a lifeless form. Additionally, John and Mary are on either side of the cross mourning the loss of Jesus. Below him, there are roman soldiers playing for Christ’s royal robe now that he is dead. At the bottom of the icon, there is a man depicted as Hades with the cross piercing his stomach. Hades is the ruler of the underworld which shows the triumph of Christ over sins and death as he stabs the underworld with his deathbed. There is incredible detail in the carving of these pieces although the figures and their clothing are very stylized. This piece is effective in portraying frustration with the Romans as well as pity and respect for the lord and savior.

The world of art is a bridge, that connects and interacts with many aspects of the world and the lives of others very effectively. As man evolved over the centuries, his views of art have also transformed. Each culture and era presents very distinct characteristics of their art. Most art I believe readily fits into the category of reflecting the culture or religion of its time. As we seen these three artworks have different cultural and religious values. This is what makes artwork so interesting. After reviewing three beautiful artworks from different culture I realized that art reaches into the eyes, the heart, and the soul of a human.

Works Cited

1. Haldon, John. “Byzantium in the Iconoclast Era c. 680–850: A History”. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Web. 8 Jan 2011.
2. Dickie, James. “Allah and Eternity: Mosques, Madrasas and Tombs “. New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc. Web. 17 Aug 2014.
3. Cathleen, Keller. “Hatshepsut, from Queen to Pharaoh”. New Haven: Yale University Press, 200. Web. 6 Oct 2004.

After seeing these artworks, I realize that art needs lots of creativity and it is important for our society. Art has existed for many years in our society. We have seen paintings in caves and rocks. However, many of us don’t take art very seriously. We think it’s something anyone can do. But art needs lots of creativity and it is important for society’s beliefs and preserving their culture.

Islamic decoration

Islamic art mostly avoids figurative images to avoid becoming objects of worship.[1][2] This aniconism in Islamic culture caused artists to explore non-figural art and created a general aesthetic shift toward mathematically-based decoration.[3] The Islamic geometric patterns are derived from simpler designs used in earlier cultures: Greek, Roman, and Sasanian. They are one of three forms of Islamic decoration, the others being the arabesque based on curving and branching plant forms and Islamic calligraphy; all three are frequently used together.[4] Geometric designs and arabesques are forms of Islamic interlace patterns.[5]

Purpose

Authors such as Keith Critchlow[a] argue that Islamic patterns are created to lead the viewer to an understanding of the underlying reality, rather than being mere decoration, as writers interested only in patterns sometimes imply.[6][7] In Islamic culture, the patterns are believed to be the bridge to the spiritual realm, the instrument to purify the mind and the soul.[8] David Wade[b] states that ‘Much of the art of Islam, whether in architecture, ceramics, textiles or books, is the art of decoration – which is to say, of transformation.'[9] Wade argues that the aim is to transfigure, turning mosques ‘into lightness and pattern’, while ‘the decorated pages of a Qur’an can become windows onto the infinite.'[9] Against this, Doris Behrens-Abouseif[c] states in her book Beauty in Arabic Culture that a ‘major difference’ between the philosophical thinking of Medieval Europe and the Islamic world is exactly that the concepts of the good and the beautiful are separated in Arabic culture. She argues that beauty, whether in poetry or in the visual arts, was enjoyed ‘for its own sake, without commitment to religious or moral criteria’

A mihrab is made for religious purposes and marks the wall that Muslims face to pray towards Mecca. Mihrabs have grown in importance over the years in Islam. The mihrab became a significant part of all mosques, suggesting that they represent the location where the prophet, Muhammad would lead the prayer. (Gabar, 1973, p.121). It is the place where Muslim imam or scholars leading five times daily prayer in the mosque.

In the museum, I observed, the mihrab is made by mosaic from ceramic tiles, whole structure is angular shaped. Also, if you view closely then you will see it is geometrically designed with Arabic words from holly Quran

In a world where more and more people choose to move to the cities, the density of people living in the cities keeps growing every day. This has boosted the construction of taller buildings to contain and sustain the flow of people. To help with the issue the use of better-engineered columns and pillars to support the tall structures has become a necessity. “Senenmut is credited to be one of the first architects to use column in construction; the complex of Hatshepsut is an example of his work”. In this perspective, meticulous research in Senenmut’s life and his work and columns history will help understand better his ingenuity and the fairness of this statement. It is however impossible to describe the work of Senenmut without talking about his patron “the great Hatshepsut” because even though Senenmut was the architect but most of the credit belongs to Hatshepsut’s reign. Hatshepsut was the daughter of Thutmosis II, she was born around 1507 BC and became her reign over Egypt at the beginning of the 1470s. She is known for many accomplishments like: “the temple of the complex at Karnak, the simplified plan of the New kingdom at Karnak, the topography of Thebes and one of the most unique and striking monuments in Egypt-her temple at Deir el-Bahri” also known as the complex temple of Hatshepsut which Senenmut was the architect of. Her legacy as queen is palpable and has made it easier to understand ancient Egypt.

Senenmut was born in Armant, Egypt in the 18th century. Very limited information is known about his youth and adult life, if not that he participated as a supervisor in the construction of the twin obelisks (which were known at this time as the tallest structure in whole world) where he gained his experience in the construction. Around the end of the 15th century, Senenmut was commissioned by Hatshepsut (who was considered as God’s wife of Amun) to design and build the structure.

A Column is a structure used to support a heavier structure. It varies in shape, size, and use. In ancient Egypt, the column was used to support pyramid and as decoration in the design of temples, the temple of Hatshepsut is a blatant example of their use. A column has different parts: a base, a shaft a collar, a capital, an abacus, and an architrave. The most commonly used columns in Greek and Roman architecture

Since ancient times art has been associated with many different religious practices in a variety of cultures. The artworks that has been left behind by these ancient societies demonstrate how impactful religious beliefs were to shaping their civilizations. Perhaps many have forgotten this, but without such artwork, we may not have known the magnitude to which religion affected their lives and culture. These pieces of art help bring back past events to the present and bestow us the opportunity to not only see, but understand the religious beliefs covered behind their art. For civilizations such as Ancient Egypt, Greece, Mesopotamia, and Rome, religion was the single most important aspect to their development because of the cultural impact it had on its citizens.

Originating from Egypt, the Kneeling Statue of Hatshepsut with Offering Jars reveals not only significance in the art world, but cultural prestige as well. Originally this sculpture was made for the Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut, but unfortunately, it was destroyed by her successor Thutmose III who tried to erase her name from history. Luckily, we were able to find and resemble the granite fragments in the early 20th century, however much of it was guesswork and we can’t be sure which fragments belong to which statue. Since she commissioned the construction of dozens of these statues, she was put into various positions. In some, she standing, sitting, kneeling or even being represented in the form of a sphinx. Now, since Hatshepsut is a pharaoh, she would only kneel to a god and that helps us place this statue at an important ritual or ceremony that occurs in Egypt.

Once a year, the Egyptians would take the sculpture of the god Amen-Re (Egypt’s main God) from a temple in Thebes and it would be transferred across the Nile inside a shrine located on a Barque (a type of ship). Then the barque would be carried passed these dozens of statues all the way to the Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut where it would be placed in the upper mortuary. So as the god of Amen-re passed the kneeling statue of Hatshepsut, you can see that she was making an offering to the god with the two jars she possesses. Now, these sculptures weren’t just seen as statues, they were quite literally the manifestation or embodiment of the being whether it was Hatshepsut or Amen-re. The Ancient Egyptians worshiped these gods so their life could be lived as best as possible. If the gods were happy, the people would be happy. This is why they dedicated much of their time to pleasing the gods with such offerings and gestures that could be seen everywhere in their culture (E.g. vases, sculptures, paintings, temples, and ceremonies, were all such things they gave to their gods) Religion wasn’t just for something to believe in, it was clearly a way of life that shaped generations of Egyptians for Millenniums.

The following piece of architecture that is the Altar of Zeus has its origins from the magnificent civilization that is Greece. Constructed in approximately 175 BCE in Pergamon, Turkey, this sculptured frieze is almost 400 feet long and contains more than 100 larger-than-life figures. The sculpture depicts the great celestial battle between the Gods and giants for the control of the world and universe. One of which Zeus and his gods would emerge victorious. On the eastern frieze, we can see the elegant Athena as she engages in battle with the fierce giant Alcyoneus. Athena is clearly in control of the situation as she pulls Alcyoneus from the earth while his mother is watching in horror of the tragedy the is becoming to her son. Nike the goddess of victory is seen coming forth and crowning Athena, showing us her enviable victory. There is sense of great valor and exhilaration from Athena that shows us the importance of this story for the Greeks.

The Altar of Zeus demonstrates the time, resources, and effort put in crafting such a piece of architecture, that was of no easy feat. The Greeks fully believed that offerings such as this to the gods would make their lives better, both when alive and in the afterlife. Basically, if you do right by the gods, they will do right by you. This piece helps us see that religion was heavily integrated in Greek culture in way that would be difficult to separate the two. While the altar showed this mythical battle between celestial beings, it also showed that while the Greeks were scared of the unknown, they were ready to battle and conquer those who tried to subdue them. This piece is only but one of the thousands of artworks that show the impressions the Olympic gods have left in the long-standing Greek civilization.

Long before Greece entered the pinnacle of their artistry, the civilization of Mesopotamia was thriving and produced artwork at an exceptional level for their time. Transpiring from the Neo-Sumerian era, the period of art that appeared during the Third Dynasty of Ur, is the breathtaking Seated Statue of Gudea. This statue is composed of the rare mineral called Diorite and is but one of many Gudea statues that were found in an excavation in Tello, Iraq. This statue of Gudea is in a seating position and has his hand placed in a greeting or praying gesture. In his lap is a blueprint for a temple that he will be donating to the god Ningursu. It is said that he had dreams informing him to make this offering to please the gods. Also, according to “The impact and significance of the Statue of Ur-Ningirsen” by Joan Aruz, this statue would have been placed in a temple upon a ziggurat where they would be used as a representative to greet the gods if you could not be present to do so. The gods would also have their name inscribed on a statue so people would know who it’s dedicated to. For example, Aruz discusses how the statue of Ur-Ningursu was dedicated to the god Ningizziada (god of vegetation and underworld) and placed in Ur-Ningursu’s house so the gods would grant him a long life.

Since religion was critical to those societies located in Mesopotamia (E.g. Sumerians, Akkadians, Assyrians, or Babylonians) it evidently affected their everyday lives. Since each Mesopotamia city had their own patron god or goddess it would explain the amount of artwork found that was dedicated to these celestials. Even In the clay tablets left behind by the ancient Mesopotamians, they describe for us their religious beliefs and practices as well as mythology. These people wanted to keep the gods happy because like many other civilizations they believed they would be punished if they angered them. Being one of the first civilizations we know of they were significantly more sophisticated than the previous hunters and gathers that came before them. For example, the Babylonian King Hammurabi created his own set of laws called the Code of Hammurabi and this code even had references to the gods. So, these laws put together by King Hammurabi was at least somewhat influenced by the gods and religion he puts his faith into. So, religion wasn’t just present during the time of Mesopotamia it was flourishing and influencing parts of their culture, whom without probably would have turned out completely different.

Ultimately, we come to the latest civilization to make their debut on the world stage, Rome. Emerging from the successful campaigns in Spain and Gaul for Rome’s first emperor, Augustus, is the Ara Pacis Augustae (Altar of Augustan Peace) dedicated to Pax, the Roman goddess of peace. Typically seen as an artwork of political propaganda, the Ara Pacis Augustae has religious significance as well. On the northern and southern ends of the altar there are relief sculptures of Augustus, his family, and other Roman officials. Unfortunately, we are quite unsure of what this means, but art historians have suggested this great gathering of people is what would have happened when the altar was revealed. On the eastern side is a figure that has been widely debated as Venus (Goddess of Love), Tellus (Goddess of Earth), or some sort of figure that represents peace. Regardless this figure displays fertility and great prosperity. On her lap sit two children, but again we are not sure who these children are, they have been speculated to be Augustus’s nephews Lucius and Gaius. On both sides of the female figure are two mythological creatures who seemingly are pulling their drapes over their body while looking directly at the female figure and the children. And below them all is an ox and a sheep laying down representing the peace that has finally come to Rome after years of conflict.

Like all the other civilizations discussed, the Romans were also polytheistic. While Romans did have their own gods, they adopted many foreign gods into their own culture and religion, which is why their collection includes many Greek gods (E.g. Jupiter is the Roman version of Zeus). When Augustus came into power in 27BC he claimed the title of a high priest of the state religion but also portrayed himself as a god because his uncle Julius Caesar became a god. This is important because while the Ara Pacis Augustae certainly has political significance, it displays the gods and imperial family on a single altar. So, if you were going to the altar to present an offering to the gods, not only are you presenting them to the ones the look down upon you from the heavens, but also the celestial beings, such as Augustus, that walk among you. Romans wanted piety with the gods and attributed much of their success to this fact. So, in a way Augustus himself as become a god to pray to because of his Divinity that has been represented in the Ara Pacis Augustae as well as another artwork (E.g. Portrait of Augustus and The Via Labicana Augustus). With this altar we can see the great diversity that helps develop the Roman Religion as well as the civilization as a whole, the two are simply inseparable. As Augustus once said, “I found Rome a city of brick and left it a city of marble.” I think the same can be said about religion, it was found upon cities of brick but helped them develop it into a civilization of marble.

From the dawn of ancient times, religious beliefs have been one of if not the most important factor in developing these civilizations. Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, and Rome have been no exception, they exemplify the significance religion can have on society and culture. The artworks such as Hatshepsut with offering jars, The Alter of Zeus, Seated Statue of Gudea, and the Ara Pacis Augustae all show how religion integrated themselves into their culture and came forth in their beautiful artwork. Without religious intervention, I have no doubt it would have changed the course of each of these ancient societies. For better or for worse, I have no idea, but I do know that the pieces of art I’m looking at right now would have not existed if not for the strong religious supremacy that took the ancient world by storm, almost as if it was its own divine entity.