Category: Harlem Renaissance

One of the main goals of the Harlem Renaissance was proving that Black people were not the prejudicial stereotypes that were enforced on them prior to emancipation. This was largely achieved through drawing a focus on black artwork and artists that displayed the intelligence and capability of African-Americans. These art forms socially, economically, and politically impacted the black community to a great extent because it not only changed the way non-blacks detrimentally perceived black people, allowing them a better stance socially, but allowed them to voice and set foundations for their political views, albeit weakening the community economically.

The media of the Harlem Renaissance, particularly the poetry and plays, played an immense role in socially influencing a more positive regard for African Americans. In 1917, during the first stages of the Harlem Renaissance, the opening of “Granny Maumee, The Rider of Dreams, Simon the Cryrenian, Plays for a Negro Theatre” gave prominence to African-American actors protraying themsleves as multifaceted people with complex emotions. Contrary to what was priorly portrayed in racist blackface and minstrel shows in the 1840’s, where black people were shown as childlike and underdeveloped, this play, and plays alike, rejected those stereotypes and showed African-Americans in a new light.

This motif of reshaping the Black Aesthetic in the public eye, regardless of minstrel shows, was manifested through the literature section of the Harlem renaissance as well. Eminent writers in the movement like Langston Hughes, and James Weldon included black vernacular and speech into their works as a way to open the white perspective to different aspects of Black culture. In Hughes poems he writes in James Weldon’s acclaimed book “God’s Trombone”.

Despite the overall success of the Harlem Renaissance recreating the adverse image of African-Americans, some argue that it wasn’t entirely successful because injustices against African-Americans continued despite the large amount of white people that enjoyed the Black Arts of New York. Even so, this viewpoint is narrow. Albeit it is true that injustices against Black Americans still continued, that does not counteract the clear turnaround of interest that White Americans had in Black Arts. This newfound interest, despite still existing racism, is in itself an example of non-blacks being opened to seeing a new side of Black People.

The Harlem Renaissance not only changed the image of black people through largely viewed media, but set up a stage for black political activism. Because of ongoing racism African-Americans were forced into the realization that the prejudice against black people were in the foundations of American Society, it was to the point that some thought it would be useless to continue integrating black and white culture when there was still inequality in the grand scheme. These new identities and realizations increased the social consciousness and political activism of those involved with the movement. So much so that they were prompted into the creation of black organizations rallied for civil rights. It was through these organizations that black people were the most politically affected during, and after, the Harlem Renaissance. Though these organizations only affected the Black community to a certain extent, because they didn’t make great change during the Harlem Renaissance but created a footing for future Black movements and was an avid support for avid creators working in the renaissance .

One of these organizations was the NAACP, a group created for the sole purpose of fighting for equal rights in all formats. The organization fought truculently for a federal law to prohibit lynchings, and devoted most of their energy to publicizing the lynchings of Blacks throughout the United States. The NAACP also worked internationally with politics, including sending one of their officials, James Weldon, to Haiti to investigate armed forces there. In courts the NAACP prosecuted cases involving disenfranchisement, segregation ordinances, restrictive covenants, and lack of due process and equal protection in criminal cases. Although some cases were won in court and the organization as a whole was important to the flowering of the Harlem Renaissance through aiding and defining the Black Aesthetic, funding for upcoming creators, and providing acclaimed literary works, to an extent. Once again although politically they did not make much change during the Harlem Renaissance; instead they provided a groundwork for future black movements and advocates of the like.

Most organizations founded during the Harlem Renaissance were similar to the NAACP in the fact they fought for social, political, and economic equality, but organizations like the National Urban League, were different in the way that instead of taking an integration like stance like the NAACP, they urged for enabling African-Americans to secure economic self-reliance, parity, power, and civil rights”. It was this organization, the National Urban League, that urged Black Americans to realize their static economic standpoint regardless of the success black arts were attracting to Harlem. It was because of this reliance on white patronage that the Harlem Renaissance negatively affected the Black Community economically.

Initially founded as a social service organization with the idea of aiding African Americans’ resettlement in the North, their work in due course progressed into lobbying businesses and labor unions for Black Americans. This want to separate black economics from white spurred from the success of the Harlem renaissance itself. White patronage and publicity for the Harlem Renaissance was a two-sided coin, while the publicity they got from their white audience turned Harlem into a worldwide sensation they also became financially dependent on white patronage, and even with the success of black artists many institutions where they performed were still segregated for whites only. African-Americans just lacked the Economic institutions and monetary foundation to compensate for such a large scale cultural renaissance. On top of that, initially most new migrants found themselves segregated by practice in run down urban slums where overtime that trend just continued. The largest of these was Harlem. As the Twenties continued the number of black artists who resented white patronage rose, and so did the following for the National Urban League.

In response to the stagnant wealth of the black community the NUL counseled Black Americans into social worker positions, worked to bring educational and employment opportunities to black people, and sponsored studies into disparities in black housing, health, sanitation, and education. Though this was only successful to a moderate extent because, albeit being successful in helping some African-Americans into more jobs, and there were bustling pockets of neighborhoods filled middle class Black Americans like the Hamilton Heights, Sugar Hill, Strivers Row, Mount Morris, overall most African-Americans were lower middle class or poor.

Overall the Harlem Renaissance was not a big economic or political movement, although there were organizations like the NUL that supported Harlem with economical ideologies, they never made a big change for lowering the disparities in wealth between blacks and Whites. The biggest effect of the Harlem Renaissance was social, as it provided a new outlook of Blacks to non-blacks, which was one of the most obstructive hurdles to overcoming racism in America. Although this new image had a social impact, it didn’t help further the civil political pursuit of equality during the Harlem Renaissance.

The ‘Black Capital’ of the twentieth century, Harlem served as a cultural nexus of black America. It was a refuge for African Americans fleeing from oppression in the South and a new home for those seeking new opportunities. Harlem was a haven, a place of self-discovery, cultural knowledge, and political activism for African Americans, especially during the first half of the twentieth century. It fostered an artistic new age of literature, painting, music, and cinema. The neighborhood was home to African Americans of immense talent – writers such as Langston Hughes, W. E. B Du Bois, Alain Locke, and Zora Neale Hurston, musicians such as Duke Ellington, Josephine Baker, Louis Armstrong, and Bessie Smith, as well as painters such as Jacob Lawrence, Aaron Douglass, and Romare Bearden. Harlem has been envisioned as a metonym for black America by many artists and authors, who have depicted the area as one of the great epochs of contemporary black existence, giving it the same chronological weight as ‘Africa,’ ‘slavery,’ and ‘liberation’ in black historical awareness. ‘[Harlem] is or promises to be a race capital,’ Alain Locke remarked. ‘Europe seething in a dozen centers with emergent nationalities, Palestine full of a renascent Judaism these are no more alive with the spirit of a racial awakening than Harlem; culturally and spiritually it focuses a people.’ Harlem would serve as both ‘scene and symbol’ in the depiction of ‘our contemporary race development,’ according to Locke. For Alain Locke, the image of Harlem, like the image of the ‘New Negro’, with which it was closely associated, was an important tool to be used in ‘rehabilitating the race in world esteem from that loss of prestige for which the fate and conditions of slavery have so largely been responsible.’ This essay will explore the importance of Harlem as a symbol for African Americans in the twentieth century, examining how it transformed into more than a city – into a state of mind without geographical boundaries.

The Harlem neighborhood was created in nineteenth-century Manhattan as an affluent suburb for the white upper and middle classes, but with the massive inflow of European immigrants, the previously exclusive district was abandoned by many white Americans, who relocated further north. Harlem attracted migrants from all over the country, luring both individuals from the South looking for the labor and an educated class of African Americans, a growing ‘Negro middle class’, who turned the neighborhood into a cultural center. There was an emergence of pan-African sensibilities and programs, and national organizations dedicated to pressing African American civil rights at the time. The migration of black peasants from fields to cities was not a new phenomenon, however. Since liberation, when the lure of urban opportunity, along with wartime disruption and discontent, lured many black families away from their rural vocations and origins, such demographic shifts have occurred. During the second decade of the twentieth century, notably during the war years of 1916-1918, the Great Migration large migration of people from the South seeking economic opportunity and a freer, more dignified existence in the North-took place. In 1910, little over a quarter of the black population lived in cities; by 1920, it had risen to one-third, and by the end of the decade, it had risen to more than two-fifths. At the same time, 88 percent of northern blacks chose to live in cities. In the half-century following the Civil War, America’s urban population grew sevenfold. The United States soon surpassed every other country in the globe in terms of major cities. For the first time, the 1920 U.S. census indicated that a majority of Americans resided in cities.

Many African Americans were driven North by the lack of economic opportunities and severe segregationist legislation (Jim Crow) and many took advantage of the need for industrial workers that grew during the First World War. Furthermore, a factory salary in the urban North was often three times more than what African Americans in the rural South could expect to earn laboring on the land. During the Great Migration, African Americans began to carve out a new position for themselves in society, facing violent racial discrimination as well as economic, political, and social barriers to forge a black urban culture that would have far-reaching ramifications in the decades ahead. Harlem, therefore, symbolized the move from rural to urban space which was characterized by economic, social, and political progress. Though undoubtedly complicated by discrimination, which was apparent in many different aspects of life, it symbolized, most importantly, progress and potential. Almost from its inception, black Harlem`s pre-eminence as a site of African American and black diasporic life and consciousness had been asserted. Many of the newcomers were able to find work in factories, slaughterhouses, and foundries, however, working conditions were often dangerous. Female migrants found it more difficult to obtain employment, which, unsurprisingly, resulted in fierce rivalry for domestic labor roles. There was rivalry for living space in increasingly congested areas, in addition to competition for jobs. Although segregation was not legal in the North (as it was in the South), racism and prejudice were commonplace. Some residential districts adopted rules requiring white property owners to promise not to sell to black people after the United States Supreme Court declared racially based housing legislation unlawful in 1917; these remained valid until the Court knocked them down later during the twentieth century in 1948. Additionally, rising rents in segregated areas, plus a resurgence of KKK activity after 1915, also served to worsen black and white relations across Harlem. For some, the roaring twenties were ‘roaring,’ but as James Weldon Johnson pointed out, the great majority of black residents of a city like Harlem were too busy trying to scrape by. The Great Migration also marked the start of a new period of political action involving African Americans and this activism directly aided the civil rights struggle.

Harlem had become the world’s most famous African American community by the 1920s and its high population of black men and women created a vibrant and dynamic environment. A city symbolic of black life, it was a stimulus for many creative forms and its position in North America meant that the ‘New Negroes’ had more possibilities for publishing than they would not have had otherwise. The phrase ‘New Negro’ had been talked about by a diverse cast of literary scholars and revolutionaries ranging from Booker T. Washington to socialists such as Frank Crosswaith and Phillip Randolph. It was seen as an important strategy for changing the public perception of ‘blackness’ and redefining black consciousness, life, and culture. The New Negro was to be viewed as a character who was already contemporary, already American, and therefore ready to fully integrate into national life. Alain Locke commended this generation of black authors as ‘thoroughly modern’ in his introduction of the literary works in the Survey Graphic edition, which included poetry by Cullen, Angelina Grimké, McKay, and Hughes.

Black intellectuals from Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphia, Los Angeles, and other locations (where they had their own intellectual circles, theatres, and reading clubs) met or settled in Harlem. As a result, it provided an especially fruitful environment for cultural innovation. This interest in African American history coincided with efforts (especially by the black writers of the time) to create an American culture separate from that of Europe, one marked by ethnic heterogeneity and a democratic ethos. Langston Hughes, a literary giant whose poetry highlighted the difficulties and joys of early twentieth-century African Americans, was one of Harlem’s most renowned inhabitants at the time. He and other young authors and artists would go on to lead the Harlem Renaissance, giving the African American experience a voice through literature and art. Many poets, as well as other Harlem Renaissance members, were homosexual or bisexual, including Alain Locke, Dunbar Nelson, Richard Bruce Nugent, and potentially, Langston Hughes. Ma Rainey and Bessie Smith’s blues songs both included references to lesbian sexuality. During the early twentieth century, the renaissance arguably had a role in the construction of homosexuality in American society, when sexual identities were defined and policed in novel ways. Drag balls were occasionally disparagingly reported in black publications. Harlem nightlife had a reputation as a haven for whites seeking illicit and sexual experiences, it also allowed for covert liaisons through which long-term same-sex relationships evolved both within and across races. Gay males had established a presence in Harlem and, by the 1920s, the city’s earliest lesbian communities had emerged in Harlem and the Village. Each gay enclave had a distinct class and ethnic character, cultural style, and public reputation, according to George Chauncey’s book Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World, 1890-1940. However, except for Nugent, homosexual sexuality among famous authors and painters was kept under wraps and mainly hidden. Nonetheless, some critics claim that the Renaissance was as homosexual as it was black. Harlem symbolized the emergence of black (and homosexual) sexuality for many African Americans.

Amid worsening socioeconomic conditions in Harlem and political hardships in what was a very conservative and racist era the Ku Klux Klan’s membership and political influence in the Midwest and South peaked during the 1920s some Black leaders hoped that artistic achievement would help revolutionize race relations while also enhancing Blacks’ understanding of themselves as a people. Interest in African music, visuals, and history grew as a result of the collection of books, journals, and ideas. The 135th Street Library, as represented in Lawrence’s novel The Library, became Harlem’s cultural center. It served as a resource for artists and philosophers, as well as a gathering place, a location for plays and musical performances, and a platform for intellectual debates and discussions. People in a cosmopolitan neighborhood enjoyed forms of art – jazz, dance, theatre, photography, and traditional forms of art (i.e., painting and sculpting). Aaron Douglas, the renaissance’s defining artist, developed his style of geometrical figural representation to depict and illustrate the ‘Negro’ subject matter. His stylized, silhouette-like renderings of recognizably black figures, infused with spiritual longing and racial pride, were synonymous with the Harlem Renaissance in general. Despite Douglas’ significance, however, most black artists of the 1920s did not spend much time in Harlem.

The Roaring Twenties and the Jazz Age coincided with the Harlem Renaissance. These movements had a significant influence on both the African American community and America’s cultural industries on an individual and collective basis. African Americans made significant contributions to the film, music, and theatrical industries. Overall, Harlem Renaissance black theatre demonstrated a rising trend of dramatic form, with folk drama proving to be an effective medium for contemplation on the significance and meaning of the black American experience, which frequently included a critique of white institutions. Simultaneously, black performers were given unprecedented (albeit still restricted) opportunities to play in front of all-white, mixed, and all-black audiences. By the mid-1930s, a Negro Actors Guild had formed and black actors from Harlem had achieved a significant foothold in American theatre.

While the renaissance did not achieve the socio-political transformation that the revolutionaries had likely hoped for, it is clear that it was a defining moment in black cultural history: it worked to build Black writers authors, and artists’ authority over portrayals of black culture, and experience.

From the late 1960s onwards, a surge of scholarships focusing on interwar black arts, culture, and politics, much of it focused on Harlem’s activists and intellectuals, met the demand for black studies programs on American campuses and aided the incorporation of African American subject matter into increasingly mainstream academic disciplines. Hundreds of journal articles and book-length studies with the title ‘Harlem Renaissance’ appeared in the 1990s, giving Harlem a place in American education that far outstripped that of any other urban area, if not almost all American cities, signifying the symbolic importance and significance of Harlem and the renaissance for African Americans.

Academics have described a linear shift in Harlem’s iconography, in which the district was revered as an exceptional locus of black cultural production and empowerment at the height of the Renaissance, before the Great Depression and the 1935 Harlem riot recast the district as a symbol of tarnished hope and urban decay. Harlem was traumatized by the Great Depression, which ripped apart its social and economic structure. The area had the greatest unemployment rate in one of the nation’s most jobless cities, as well as widespread poverty, filthy living conditions, and, according to the city’s health department, the worst occurrence of every illness ever documented in Manhattan. The riots that occurred in 1935 and 1943 were both sparked by and exacerbated by these situations. Harlem’s ‘ghetto’ discourse originated in the 1920s, but it became the global metaphor for the Negro ‘ghetto’ in the decades following WWII. As several scholars have noted, only in the post-World War II era did reference to African American urban areas as ‘ghettos’ become widespread. During the 1940s, authors such as James Baldwin began to use the term ‘ghetto,’ but it wasn’t until the 1960s when hundreds of U.S. cities were engulfed by black uprisings, that the phrase became intrinsically linked with black concentrated neighborhoods. This trend was aided by film and photography as well, as a visual culture had elevated Harlem as a symbol of black urban life, especially throughout the interwar period. Critics began to consider the ‘loss’ of black Harlem in the late twentieth century; it was considered detrimental not just to the neighborhood`s blackness, but also to the survival of the symbolic ‘mecca’ of black America.

The language of Harlem’s unique character was recomposed around an alternate mythology of ‘was ness,’ in which Harlem was seen as unique due to its historical profile. By the 1960s, black authors were referring to the area as ‘the past capital of People in the United States,’ as poet Amiri Baraka stated. For many, Harlem’s reputation was founded less on its current grandeur or empirical distinction from other black metropolitan areas than on its contemporary special symbolic importance, which was based on its history and historical importance. Harlem’s existence as a ‘setting and symbol’ of black existence was heightened by the fact that it had plunged into stagnation and degradation similar to other ‘ghettos.’ Harlem, however, remained elevated due to the notion that it was a unique historical black community. The presence of nationally significant cultural institutions, such as The Studio Museum in Harlem and, above all, the Schomburg Centre, an ‘irreplaceable historic repository of the black experience,’ provided proof for such assertions. Harlem’s role as the black ‘Mecca’ remained, albeit in various forms, as a symbol of black America. The area, as Langston Hughes famously noted, was a dream deferred,’ and not a forgotten failure.

‘Harlem’ is a symbol that is a geographical identifier and a representation of black urban contemporary society. This was evident as members of the Kamoinge Workshop, a black photographic collective, presented images of urban New York, New Jersey, Virginia, Mississippi, and Bermuda in 1966 under the title ‘A Photographic Report on Harlem,’ explaining that Harlem ‘exists as a state of mind, whether it exists in Watts in California, the south side of Chicago, Alabama, or New York.’ Harlem provided a chance for individuals of African heritage to know themselves beyond the restricted confines of the village, town, county, region, and nation like nowhere else on the planet. It promoted and fostered a more worldwide awareness of the black experience, as well as opportunities to engage in it and help influence its future. Harlem offered the setting for the emergence of a new ‘Afropolitanism’. Although the reputation of ‘Harlem’ had arguably become tarnished in the later part of the twentieth century, it was still a highly marketable name with ‘an extremely high recognition factor no matter where one is on the world,’ according to one group of urban developers from 1978. They regarded Harlem’s spectacular history as a successful symbol and representation of blackness as a solution to minimize the negative connotations the area had acquired throughout the post-war era of urban riots, hyper-segregation, and general unrest. Harlem’s past and present are still intimately entwined to this day.

Both Hughes and Cullen were significant writers during the Harlem Renaissance, establishing their sole topic of race and equality. According to Theresa L. Stowell, the author of ‘The 1930s in America’, the Harlem Renaissance began as African-Americans came to realize that they were not offered the same programs for those in poverty as white people. This unfair realization initiated a new era where African-American artists, philosophers, and authors became acknowledged. This era later became known as the Black Literary Renaissance or the Harlem Renaissance. Hughes played an important role in the Harlem Renaissance, and the impact of his works lasted long after they were written. Diana Pardo writes that while many writers during the era decided to take a ‘professional’ approach, Hughes “portrayed the realistic elements of the lives and stories of black America” as he focused on authenticity and celebrated his differences from society. On the other hand, Cullen’s involvement in the Harlem Renaissance was also significant as he was seen as an extremely controversial figure. Australia Tarver, editor of ‘New Voices on the Harlem Renaissance’, describes Cullen as “one of the great luminaries of the Harlem Renaissance”, but she also explains the controversy behind Cullen’s name and his writing as some would say he was too ‘respectable’ or too ‘middle class’. The controversial opinions on Cullen had a lasting impact on his reputation. While the poets have very different reputations, they were both extremely significant figures during the Harlem Renaissance.

Hughes’ approach often involves the celebration of African American culture by the incorporation of music and rhythm, such as jazz and blues, as well as to create a flow in his writing. Pardo also mentions how jazz and blues were greatly influential during the Harlem Renaissance and how music was a ‘recurring element’ in Hughes’ works. Hughes incorporates jazz music into many poems, such as ‘The Negro Speaks of Rivers’, ‘The Weary Blues’, ‘Harlem Night Club’, and ‘Blues Fantasy’. ‘The Weary Blues’ serves as a strong representation of Hughes’ use of jazz music and rhythm. The poem about a bluesman singing of putting his troubles to the side even with nobody to support him is written in free verse with an irregular rhyme scheme. Hughes describes the mood of the bluesman’s song and tells how the man “played that sad raggy tune like a music fool” as the narrator “did a lazy sway” (13, 6). Hughes is recognizing and celebrating black culture with his musical word choice as well as style of writing. Hughes’ incorporation of music reflects on the jazz and blues music that was so commonly valued and included in the Harlem Renaissance. Jazz was extremely important during this time period as jazz musicians used music to express their emotions and celebrate their culture. Also in ‘The Weary Blues’, Hughes describes the bluesman’s song as a “drowsy syncopated tune” (1). This seemingly small detail is important as it highlights the impact of the music on Hughes and displays how involved Hughes becomes in the song as he can feel it throughout his body. Overall, Hughes’ recurring inclusion of music is of great importance as it reflects on the Harlem Renaissance and the celebration of African American culture.

However, while Hughes often incorporates music and jazz to celebrate black culture, Cullen uses many different writing patterns in his poetry that have nothing to do with jazz or blues music in order to take a more formal approach. Unlike Hughes, he utilizes meter and rhyme in his works rather than blues and flow. In addition to meter and rhyme, Cullen also wrote many sonnets, or small lyrics, which contain fourteen iambic pentameter lines and a specific rhyme scheme. All of these elements illustrate his formal approach as his writing is clearly much more structured than the works of Hughes. Many of Cullen’s poems such as ‘Lines to My Father’, ‘She of the Dancing Feet Sings’, ‘Fruit of the Flower’, and ‘The Wise’ accommodate specific rhyme schemes and meter. In the specific poem, ‘The Wise’, each stanza, or three-line tercet, has an AAA rhyme scheme, meaning every word at the end of the line rhymes. The poem is about knowledge and how the most knowledgeable are the ones that have already passed. Cullen first explains that “Dead men are wisest, for they know/ How far the roots of flowers go” (1-2). The rhyme at the end of the lines is obvious as the lines end with the words “know” and “go.” Cullen’s clear use of rhyme indicates the formality and structure of his writing as it is carefully and formally constructed. Cullen also writes that “Dead men alone bear frost and rain/ On throbless heart and heatless pain” (4-5). Not only is his writing more formal than Hughes as it is structured much more strictly, but it is also choppier. While Hughes’ writing tends to have a free and loose flow, Cullen’s writing is much more rough.

Hughes uses common language in order to appeal and relate to people, demonstrate the real, pure, true elements of being an African American man during this time period, as well as to display and highlight authenticity. While many authors during this time period used formal language to prove their intelligence and potential, Hughes took a different approach. Hughes’ use of the common language is evident in many of his works, some of these being ‘Harlem’, ‘Po’ Boy Blues’, ‘Life is Fine’, and ‘Mother to Son’. The poem ‘Mother to Son’ describes the challenges and obstacles that black people had to, and still have to, overcome. The poem is from a mother’s perspective speaking to her son about how life is not easy as an African American during this time period but he should not give up and pity himself when things become difficult. One of the most prominent and apparent examples of common language in ‘Mother to Son’ is his use of the words “ain’t”, “I’se”, “reachin’”, and “Cause” (2,9,10,16). These obvious examples highlight the authenticity and purity of his language and writing as he is not trying to alter it to sound more intelligent or educated. Hughes also uses conversational or colloquial speech throughout the poem as he writes that “Life for [her] ain’t been no crystal stair” (2). Hughes clearly does not try to use more sophisticated vocabulary in order to prove his intelligence; he simply writes in a way that people can easily understand and relate to. However, while he tends to get straight to the point in his writing to highlight the purity and reality, Christopher Allen Varlack writes that Hughes is also “often criticized for being too straightforward” in Civil Rights Literature, Past and Present (14). In other words, while his goal in using the colloquial language is to relate to people, it has also been criticized as some believe he is too direct. Richard M. Leeson, English professor at Fort Hays State University, writes that many also criticize Hughes for his basic use of language and focus on the issues of the poor African Americans. However, these critics are ignoring the fact that Hughes writes from his own point of view and the realness of his life. All in all, his use of informality emphasizes the very real approach as he is not trying to be something he is not or prove his education and intelligence.

Unlike Hughes, Cullen tried prove that African Americans are just as capable and educated as white people by utilizing formal language and more articulate vocabulary. Many of Cullen’s works such as ‘Tableau’, ‘Saturday’s Child’, ‘Harlem Wine’, and ‘From the Dark Tower’ display his use of sometimes unnecessary elevated diction and uncommon language. These elements are most evidently illustrated in ‘From the Dark Tower’. Cullen discusses oppression and the impact of prejudice. Cullen uses many descriptive details and adjectives throughout the poem that highlight his recurring use of complex vocabulary. For example, Cullen writes, “Shall we beguile their limbs with mellow flute” (6). His word choice is peculiar as he clearly uses words that the majority of people do not use on a daily basis. His particular word choice of “beguile” and “mellow flute” stands out and is prominent as they illustrate his use of elevated language. This use of grand language or vocabulary and detailed description are in place to exhibit his intelligence and prove his capability. Cullen also writes “In light, but crumple, piteous, and fall”, again highlighting his use of description (12). Overall, Cullen often tries to prove that African Americans are capable of being just as educated as white people and are no less than white people in a sense of intelligence. His goal was to justify that African Americans are capable of accomplishing the same things.

While Cullen’s works often include negativity and his feelings of anger towards white people, Hughes displays his optimism and hope for equality in the future despite the unfortunate and unfair circumstances at the time. Unlike Cullen, Hughes does not exhibit hatred or negative feelings towards white people. While Hughes’ hopefulness is displayed throughout the majority of his works, there are two poems that undoubtedly portray his optimism towards the future. Hughes undeniably displays his hope for the future in his poem, ‘I, Too’. The poem itself revolves around hope and the fact that Hughes believed that one day, life would be easier for the black community and the world will see equality. In the beginning of the poem, Hughes describes his place in the world as he writes “[He] [is] the darker brother./ They send [him] to eat in the kitchen/ When company comes”, indicating that because he is different, he is not to socialize and converse with the white people (2-4). Hughes then writes “Tomorrow,/ [He’ll] be at the table/ When company comes” and that “Nobody’ll dare/ Say to [him],/ ‘Eat in the kitchen’” signifying that one day he will not be seen as different, discriminated against, or told to leave because of the color of his skin or any part of his physical appearance (8-13). Hughes’ hope for the future is conspicuous as he is implying that he has no doubt that there will be a change in the future. Hughes explains that just because there is still segregation and inequality today, does not mean they will be there tomorrow. Furthermore, in ‘Theme for English B’, Hughes expresses that he is an equal individual to a white man as they can share common interests and feel the same emotions. Tarver also points out that an important element to remember about this poem is that it was written to Hughes’ teacher in an all-white writing course. Tarver describes it as an ‘effective heuristic’, implying that the poem can teach someone something new and help them discover something they had not yet known of. This poem holds extreme significance as he is stating that they are all Americans, despite their skin color or background. Hughes describes his interests by writing that “[He] [likes] to eat sleep, drink, and be in love” and later writes that “[He] [guesses] being colored doesn’t make [him] not like/ the same things other folks like who are other races” (21, 25-26). This section is crucial as he is essentially trying to explain that people are made to share interests and find joy in the same things as all people are equal. The most essential part of the message is that all humans eat, sleep, and drink; these are crucial but basic elements of survival. However, his choice to include “be in love” is intriguing and stands out as being in love is a very raw, real, and human concept. As important as eating, sleeping, and drinking are, being in love is not necessary for survival; however, it is a feeling that all people are capable of. His choice to include this concept proves that there is a very true and real commonality between all people. He proceeds to ask “So will my page be colored that I write?” (27). Hughes is asking that because he is colored, does that mean every single thing he creates will be marked as colored too? His point is almost inarguable as he explains that all people are capable of the same achievements and those achievements are not marked with a person’s race. These works are very strong representations of the points of equality and optimism that Hughes dedicated his life and his works to prove.

While Hughes is hopeful that equality is soon to come, Cullen is pessimistic and angry towards oppression, discrimination, and white people. He displays this pessimism and feelings of pain and suffering by the recurring theme of death. The theme clearly adds a certain sense of heaviness to his writing. Cullen’s anger and pessimism towards white people and discrimination is greatly expressed in the poem ‘To Certain Critics’. His anger is expressed as he uses harsh words such as “traitor”, “betray” and “pain”, as well as exclamation marks to add emphasis (1,3,10). Cullen argues that “No racial option narrows grief,/ Pain is no patriot”, arguing that every race feels pain and grief; there is no way out of it (9-10). Cullen clearly wants change and wants the world to move on and integrate, but he is stuck in a pit of anger towards the white people as they have it easier and can live more comfortable lives. He ends the poem with a question: “How shall the shepherd heart then thrill/ To only the darker lamb?” (15-16). Cullen is asking society how they could discriminate against only African Americans if they are the same as white people and all other races on the inside. He is angry and frustrated that African Americans are suffering daily from discrimination and that white people simply cannot understand their true struggle and pain as they do not go through anything similar to it. Cullen incorporates death, pain, and suffering into his heavy and dark poem ‘The Loss of Love’. The poem explains his belief that losing a loved one is worse than dying. Cullen writes that after losing a loved one “[He] [has] no will to weep or sing,/ No desire to pray or curse”, portraying that he loses all hope and motivation (21-22). At this point, Cullen is hopeless and sees no point in going through life. He then argues that “The loss of love is a terrible thing;/ They lie who say that death is worse” meaning he would rather die than experience somebody he loves die (23-24). This poem is extremely heavy and the tone is clearly depressing and hopeless. Cullen is describing his misery and grief as someone close to him dies. He expresses the pain and suffering and describes his blood as cold and his wish that he was in their place. Although ‘The Loss of Love’ focuses much less on racial inequality and discrimination, the poem undoubtedly portrays elements of darkness and suffering as opposed to Hughes’ optimism and bliss. Owen Dodson states that Cullen’s work skillfully combines emotion and intellect and that he also includes the ‘agony of being black in America’ as well as the ‘hurt pride’. Conclusively, Cullen’s pessimism as well as recurring themes of death, pain, and anger provide a very heavy and deep tone, while Hughes often incorporates elements of optimism and joy.

Although Hughes and Cullen have many differences in their works, they also share a common similarity as both often speak of freedom and dreams in their works. Hughes repeatedly incorporates the themes of freedom and dreams and how beautiful freedom will be when African Americans achieve it. In Hughes’ poem ‘Dream Variations’ he expresses his wish for freedom away from prejudice and racial discrimination. He discusses the beauty of freedom as well as his dreams of a free and easy lifestyle. Hughes dreams that he is able “To whirl and to dance” under the sun with his arms wide (3). He wishes to be able to run around freely and carelessly and have the same freedom that white people have. Pardo explains Hughes’ use of his own experiences to relate to people and display the true lifestyle of a black man during this time period. In this case, Hughes is describing his own wishes and desires in order to relate to other people that wish for the same things. His free and loose style in this poem demonstrates the beauty of freedom and his hopefulness that he will feel it one day along with the rest of the black community. Furthermore, another one of Hughes’ poems, ‘Life is Fine’, is not one of Hughes’ well-known poems, but does share certain characteristics with his other works. The poem is about a man who contemplates and attempts suicide but fails, which makes him realize that since he is still alive, he might as well live on, and he is still there for a reason. Although the story of the poem appears to be dark, it is actually quite positive and optimistic. Hughes writes “So since [he’s] still here livin’,/ [He] [guesses] [he] will live on” as the man realizes that he stayed alive for a reason. Towards the end of the poem, Hughes writes “Life is fine! Fine as wine! Life is fine!”, which lightens the mood and displays optimism. The positive message of the poem is that there is always something to live for and that that is the reason that the speaker could not follow through with ending his life. Thus, by displaying his optimism and using the recurring themes of freedom and dreams, Hughes idealizes freedom, in a way, encouraging many African Americans as they dream of the freedom, they will one day have.

Although Cullen takes a more pessimistic approach, he also incorporates the theme of freedom in many of his works. The most significant is ‘To a Brown Boy’. In the poem, Cullen is appreciating the beauty of his culture, and there is a great deal of hidden speech of equality. He is arguing that in the end, everybody ends up in the same place, and skin color will no longer matter as a body is just a body. He is simply stating that every person is free when they die because race and background no longer matter once a person is no longer living. Cullen utilizes the words “loveliness” and “beauty”, which adds a type of flow just as seen in Hughes’ work. He states that “That brown girl’s swagger gives a twitch/ To beauty like a queen” as he describes the beauty of his heritage and culture (1-2). Cullen later argues that when a person dies and becomes part of the ground “Men will not ask if that rare earth/ Was white flesh once, or brown” signifying that all people are equal and capable of the same things, and all humans start and end in the same place (11-12). This message is extremely influential and powerful as he proves that all people are made the same and that all are free once death is reached as the color of one’s skin or their background is no longer relevant. Essentially, Hughes and Cullen are alike in the fact that both discuss freedom and equality repeatedly throughout their writing.

Ultimately, while Langston Hughes and Countee Cullen undoubtedly took very different approaches in their writing and poetry, both wanted the same thing: racial equality. As Hughes took a much more optimistic approach and chose to focus on authenticity and the celebration of black culture, many of Cullen’s works are darker and heavier, and he wanted to prove that black and white men are equally capable and intelligent. Both Hughes and Cullen played significant roles during the Harlem Renaissance, and their names, as well as their works, will live on as they helped shape and influence the world today.

Manhattan was once considered the mainstay of wealth and fortune due to the largely rich white population that resided there. The growing population in the area was a suggestion for developers to build more residential living spaces which lead to the erection of more empty buildings and not enough tenants. Over time, more and more black families were beginning to migrate to the east coast to escape the trenchant Jim Crow laws that were oppressive and escape the violence that was being inflicted upon by mobs in the pursuit of lynching and criminalizing black males. During this time, the economic growth was fueled by major factories in these areas which attracted black families that were in the pursuit of seeking a better life for themselves and their kids. Harlem became the most popular area of residence for these people because there were already a few black families that lived there. As more and more black families began to move into this area, white people became appalled at the idea of living next to a person of color. By the 1920s, almost 300,000 African Americans had migrated from the South into Manhattan. This massive migration and meteoric growth of the black population of Manhattan lead to the proliferation of the Black Pride Movement, in Harlem to be specific.

This movement acknowledged and commemorated black poets, writers, and achievements. It exposed the false narratives that white people initiated about black people and aimed to reconstruct the reputation and dignity that had been stripped by white people for centuries. In fact, the father of the Harlem Renaissance Movement was Alain LeRoy Locke ,who was not only the first black man to become a Cecil Rhodes Scholar, but was also the writer of the book that essentially laid the foundation of the Harlem Renaissance known as ‘The New Negro’, which spoke against the injustices and the brutality that blacks were forced to face for centuries. This book also served as an advocation for socio-economic independence, political participation, and the restoration of self-identity and self-esteem of black people.

The Harlem Renaissance Movement was not only the acknowledgment, recognition, and the insertion of gifted poets, directors, and writers into American History; but it was a period of time were a black person could feel a sense of comfort and pride in their own skin because they were finally getting credit for their contributions to society. The Harlem Renaissance laid the footprint for a generation of civil rights leaders that would advocate against the preservation of the status quo and reform the justice system by advocating for liberties and equal protection under the law. The writing by the authors during the renaissance was substantial and powerful beyond measure because black authors were detailing their experiences and the horrific treatment that they were being subject to for centuries. Their writings explicitly stated the gifts that black people had given to American society.

One of the defining terms for the Harlem Rensaicae was “double consciousness”; a term that was put forward by WEB Dubois, a migrant from the South. This term was the reason that black people were facing identity issues in America. They saw themselves through two different lenses; the first was through the lens of racism and the belief that black people were inferior to whites and the other was through the lens of a struggling black person in America at the time. In order to revamp their identities, plays with black actors and directors were now beginning to be performed and black literature was now being read all over. Poems such as the ‘The Negro Speaks of Rivers’ became read worldwide because of its heartfelt message of equality. The country was transitioning into the era of jazz and accepting that singers like Duke Ellington and Louis Armstrong were the best players. The literary significance of the Harlem Renaissance was so monumental and vigorous that it reconstructed the image of black people, exposed the truth, and recognized their contributions to society.

Langston Hughes – one of the most important writers of the Harlem Renaissance.“We younger Negro artists who create now intend to express our individual dark-skinned selves without fear or shame. If white people are pleased we are glad. If they are not, it doesn’t matter. We know we are beautiful. And ugly too” (Hughes, 1924). This excerpt from his essay ‘The Negro Artist and the Racial Mountain’ defines what the Harlem Renaissance was all about. Langston Hughes was not the first published black author; nor the first one that talked about race. However, what differentiated Hughes from the rest of the writers was his inability to care about the opinions of white folks. For centuries, the recognition of black identity automatically corresponded with inferiority and the supremacy of the white man and the idea that the black man would be despairing and helpless without the help, control, and the guidance of the white man. Langston Hughes, the father of the black pride movement less said the hell with white people because they do not reserve the right to judge them based upon their dark complexion. His poems and essays were being read by people all over and were inspiring other African American people to stand up for themselves and be proud of their complexion rather than being ashamed due to their constraints by white society. He advocated against the idea of a double consciousness because, after all the trauma that these people were subject to, they should not and will not see themselves as anything else.

The quote I included from that essay was an insult to every white person in the 1920s because essentially white people believed that they were entitled to judging white people and that black people would withhold their opinions and perspectives. Langston Hughes was not just going against white people; he was going against the preservation of the status quo. Even though history does not acknowledge his achievements in an official manner, he was one of the first writers that would inspire black people to rise and take pride in their complexion.

Perhaps Hughes most famous poem is the one he published at the age of 17 while he was crossing the Mississippi River known as the ‘The Negro Speaks of Rivers’. In this poem, Hughes confabulates about four great rivers; the Euphrates, Cong, Nile, and the Mississippi River. He writes about how the muddy Mississippi River has been considered so valuable that it is considered to be gold. The same Mississippi river that appears to be gold was the same river that disgusted President Lincoln when he saw the horrific trade of other humans for profit. He inserts the idea that all these mighty rivers are all connected and are responsible for the erection of civilization. If these same waters created the civilizations that our ancestors lived in, are we not all from the same origins? This idea that we all come from the same origins was appealing to white people who for the most part genuinely began to believe that black people were not human. His inclusion of a great man such as Lincoln is important because it depicts that if a powerful white man can see the disgusting nature of slavery; why can’t you? These writings were challenging the social norms because although the Emancipation Proclamation set slaves free fifty years prior to this poem, discrimination was just as profound against blacks. Hughes initiated the Renaissance movement because he believed in celebrating and recognizing the black man’s victories and achievements without having to worry about what others thought of him. He embedded this idea of reconstruction in the movement because he aimed to revamp the image of a black person at a time when they were categorized by “blackface” or “animal”.

Another important and significant writer of the Harlem Renaissance is Zora Hurston. After extensively probing through the various pieces by Zora Hurston, the most profound and heartfelt piece is ‘How it Feels to Be Colored Me’. She begins her piece by deliberating about her upbringing in Eatonville, Florida. As a child, she never knew of any white people because they did not live in areas where large populations of black folks resided. When white people would ride through her town, the only difference that she noticed between her and white people was that they did not live in Eatonville like her. However, life changed very fast for little Zora because she went from a town that was populated predominantly by black folks that knew her by her first name to a large city for prep school, where she was now part of a small minority. The inclusion of the quote, “I was not Zora of Orange County anymore, I was now a little colored girl” was not only unfeigned, but it was also agonizing because, at such a young age (13), she was forced to acknowledge and recognize that her race was considered to be much inferior to white folks. Taking into consideration that Zora attends this preparatory school only a few decades after the Reconstruction, there is always someone to remind her that she is a descendant of slaves. They try hard to strip her dignity away on the merits of race. In the piece, she refers to herself as a “dark rock surged upon” because she feels isolated in a world away from her home in Eatonville and in a place that is predominantly white. When she goes to jazz clubs, the music speaks to her in ways that may be considered strange to white people. Hurston is growing up a time when racism was not only oppressive, but it was barbaric and ferocious. Even though she is a black woman in college, she cannot escape the fact that she is a descendant of slaves. Hurston portrays racism as something that is developed over time because as a kid, she never noticed color. She would even wave to the white people that would come through the town. Over time, she began to recognize the importance of race in urban America after there were constant reminders of being a person of color. The reason that this specific piece is so important is that it represents the trauma that black people have been subject to because no matter their achievements, they are constantly reminded that they are descendants of slaves.

Her work articulates her life experiences, her courage to continue and determination to carry on. Instead of trying to be ashamed of her black identity, she embraces it. The effect that her work had on African American literature was substantial because she inspired a generation of writers that were beginning to tell their life experiences and expose the harsh reality about racism. Black people would no longer sit back and let white people write their history and imagine to feel their pain. More importantly, she was a black woman writing her narrative at a time when being a woman was hard, but being a black woman was increasingly onerous.

Langston Hughes and Zora Hurston were part of the larger cultural movement centered in New York City’s Harlem neighborhood and in their works they images portraits of Black life in America.

Works Cited

1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fDzVtXbtEow&t=422s
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ir0URpI9nKQ&t=4s
3. https://poets.org/poem/negro-speaks-rivers
4. https://www.modernamericanpoetry.org/dashboard
5. https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/langston-hughes

The Harlem Renaissance was a movement that spoke to a range of issues and concerns like hostility, racism, and anger. Authors spent lots of time aiming to highlight them in ways like power struggles, emotions of hate/animosity towards white people, and even colorism between individuals in their own race. How many African Americans back then faced so much discrimination from white people that it created a hated in them that affected them deeply and created issues in their day to day lives. The theme that deserves the most recognition is racism and how it affected their daily lives because authors Hurston, Bennett, and DuBois forces on this in the following works of ‘Returning Soldiers’, ‘Wedding Day’, and ‘Color Struck’. Though these three authors, readers get an understanding of how deep racism really went and affect a lot more then what was perceived.

During the time of the Harlem Renaissance, African Americans soldiers took the same risks to defend their country against enemies as white soldiers did however despite all that and the violence that when with the war. None of that was as bad as having to face the battle of racism and segregation back at their own country, their home. DuBois symbolized African Americans return from war as not a breath of fresh air or a step into equal rights but more as the movement from one battle abroad to coming home to fight another battle. Even in the military where there was supposed to be unity as men fighting for their country. DuBois expresses how even though everyone is wearing the same uniform, the years of racism and segregation doesn’t disappear. White soldiers will still see African Americans as Negros, nothing but slaves not as comrades. African Americans still had to deal with unfair treatment and racism once they got home: “It organizes industry to cheat us. It cheats us out of our land; it cheats us out of our labor. It confiscates our savings. It reduces our wages. It raises our rent. It steals our profit. It taxes us without representation. It keeps us consistently and universally poor, and then feeds us on charity and derides our poverty” (DeBois 4). It should have got better considering their bravely and laying their lives for this country, but there is still no respect, no change. There is a feeling of hopelessness during this time in the Harlem Renaissance because it seems like nothing African American, not even fighting for the country, could end racism making everyday life like an endless journey of injustice and just creating more emotions of anger and hostility.

During the Harlem Renaissance, there were many African Americans who felt angry at white people for all the injustice and prejudice they caused them. These acts of racism affect many African Americans in the Harlem Renaissance very negativity as it affected their day to day lives, and that was the case in ‘Wedding Day’ Paul Watson. He represented how dealing with the racism back then constantly does so much damage to yourself and your life. Paul is a perfect example of a black man on a self-destruction path that is fueled with angry, violent, and misery created by racism. He deals with this angry by violence as: “The last syllable of the word, nigger, never passed the lips of a white man without the quick reflex action of Paul’s arm and fist to the speaker’s jaw” (Bennett 364). This acts as a way of living out vengeance without breaking the law. So, his opponent in the ring is like stress relief, something he can hit and punch to get through his anger, frustration, humiliation, and oppression out without getting in trouble. Many African Americans during the Harlem Renaissance had to feel that same angry and limit that Paul felt that they didn’t have healthy ways to cope with the racism, so the next best option was to get mad, violent, and get into fights. This could have been a way that Bennett portrayed how black men addressed their emotions about racism though violence and that many black men had a strong hatred for white people, wanting to cause physical harm to them. Not only that but also highlights how little power black people had back then. When white people attack and physical assault them, black people can’t hit back, or they’ll go to prison. In the ring, Paul has the power and ability to beat up his opponent, in the real world he doesn’t have that power. The racism during that time was high and it made every black person feel like there was no way to get justice against the mistreatment without getting in trouble with the police. The angry and hostility African American felt towards racism did not only create violence outburst but also affected their relationships with other people.

During the time of the Harlem Renaissance, it was clear that African Americans faced racism against white people however they also faced colorism within their own race that affected their lives and their relationships. This is evident in ‘Color struck’, where Emma, an African American woman who is jealous of those with lighter skin. This jealous not only affects her own personal life but also her relationships with other people. An example of this is her relationship with John, who deeply loves Emma but her constant jealousy and insecure toward light skin blacks cause their relationship to end “Emma, what makes you always picking a fuss with me over some Yaller girl. What makes you so jealous, no how? I don’t do nothing” (Hurston 307). In a way Emma was self-sabotaging her own life because she could have been happy with a man who didn’t care she was black and loved her for who she was but her fear that John would leave her for a lighter skin women and hatred blinded her and, in the end, she lost the love of her life. Even when John came back wanting to marry Emma even after 20 years, she didn’t believe him thinking the only reason was because of her light skin daughter Lou that he wanted to marry her now. She even let her colorism affect her relationship with her daughter as she wouldn’t let any light skin doctor help her daughter who was very ill. Her colorism was the reason her daughter died if she went to get a doctor sooner (regards of their skin color) her daughter could still be alive. Hurston uses Emma to symbolize how in the Harlem Renaissance African Americans did have some feeling of hatred and animosity against some of their own, more specific lighter skin or mulatto. This could be African American women like Emma had insecurities that these light skin women were more pretty, more beautiful and better than they were because they had some white in them. Emma had an obsession that caused her to become unhappy, miserable, and destroy every relationship she had. African Americans during the Harlem Renaissance let their jealousy, and hatred towards white people and light skin blacks affect their lives and make themselves miserable and unable to overcome some of the oppression.

In conclusion, the Harlem Renaissance was a time where racism between white people and black people was at a high. The injustice black people faced caused a lot of issues in their daily lives. In ‘Returning Soldier’, DuBois expresses how African Americans soldiers who fought in wars, don’t get their freedom and still must deal with racism making them feel hopeless and angry. In ‘Wedding Day’, Bennett shows how racism from white people caused African Americans to become angrier and act violently, and how limited they were to get vengeance against white people without police involvement. In ‘Color struck’, Hurston expresses how African Americans felt colorism in their own race that caused a lot of insecurity, and misery. Each of these authors created an understanding for readers when it comes to how deep the racism affected black people everyday lives.

Bigotry is that the belief that a specific race is superior or inferior to another, that a person’s social and ethical traits are preset by his or her inborn biological characteristics. Racial separatism is that the belief, normally supported racism, that different races should remain unintegrated and aside from each other. Bigotry was an enormous deal within the twentieth century as racism became socially taboo America’s peculiar development morphed once more, into associate interlocking complex of institutional practices that present a new set of extraordinary challenges for black Americans.

The short story ‘Sonny’s Blues’ written by James Baldwin contemplate how society is today, explicitly institutional bigotry. Institutional bigotry portrays the style by that people experience the ill effects of prejudice, since it’s there within the structure of society structures just like the police, the lawful framework, organizations, etc. as the story happens in Harlem within the twentieth century. we have two brothers, however during this story, we have a tendency to see them as completely different individuals with their own life values and points of view. Each of them owns individual issues and conflicts and within the process of interaction and approaching to one friendly family, they encounter some new difficult situations and conflict. the key conflict for sonny is drug addiction and constant suffering, he doesn’t have enough willingness, inner power and self-control to live better, not just for the sake of himself however additionally for the sake of his family and other people who extremely care about him.

Sonny’s blues questions arise themselves from the story in order to resolve a great deal of issues which are too close to our current society and deserves to be mentioned, explored and a self-addressed. James Baldwin brilliantly organized the plot and selected the proper characters to raise the issues. Prejudice is that the dim inclination that courses through ‘Sonny’s Blues’. it’s occasionally documented straightforwardly however its draw may be felt perpetually. for instance, Baldwin mentions decrepit housing projects that rise out of Harlem like ‘rocks in the middle of the boiling sea’ (Baldwin 112). The aftereffect of neighborhood and government segregationist lodging strategies, the undertakings speak to the effect of bigotry on a down trodden network. In like manner, a significant part of the storyteller’s nervousness for the advantage of his understudies may be ascribed to the approach that they, the same as Sonny, are young African American Men living in an exceedingly framework that remorselessly and endlessly oppresses them.

What inspired Baldwin to publish this book In 1957 was after the Supreme Court decision of Brown v. Board of Education; but, it was not really till the Civil Rights Act of 1960 signed by Dwight D. Eisenhower that integrating began to have some impact since several states had defied the previous rulings. On May 24, 1963, James Baldwin himself assembled a group of black leaders who met with lawyer General Robert Kennedy to discuss race relations. He had grown up in Harlem, that he described as a ‘dreadful place . . a concentration camp’ because it was ‘dehumanizing.’ Says the lawyer. with that be being said it offers Baldwin an insight that because of racism people largely see individuals in poverty areas with very little to lose throughout that time period.

Bigotry will have a social affect to a person because it can cause them to suffer in their current lifestyle. As Baldwin turbulently, This suffering is symbolized throughout the work by darkness, that encroaches upon the lives of the narrator’s family and community, one thing to be born and endured. sonny explains that his hard drug usage is an attempt to cope with suffering that will otherwise paralyze him. however suffering, for all the pain it causes, is crucial to both art and redemption. sonny comments on ‘how much suffering must have had to go through’ to sing so beautifully (Baldwin 132). One imagine that Sonny’s music comes from similarly dark experiences. Suffering and darkness, if used creatively, will manufacture works of unparalleled beauty. Suffering additionally confers the power to know and feel true compassion for others, that is crucial for redemption.

In like manner, Prejudice will take varied structures and influences an enormous variety of people in Eire today. There’s the conspicuous ordinary bigotry, where individuals are called names, manhandled and aggravated. At that point, there’s the prejudice that’s progressively unpretentious. this is often the bigotry that makes it harder for individuals to land positions or lodging considering their shading or nationality. many bigotry include making presumptions and speculations or generalizations regarding people who are an alternate shading. These generalizations often see other individuals as second rate, and are utilized to legitimatize the rejection of people from circumstances, assets and power. Even today, the specialists, some legislators and segments of the media can elevate advocate thoughts to legitimatize their views on specific problems. These might incorporate joblessness, lodging deficiencies and wrongdoing. As per the ESRI, in 2006 25% of dark people state they’ are racially mishandled or compromised over the foremost recent a year.’. this will relate how Sonny was perpetrating a wrongdoing by mishandling medication because of experiencing prejudice and being an untouchable to a white men society.

Ireland social issue with bigotry is where Ms. Fitzgerald gives a brief description of Eire as monocultural ignores its tiny endemic black population, the increasing numbers of European, African, Asian and Middle-Eastern residents within the country, further than 21,000 Irish travelers, all of whom accept prejudice and discrimination. Her own sense ‘of not belonging and of not being absolutely understood,’ she says, created her question ‘whether I had the right to bring a toddler, whose cultural origins would be as complex as my very own, into such an unthinking society.

‘My experience of racism in eire began as a student,’ she remembers. ‘In a small town where black ladies were just about non-existent, i used to be significantly conspicuous on and off campus. My middle class, black sexuality was perceived as `exotic’, `exciting’, `dangerous’. i used to be stared at, typically to the purpose of rudeness, notably when walking through the faculty canteen, a torture I before long gave up. “

These feelings of ‘inferiority and unacceptable difference’ continued once she began to work in eire, and later once she married an Irishman. The text relates back to how the narrator and sonny is tormented by the world they live in, and pain they endured their entire life “ The darkness outside is what the old folks have been talking about. It’s what they’ve return from. It’s what they endure. the child knows they won’t speak any longer as a result of if he knows too much concerning what’s happened to them, he’ll recognize too much too soon, regarding what’s going to happen to him” (Baldwin 82). Suffering may be pass down from one generation to following. the parents wish to protect the kids for as long as they can, however they know that suffering are an inevitable part of their lives. except for the children will stay blissfully unaware of what’s looming ahead.

James Baldwin accomplished several things through the writing and publishing of “Sonny’s Blues.” Not solely does the story serve as a memoir into the lives of African Americans in Harlem throughout the 1950’s, but additionally the story portrays the struggles that are often faced in relationships in regards ethical and moral values and responsibilities. Taking everything under consideration, Sonny’s blue will contemplate what’s so far happening today In eire where the individuals who lives still expertise the unwell effects of institutional bigotry as of 2019.

“Sonny’s Blues”, written by James Baldwin is a short fiction story published in 1957. The story takes place at the beginning of the civil rights movement. It describes the relationship between two brothers, one that has fallen in the drug cycle of Harlem, and the other who tried to not repeat the same pattern and become a successful man. Nonetheless, throughout the begin of the story, we can understand that the setting (Harlem), has a significant impact on their relationship, as they describe their problem. Because the cycle of drugs in Harlem, among the African American community was why sonny ended where he was at the time because he wanted to escape the feeling of being trapped by his surroundings, compare to his brother who was able to break it.

Throughout the story, the reader can tell that instead of people venturing into Harlem with hopes of changing their life, Harlem turned into a rundown, poor city. A place that was thought of as a place for people to run away to, was a place that trapped people. In “Sonny’s Blues” Baldwin described Harlem depicts this entrapment. He makes it known that a lot of people are no longer happy there, but for those with no money and who have already fallen under the weight of the city’s bad habits it was extremely hard to get out. The most obvious example was Sonny’s addiction to heroin. The narrator also seemed to be traped in Harlem as well, despite his college degree, and the fact that he did not give in to the pressures of drugs. Baldwin also mentions a failing school system and a lack of resources that may have also kept residents in Harlem.

The town’s success which was turned to poverty and sorrow was also illustrated in Baldwin’s story. He speaks a lot about the darkness of the events, people, and the town itself, and all of the tragedies that hunt the memories of the characters. Sonny’s Blues bops the reader over the head with billy’s clubs of proliferation tragedies: the uncle’s murder, the estranged brothers, Sonny’s arrest, the daughter’s sudden death by polio, the eternal recurrence of heroin addiction, and all the other tales submerged in the passing references to the background characters that populate the story’s Harlem scene . However, the darkness that fills Harlem during this time can also be associated, with the racism that African Americans have been running from and thought they’d escaped by going to Harlem was catching up to them. They’re now realizing there is a large African American population concentrated in one area that is almost set aside. After believing that Harlem would be fulfilling, the African American citizens are beginning to see that it was a place for the dominant white culture to prison them.

Overall, It’s important to understand the history behind Harlem when inquiring “Sonny’s Blues” because Baldwin conveys the hardship of racism, drug and alcohol abuse, and impoverishment that filled Harlem at this time between the prosperous Harlem Renaissance, the battles of World War I, the Great Depression, the Great Migration and the Civil Rights Movement. Baldwin also mimics through his characters that, through the tragic lives they lived they were able to become more appreciative and respectful of life.

At your current age, how would you describe the sum of your life? Would you include your relationships with friends or family? Humans were created as inherently social beings who are constantly striving to connect, interact, and become familiar with each other. Despite our instinctual desire for harmonious relationships, time has encouraged us to place focus and efforts into other things, rather than the creation of relationships. This leads to miscommunication and additional conflict which is represented within Ramsey’s “The Tally Stick”, Baldwin’s “Sonny’s Blues”, and Wilson’s The Piano Lesson.

Within Jarold Ramsey’s expressive poem “The Tally Stick” the relationship of two individuals is explored in depth while being visually represented through a tally stick. Hand carved notches, arrowheads, and additional symbols are littered along the stick’s grain and hold significance of these individuals’ lives together. Over time, the stick has weakened and whittled down; the carvings embody the strength and patience found within their relationship. Ramsey reveals the memories tied to each tick mark, the most intricate carving representing the pair’s wedding day. As we form human relationships, our lives can be intertwined with others as “the grains converge and join” on the splintering stick. Reflecting, the narrator traces the stick’s texture with his thumb, allowing himself to rediscover the details of his past. Arrowheads, a symbol typically associated with acts of violence, are used to ironically represent the birthdays of their children. This intentional association suggests the purpose and direction an arrowhead holds and the guidance and experience children offer their parents. I have found that our family values are often a reflection of who we are and how we are raised. When we find ourselves capable of articulating and living out our instilled values, we are encouraged to be our most authentic self. Through reading “The Tally Stick” I was reminded of the significance of self-expression, problem-solving, growing from mistakes and developing the skills to foster strong relationships while living a fulfilling life.

While many individuals would consider family a central relationship within their life, Baldwin’s emotional short story “Sonny’s Blues” redefines family as Sonny creates his own separate from the one he was born into. This piece emphasizes the importance of listening with an open heart to those you love. We often believe we know what is best for others, and because we love them strongly and want them to remain safe, we either do not or cannot, wait for them to open up and tell us what is happening within their hearts. Failing to listen to the wants and needs of those we surround ourselves with can become damaging to relationships as important pieces of communication can be lost. This correlates to the declining effort we place into our relationships, a consistent theme throughout “The Tally Stick,” “Sonny’s Blues,” and Wilson’s The Piano Lesson. Unlike the narrator, Sonny’s brother, we must practice active listening; and attempt to reduce misunderstanding.

For me, the most conflicting area of the story is presented as Sonny begins to express his own relationship with suffering and explains his attempts of escaping this through drugs. He talks about the power of playing the piano and explains that sometimes he has no option other than to play. He tries to explain to his brother why he turned to drugs in the first place, but the narrator does not want to hear it. He blames the music for leading Sonny to heroin, and he tells Sonny how angry he is that he seems determined to end his life by being an addict. I want to empathize with Sonny and his brother as I am an older sibling myself and also an individual that strongly believes in the importance of artistic expression as a technique of healing the body and mind. I was disappointed with Sonny’s brother for failing to accept that people have different ways of working through things, and for not understanding that being a musician is not what turned Sonny into a drug addict.

It is apparent that misunderstanding and judgement have impacted the lives of the brothers, pain and sorrow plaguing their relationship. Sonny and his brother learn to cope with their pain, suffering, and desire for primacy from Harlem in different avenues. Sonny’s brother desires to find a life outside his teaching career and wishes to live as Sonny does, careless and inattentive. Sonny lives life with avoidance and carelessness; he chalks up heroin to escape the caves of life in Harlem. The narrator tells many stories from their childhood to the time they are reunited as adults with the death of their parents adding to their distance. Sonny and his brother are both in deep search for a breakout from the filth and bareness of Harlem. In their own ways, both characters want to retrieve some of their past relationships to compensate for the hardship within their lives.

The story describes the characters’ intentions while they are riding in the cab, the narrator taking Sonny home. He discovers his own and explains, ‘…it came to me that what we both were seeking through our separate cab windows was that part of ourselves which had been left behind’. I find that this excerpt, as well as other flashbacks, brings us closer to understanding Sonny and the relationship between brothers; they both are desperate to find faded memories that are left behind of their childhood before the pain and misery entered their life.

Gripping to family history with hopes of reviving familial relationships is a theme shared between Baldwin’s “Sonny’s Blues” and Wilson’s The Piano Lesson. The play follows the seemingly selfish intentions of Boy Willie, a stubborn man of action. His quest to make a mark on the world drives the action of the play, his interactions with his family frequently instigating conflict. He is determined to buy Sutter’s land, where his family was originally enslaved. In order to achieve his goal, Boy Willie has decided that the family’s historic piano is the fitting item to sell. The piano is in several ways symbolic of his family’s struggles over the years and his sister Berniece thinks that selling it would be equivalent to selling their souls. It is easy to consider Boy Willie insensitive and Wilson even calls him, “crude.” Despite his first impressions, Boy Willie seems to care for his family’s history, valuing the memories of his ancestors throughout the play. He even takes the time to share elements of his family history with his niece, Maretha. This contrasts with Berniece’s parenting style, shielding her daughter from the potentially painful past. I found Boy Willie’s changing motivation interesting, eventually practicing active listening and allowing Berniece to keep the piano. As Berniece uses the piano to call to the family’s ancestors, an attempt to banish Sutter’s ghost, Boy Willie is convinced that the family heirloom has a value that it deeper than money or physical land. Although he does not accomplish his original goal, Boy Willie has managed to impact his sister’s view of the past. Berniece recognizes the importance of embracing the past as part of the family history, allowing the piano to bring her strength. Boy Willie reminds her of her internal strength as he leaves, saying, ‘Hey Berniece…if you and Maretha don’t keep playing that piano…ain’t no telling…me and Sutter both liable to be back.’ Wilson’s piece ultimately speaks to the significance of character interactions, including conflict, and the themes of family history and relationships.

We live in a connected world. A world founded in family relationships, business relationships, community relationships and beyond. A relationship has little potential without connection, regardless of how we individually define what it means to be connected. We are to embrace our desire to connect, interact, and form fulfilling relationships. We should strive to overcome the temptation to place the entirety of our focus into other areas of our lives while fostering the relationships we currently hold. If we are able to adopt this mentality, we have the potential to avoid the miscommunication and pain that interrupts relationships. Allow yourself to struggle if it is to shape you; considering adversity’s positive influence on the characters within Ramsey’s “The Tally Stick,” Baldwin’s “Sonny’s Blues,” and Wilson’s The Piano Lesson.

Essay 2: The Piano Lesson, How I Learned to Drive (Education of Maturation)

John Huston Finley, a former Professor of Politics at Princeton University, reflected on maturity; defining it as “the capacity to endure uncertainty” (Maturity). Each individual has a moral obligation to attain maturity and a sense of self as we age. Some mature early in life, while others never fully reach emotional maturation. Although maturity is not a natural consequence of aging, an individuals’ willingness to experience life while having the flexibility to adapt and change can support personal growth. We must also learn to respect the differences and perspectives of others, considering that maturity can be categorized as a discipline rather than a trait. It is ultimately a sign of intelligence, learning to properly respond to your environment with intentions of responsibility. Through Wilson’s The Piano Lesson and Vogel’s How I Learned to Drive, characters embody maturity and confirm it to be a discipline that is learned rather than acquired.

Within Wilson’s The Piano Lesson, Boy Willie introduces the play’s central conflict. His character drives the plot, shaping the dramatic structure of the play. His impulsive nature encourages a lofty goal of selling the family’s heirloom, a hand-carved piano, to purchase Sutter’s land, where his family was originally enslaved. This, in addition to revealing stage directions, represents his brash character and childlike inclinations. In contrast to his tendency to seemingly disregard his family’s traumatic past, he is especially passionate regarding questions of race. He refuses to accommodate the current racial situation, declaring himself equal to his white peers. He insists that he is deserving of a higher quality of life, sparking his intentions of impacting the world around him. Willie seeks Sutter’s land as a means of leveling the playing field with his white neighbor. Sutter’s land contrasts from the setting of the play’s action, Doaker Charles’ home which lacks warmth and vigor despite Berniece’s presence. Adding value to himself and attempting to add respect behind his family’s name, Willie is demonstrating emotional maturity. The Piano Lesson is a testimony to Willie’s personal growth and relationship with maturity as his environmental awareness increases throughout the piece. He begins to more successfully understand and manage his emotions, maintaining a calmer exterior; recognizing that vision and empathy have the potential to work for and against one another. Willie begins to take responsibility for his own happiness, creating goals and defining a flexible plan for individual and familial success. He additionally learns to respect boundaries, recognizing when it is appropriate to stop arguing. Allowing Bernice to keep the piano, Willie is accepting that the family heirloom has a value that it deeper than money or physical land. He has come to respect the perspectives of his family, relaxing his body language and tone, no longer indulging in comparisons of an alternative lifestyle.

As Boy Willie accepts change within himself, Li’l Bit embraces internal change and finds control within the chaos of her life. Despite this growth, the structure of the piece defies the natural process of aging. Vogel’s How I Learned to Drive presents Li’l Bit as a grown woman in her thirties and moves backward through her life. This intentional element of drama reveals the details of her relationship with Peck in a style that varies from her true experience. In the opening scene, Li’l Bit is seventeen and presents the audience with a bold statement claiming, “I am very old, very cynical of the world, and I know it all.” Questioning assumptions that typically connect chronological development and maturity, the piece redefines the significance of growing up.

Similar to Willie’s grasping of his moral responsibility, Li’l Bit begins to comprehend her potential for emotional development. Ultimately terminating the unhealthy relationship with her uncle that she has fostered for years, she acknowledges the events that originally drove her to him. Her name, a symbol, is suggestive of the kind of background she comes from, in which family members have nicknames with sexual connotations. She relishes in the attention that he gives her throughout the years, accepting gifts and posing for individual photoshoots. When she begins to develop, her mother and grandparents make her self-conscious, and children make her feel like and outcast at school, but Peck speaks to her sympathetically. We can ultimately conclude that the relationship is questionable; Peck’s desire for control overpowers his seemingly calm and careful demeanor. He appears gentle, depressed and clean of the standard “predatory monster” characteristics. His character, fascinating to Li’l Bit, likely increases her desire to care for Peck and defend him from rumors of scandal. In order for the audience to understand Li’l Bit’s decisions, they must understand that this is not a typical story of a one-dimensional abuse but represents the uncomfortable encounters of two damaged people. They must additionally recognize the nature of learning within her character and understand that their ability to predict her character is rooted within personal expectations and familiarity with dramatic character roles. Identifying Li’l Bit as the protagonist and understanding the limitations of time, the audience accepts Li’l Bit as far from “typical innocent victim” with little hesitation. The piece encourages the audience to sympathize with and in a way admire Li’l Bit while we are to interpret Peck in a negative light.

For Li’l Bit, learning to mature means understanding, rather than simply accumulating experience, and her process of understanding unfolds in a scattered timeline. Despite her young age during the earliest chronological scene, Li’l Bit is intellectually mature. She understands her situation more clearly than many adults would and conceals any blame she knows Peck deserves. Learning from her family to hold a mature perspective of sex at a young age, Li’l Bit allows knowledge to obscure her need for emotional growth. The most vital element of this growth requires her to distance herself from her family, especially from Peck. She eventually releases Peck’s presence, feeling grateful to him for the freedom of driving. Symbolically leaving the past behind her, Li’l Bit visualizes Peck in her rearview mirror. Her conscious decision to drive off distances her from the uncertainties she previously endured, proving her maturity within the eyes of Professor Finley. This release additionally satisfies the hopes and possible expectations of the audience, completing the cycle of plot and wrapping up the remaining details of the piece.

Although maturity does not directly correlate with typical education, learning and maturation are closely interrelated. Maturation often compensates for the gaps of change that learning presents an individual. Through Wilson’s The Piano Lesson and Vogel’s How I Learned to Drive, Boy Willie and Li’l Bit discover the significance of learning maturity for the protection of relationships, safety, and the increased potential for a rewarding life. Working to understand the impact they have on those around them, the characters embrace their emotional growth and recognize the substance found within their experience.

Works Cited

1. “Maturity Is the Capacity to Endure Uncertainty.” The BMJ, British Medical Journal Publishing Group, 3 Dec. 2018, www.bmj.com/rapid-response/2011/11/01/maturity-capacity-endure-uncertainty.

“Too much knockin’ will ruin any ‘oman. He done beat huh ‘nough tuh kill three women, let ‘lone change they looks,” says Elijah Mosley one of the characters discussing how Sykes Jones treats his wife Delia Jones in Zora Neale Hurston’s short story, Sweat. He uses this comment to express the extent of Sykes’ abuse and Delia’s resilience. Elijah says that beating a woman will ruin the beauty of any women and Sykes did not only beat Delia enough to change her looks, but he has beaten her enough to kill three women. This quote is the reason why I chose this topic, domestic violence in African American literature.

During this time, African American authors were able to pick up on the play of gender roles and produce a strong commentary on how women were often oppressed by men. In the two short stories “Sweat” and “Like a Winding Sheet” shows how men and women were treated during the Harlem Renaissance. The abuse they endured and how they still prevailed. Characters in these stories were affected by such roles mentally, physically, and emotionally. Zora Neale Hurston uses symbolism, foreshadowing, and imagery throughout the story of “Sweat” and Ann Petry uses foreshadowing, symbolism, and social realism throughout the story of “Like a Winding Sheet”. I wish to show how African American men and women prevailed during the 1920s and show how they overcame domestic violence and every other obstacle that was thrown at them and how they had a special role in the South during the development of the United States.

In the short story, “Sweat” the protagonist Delia Jones is a prime example of how African American women prevailed during the 1920s. She’s a hardworking woman who lives in Florida. She provides for her and her husband Sykes by cleaning clothes for white people. She holds fast to her Christian beliefs, while her husband Sykes does nothing to contribute to the house, neither does he allow her to work in peace. He abuses her physically, mentally, and emotionally by walking around town with his mistress, he talks down on Delia, and he also brought a rattlesnake to put it in her washcloth basket. Throughout all these obstacles Delia still prevailed. In “Like a Winding Sheet” Johnson is an African American male who goes to work to endure a long day of being treated less than a person. He’s late getting to work, and his boss gets angry at him and calls him a nigger. After work, he tries to get a cup of coffee but is refused because he’s black.

By reading this essay, critics can gain the opportunity to see the struggles African Americans dealt with during the Harlem Renaissance. This presentation will go further into explaining how holding onto things aren’t good, and how to persevere when your adversary lives with you. It will be interesting to re-read these stories for its message about good vs evil and devastation that can be caused by racial injustice. Finally, I hope to increase everyone’s knowledge of the great works that Zora Neale Hurston and Ann Petry created and add them to the Hall of African American heroes.

A person’s race has always had relevance in his/her life in ways that sometimes don’t necessarily make sense or are simply just racist. Two African Americans who have been impacted by their race are Brent Staples and Zara Neale Hurston. In “Just Walk On By: Back Men and Public Spaces”, Staples claims that black men are automatically labeled as criminals and treated as such even when they have done nothing wrong to prove it, while, throughout “How It Feels to Be Colored Like Me”, Hurston argues that race isn’t an essential feature that a person is born with, but instead emerges in specific social situations: these two themes, though very different, have a similar base that “race isn’t everything” and people should not be judged based on the color of their skin. Throughout both texts, Hurston and Staples develop varying themes using the same rhetorical modes: narrative/personal anecdotes to draw sympathy from the reader and demonstrate one’s recognition of their color, imagery to assist readers in fully experiencing the story and also appeal to their senses, and comparison to enhances the descriptions of the fear (onomatopoeia) and to use a more simple-widely known example to explain a more complex argument (analogy).

From the very beginning, to develop each of their themes, the two authors use narration and personal anecdotes that serve their own purposes in each text. Brent displays an example of a time when he entered a jewelry store for an article but instead witnessed the worker in the store bring out “enormous red Doberman pinscher” to make readers realize the hardship of the lives of black men who can’t even enter a jewelry store without causing alarm. Several of these kinds of examples makes the reader feel sympathy towards black men as a whole and the prejudice they are forced to endure. However, Zora remembers the “day that I became colored… I was not Zora of orange county anymore; I was now a little colored girl,” demonstrating that she loves her culture, even if it was what determined who she was and where she stood in society, and she recognized her color.

Furthermore, to develop each narrative, Staples and Hurston use very vivid imagery and diction: Staples to help readers fully experience his story and imagine the situations he has to cope with and Hurston to appeal to the reader’s senses. In Brent’s very first sentence, he states that his “first victim was a woman”, which causes readers to assume that Staples hurt this woman in some way, the same way people assume the worst about Black people in most situations. Soon after, readers understand that they made this assumption and may even have a realization that they make these prejudicial assumptions often. On the other hand, Zora talks about the jazz orchestra in the New World Cabaret that “constricts the thorax and splits the heart with its tempo and narcotic harmonies