Category: Han Dynasty

Paper is all around us even now, used for writing, artwork, packaging, cleaning, and more. In Europe paper has been available for over 800 years, but it has actually existed for much longer. In fact, paper travelling on the Silk Road took almost 1000 years after it’s creation to reach Europe. The reasons behind this are complex and often intertwining.

There are many popular perceptions regarding the Silk road, several of which are in fact misconceptions. It is well believed that the Silk Road is only one long road, traversing from Chang’an (today’s Xian) in China, “across Central Asia and the Middle East, terminating in Constantinople or Rome”. It was however a network of trade routes, going both east and west, including the often-forgotten maritime routes. Often the Silk Road is associated with direct trade between China and Europe, but there were many countries trading on the Silk Road, particularly in Asia, with China and Europe very rarely interacting directly. In the case of paper, initially Europe received paper from Islamic ports, made in countries in the Abbasid Empire, rather than Chinese paper.

Although it is frequently said that the caravans on the Silk Road were often made of hundreds, if not thousands of people; other researchers dispute this – suggesting that only small groups of caravans travelled, as there was not much trade of products going on. Valerie Hansen suggests that the Silk Road ‘routes were among the least travelled in human history’, only being so well known due to its ‘rich cultural legacy’. She argued as well, that rather than traders, it was mostly refugees, missionaries, and artists travelling on the road. These types of people would be more likely to buy local products, rather than trade foreign goods.

Many people also presume that only silk was traded, but there were actually many products being bought and sold; both from the east to the west, and vice versa. These included paper, fruit and vegetables, spices, chemicals, art, and more. There was also huge trade of cultures and technology taking place. Some researchers believe this trade was what made the Silk Road so famous, rather than a physical trade of products. This allowed for a great mix of languages, religions, and skills to be spread on the Silk Road; such as, water irrigation systems from the west (Syria), and paper and silk making from the east (China). These misconceptions perhaps arose due to the name ‘Silk Road’, inferring the movement of silk on a singular road. This name was recently given to it by Ferdinand von Richthofen in the 19th century; previously there was no name for these routes.

It is recorded that paper making began in the Eastern Han dynasty in 105AD by a court official, Cai Lun. However, older paper has been found dating back to 200BC, so it is difficult to say when it was truly created. By the 3rd century paper and papermaking spread east along the silk road to become widespread in China. Paper was far better for writing on than previous writing equipment in the east: wooden strips and silk – this helped it spread fast in China. After spreading throughout China, paper, as well as paper making, tended to only move from east to west as the skill of papermaking usually spread soon after the paper itself. Chinese paper however was often still exported as it was deemed valuable, especially by Persian calligraphers.

The movement of paper was greatly aided by missionaries spreading their faith. Buddhist monks brought scriptures, (and so paper), to Korea in the 6th century; and then to Japan, Tibet, and India in the 7th century. As different plants grow in different countries, this allowed diverse types of paper to be developed from the new plant fibres available.

In the 8th century papermaking spread to the Islamic world after the Battle of Talas River in 751AD between the Tang dynasty and the Arab Abbasid Empire. After winning the battle, giving the Abbasids control over trading on that part of the Silk Road, the Abbasids captured some of the Chinese soldiers, including paper artisans. The paper and paper making techniques soon spread across the Abbasid Empire. It reached Egypt in the 10th century, and finally Spain in the 11th century – brought by Arabic prisoners. The first European paper mill appeared in 1150AD in Valencia, over 1200 years after paper was initially created. Soon paper making spread across Europe through imitation.

There are several reasons as to why the paper took so long to travel along the Silk Road. Firstly, both China and the Abbasid Empire attempted to keep the art of paper making a secret after learning it themselves. This would allow them to make more money trading, as the paper could be sold at a high price due to limited availability in other countries. China succeeded in keeping it a secret from other nations for almost 700 years. The Abbasid Empire, who only gained the secret to paper making themselves through defeating China in a battle, rather than through trade, only kept it a secret for almost 200 years. This secrecy meant that it was difficult for paper to be widely spread in countries that only had access to trading paper, rather than creating it themselves – slowing paper’s movement.

The scarcity of paper in these countries that were unable to manufacture it themselves, led to paper being reused due to its high value. In some areas, even local rulers would use paper that already had writing on one side. Paper was also re-used to make clothes for the dead, or paper models to be put in graves. This meant that there was less paper available to be traded.

The paper that was traded could only be moved in small quantities as it weighed a lot. As well as that, most travellers would trade at each trade point they reached, rather than further away cities. This behaviour was a safety measure to reduce danger and loss of profit if they were attacked while travelling. Due to its usefulness, and constant reuse, unused paper would be unlikely to be resold by countries where there were no means of producing paper.

In the west, there were already a variety of writing materials used such as papyrus and parchment. In fact, many of the bibles available were written on parchment, this was however quite expensive. Also, in most western countries there was a low literacy rate, with only the upper class able to read. Additionally, Christians, Jews, and Muslims took some time to accept paper as a writing material acceptable for holy scriptures. This meant that there was not such a need for paper in these countries – reducing trade. It was only when ‘a commercial class’ rose that the need for cheaper material led to buying more paper: as an increasing amount of accounts and contracts had to be recorded. Similarly, religious groups eventually changed to paper as they grew in size, and so needed low-priced material.

Perhaps if the popular view of more traders were true (rather than Hansen’s view of few traders), the paper will have travelled faster; nevertheless, this idea does not take into account the many other aspects that slowed the spread of paper. For example: even with more merchants, the scarcity of paper in nations that cannot produce it themselves would leave less paper available to trade and move to other countries – the short distance travelled before selling could lead to this furthermore. Unfortunately, an increase in traders would not affect the secrecy of papermakers or the reduced need of paper in Europe. Due to this, it is difficult to be sure of the difference in impact an increased number of traders would have had.

Overall, the role played by the number of traders on the Silk Road in the slow movement of paper does not seem as much of an issue as the secrecy of the nations, China and the Abbasid Empire – which together halted the knowledge of papermaking for a total of 900 years. This leaves only 100 years for a less restricted movement of paper on the Silk Road. With journeys just within China taking up to a year between trading hubs, and travellers selling their wares at each city they reach, it is no surprise that paper took so long to travel out of East Asia. Added to the original rejection of paper by more western religions, and the reduced need due to availability of other writing products and low literacy, the reasons behind the millennium of no paper in Europe become clear. However, it would be interesting to see more research done in the area of the popular perception of the Silk Road in regard to how much trade was going on. This would allow for a more detailed analysis of how it impacted the movement of paper.

The Han Dynasty inspires images of grandeur, inventiveness, and, ultimately, ruin. Its impact on Chinese history is immense. This essay examines the fantastic Han Dynasty, unraveling the numerous facets that molded China’s trajectory. The chronicle of the Han Dynasty unfolds as a narrative of power, cultural blossoming, and societal progress. Let’s embark on the journey that starts with the empire’s founding and ends with its eventual demise.

The Genesis: Emergence of a Dominant Force

In 206 BCE, the Western Han Dynasty emerged from the ashes of the Qin Dynasty. The remarkable rise to power of Liu Bang, a commoner who achieved it through sheer tenacity, served as its driving force. This dynastic transition began a new era characterized by policies that embraced the underprivileged. The dynasty’s early years bore witness to societal and administrative reforms. The reforms aimed to consolidate power and heal the scars of previous governance. Amid these changes, technological advancements took center stage. The development of advanced metallurgy techniques for iron and bronze, coupled with water-powered mills, signified the dynasty’s mastery of science and engineering.

Dynastic Stability and Growth

Under the reign of Emperor Wu, the Western Han Dynasty soared to new heights. Emperor Wu initiated a series of strategic expansions driven by ambitions to assert China’s dominance. His decisions and actions would eventually culminate in the opening of the fabled Silk Road. This monumental trade network facilitated cultural exchanges, technological dissemination, and diplomatic interactions with neighboring regions. The foundation of a centralized bureaucracy solidified the empire’s stability. The new system fostered efficient governance and economic growth. During this period, they witnessed the blossoming of Confucianism as the state ideology, shaping governance, societal norms, and values.

Government and Administration

Central to the success of the Han Dynasty was its innovative approach to governance and administration – the establishment of a centralized bureaucracy allowed for efficient decision-making and resource allocation. The Confucian principles played their part here. The creation of a civil service examination system ensured a competent administrative elite. The system evaluated candidates based on merit rather than birthright. This advancement fostered social mobility and laid the foundation for effective governance that endured for centuries.

Military Expansion and Defense

The Han Dynasty’s military prowess and strategic expansion are remarkable achievements. The dynasty’s expansion efforts, notably under Emperor Wu, saw the annexation of new territories, including the Hexi Corridor and parts of Vietnam. These conquests facilitated the establishment of the Silk Road, linking China with the Mediterranean and enabling trade, cultural exchanges, and diplomatic interactions. The dynasty’s military advancements, such as improved weaponry and tactical innovations, secured its borders and established a legacy of military discipline.

Economic Flourishing and Agricultural Innovations

Ingenious agricultural advancements and a thriving trade network marked the Han Dynasty’s economic achievements. The introduction of the iron plow, ox-drawn harrow, and improved irrigation systems revolutionized agriculture, increasing food production and population growth. This surplus food supply supported urbanization and economic development. Establishing the Silk Road, a network of trade routes, facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and technologies, contributing to economic prosperity.

Cultural Flourish and Technological Marvels

The Han Dynasty nurtured an era of unparalleled cultural vibrancy and scientific advancement. The innovation of papermaking, an art that has stood the test of time, revolutionized communication and knowledge dissemination. Astronomical accomplishments, including the invention of the seismoscope, testified to the dynasty’s scientific prowess. However, it was literature and the arts that truly flourished. The monumental work “The Records of the Grand Historian” by Sima Qian and the poetic compositions of the “Book of Songs”, encapsulated the spirit of the age and left an indelible mark on Chinese cultural heritage. Intricate bronze artifacts, delicate ceramics, and captivating poetry are a testament to the artistic brilliance that characterized the era.

Foreign Relations and Diplomacy

Diplomatic endeavors were pivotal in the Han Dynasty’s rise and preservation. The dynasty’s foreign relations extended its reach beyond its borders. Diplomatic interactions with neighboring states and nomadic tribes secured territorial boundaries, fostered trade, and ensured a delicate balance between expansion and security. The dynasty solidified its hegemonic position through strategic alliances, emphasizing diplomacy as a cornerstone of its success.

Expansion of Trade and Cultural Exchange

The Han Dynasty’s economic achievements were not confined to agricultural innovations alone. The establishment of the Silk Road, a sprawling network of trade routes connecting China to the Mediterranean, enabled the exchange of goods, ideas, and cultures on an unprecedented scale. This vibrant trade network facilitated the flow of silk, spices, precious metals, and cultural artifacts, enriching the dynasty’s economic coffers and tapestry.

Technological Contributions and Innovations

In the realm of technology, the Han Dynasty’s achievements reverberate through time. Beyond agricultural innovations, the dynasty made significant strides in metallurgy, particularly iron production. The mastery of advanced metallurgical techniques led to the creation of high-quality iron tools, weaponry, and infrastructure. This technological prowess fueled economic growth and underscored the dynasty’s military might.

Religious and Philosophical Influences

Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism philosophies wove a tapestry that shaped the dynasty’s identity. Confucian principles, advocating moral integrity, respect for authority, and the role of education, became the bedrock of the empire’s governance. Daoism’s emphasis on harmony with nature and the pursuit of balance resonated with the prevailing societal values. Meanwhile, Legalism, though diminished in prominence, left an indelible imprint on the dynasty’s bureaucratic structure.

Legacy of Art and Architecture

The Han Dynasty’s influence on art and architecture reverberates through time. The construction of grand palaces, temples, and elaborate tombs showcased the dynasty’s architectural prowess. These structures not only served functional purposes but also exemplified the aesthetic values of the era. The architectural legacy of the Han Dynasty paved the way for subsequent dynasties, influencing architectural designs and urban planning for centuries to come.

Cultural Blossoming and Scholarly Endeavors

In the realm of culture, the Han Dynasty witnessed a golden age of literary and artistic expression. The patronage of Confucian ideals elevated the importance of education and scholarship. Renowned works, such as “The Records of the Grand Historian” by Sima Qian, became enduring classics, preserving historical narratives for posterity. Poetry and literature flourished, reflecting the people’s values, aspirations, and daily lives. This cultural flourishing left an indelible mark on Chinese heritage.

Scientific Inquiry and Astronomical Advances

Its astronomical innovations exemplified the Han Dynasty’s contributions to science. The invention of the seismoscope, attributed to Zhang Heng, demonstrated the dynasty’s understanding of natural phenomena. Additionally, astronomical observations and calendars laid the groundwork for accurately predicting celestial events and seasons. This scientific curiosity reflected the dynasty’s intellectual interest and legacy of inquiry.

Challenges and Decline

While the Eastern Han Dynasty succeeded its predecessor, challenges loomed on the horizon. Internal strife, corruption, and social inequality marred the empire’s stability. The kingdom faced agrarian revolts fueled by socioeconomic disparities and suffered incursions from nomadic tribes. Among these challenges, the Yellow Turban Rebellion held profound significance. Driven by grievances against societal inequality and an oppressive government, this uprising exposed the dynasty’s vulnerability, marking a turning point.

Conclusion: Legacy and Reflections

The legacy of the Han Dynasty is one of constant change, cultural resonance, and long-lasting accomplishments. Its rise from humble beginnings shows how determined people can be. The dynasty’s embrace of Confucianism and its contributions to literature, art, and science leave an indelible mark on Chinese cultural history. But the fact that it eventually fell shows how complicated government is, how fragile power is, and how history repeats itself.

The Han Dynasty is an important part of the big story of human history. It shows how power, culture, and the development of society all work together. Its legacy is still felt today, not only in China’s culture but also in how people worldwide think about ancient civilizations. The rise and fall of the Han Dynasty gives us a chance to think about how hard it is to run a country, how critical cultural achievements are, and what we can learn from history.

In an essay by the Chinese philosopher and political thinker, Wang Fu, he explains the folly of the system of recruitment for civil service during the Han Dynasty. Instead of looking at qualifications, someone was hired through their connections to those already in power. Ideally, in a this sort of society, the only ones hired would be those who have proven themselves to be morally fit for the job, as judged by those already personally acquainted with them. But the whole system was flawed at it’s core, with people taking advantage of it in order to claim an esteemed position of power. Wang Fu described how friendship turned into shallow relationships for those wealthy and in power, while the poor were cast aside. People would befriend others for selfish reasons, only to gain some sort of benefits. The topics addressed in his essay are able to give a brief view into the Han Dynasty and it’s people at the time. One of the underlying concept this entire essay reveals of the Han Dynasty is that people seemed to be very quick to judge. A person’s status and appearance was a swift way for someone to determine whether or not they wanted to become friendly with someone else. Fu gives many examples of the contrast between the treatment of the people who look rich and powerful versus those who do not, and gives his reasoning as to why people would act in such a way and why it is detrimental to society.

Wang Fu may have had many reasons for writing this piece, but as he himself never landed an official post, it would be reasonable to think that he wrote this in response to that fact. According to Margaret Pearson in her article, “The Nature of the Worthy in the Political Thought of Wang Fu”, she states that Wang Fu “…argued that many (like himself), though less-than-perfect, were worthy of official responsibility” (Pearson 282). Fu believed that many are born with the capabilities to hold official responsibility, but never obtained it due to various circumstances. Since he never seized a position for himself even though he felt entitled and worthy of one, his writing reflected that. This is a factor to consider during the analyses of his essay, as it may have led to him learning one way or another.

Wang Fu opens the essay with the quote “With people, the old friends are the best; with things, the new ones are the best”. He goes on to say that this is how friendship should be, with people growing closer as time passes. The longer you know someone, the closer you two should be in your friendship. Though around the time of Fu’s essay, those in the Han Dynasty would seemingly let old friendships fade away, while seeking to make new friends with those who were wealthy or in power, breaking “the ancient sages’ instruction to treasure old friends”. Fu came to the conclusion that it was a common tendency for people to try and charm the higher ups for their own benefit while disregarding anyone below them. In befriending those with a higher status, they may slowly be brought up to a higher level or wealth or status, while making acquaintances with anyone below will result in a net loss through their favors that they are unable to repay in one way or another. This brings up the idea that, regarding politics and power, some people at the time deemed giving up humility and honesty for wealth or power was a worthy compromise. Though this is not an idea exclusive to the era, it is interesting to note since the way the political system was set up, it essentially encouraged it.

With a nature that was quick to judge, some things may not have been what they appeared to be. The poor could wear classy clothes and become considered extravagant, while if they wore ragged clothing, they would not be given a second thought. An immensely wise scholar could have the appearance of a beggar, and nobody would listen. While there may be some bias in Fu’s words, seeing that he never secured a position position, it still displays the flaw of the political system: the cunning and crafty minds to rise to power, through a friendship with ulterior motives. There was no check in place to validate their abilities. Officials would recommend those close to them, and men of wealth and influence over those where were the most worthy and capable for the job. This system existed for a while until there were written examinations for candidates, so aside from Wang Fu and some other critics, it seemed most people were largely okay with how it worked out. A majority of those in the Han Dynasty either were not aware of the specifics to become an official during this time, or they just accepted the process, which is telling of the apathy towards politics. Still, even with this inefficient method of casting officials, there must have been some worthy for the position.

Wang Fu did not believe anyone would stay worthy without supervision. Existing problems may frustrate the righteous, and tempt their weaknesses to take the easy, path and “…he will catch the illness of arrogance… which will destroy him” (Pearson 284). So Fu believed in honesty from potential candidates. Instead of an embellishment of their strengths, he wanted to hear weaknesses along with strengths, he wanted to assess a candidate wholly instead of just by appearance and connections. He likened the imperfections of a someone to salt that is used to polish gold; some commodities are made valuable by cheap, or ugly things. That is to say, in order to get the best out of people, one needs to understand their own weaknesses to be more effective. People of the Han Dynasty who put forward a perfect front are not brought accepted into the position because of their character, ability, skills or deeds, but instead they make up false reputations and “…at best, the deeds and abilities of most of them do not even approach mediocrity” (Pearson 283). This is further evidence of how the compromise of humility for power was commonplace.

The Han Dynasty had an easily exploitable system for getting their officials. Until the written examination system, men rose to power purely through networking. The inadequate method of being recommended through someone who was already an official brought forth people who were able to figure out how they would abuse this, instead of bringing in those who were actually qualified. Becoming friends with one another was essentially a business ordeal, where it would only happen if both of the people came to the conclusion that the friendship would be beneficial to themselves at the least. Wang Fu’s essay on Friendship and Getting Ahead brought a critical light to these ideas, and as an reader centuries later, it also revealed a few of the values and considerations of the people of that time. Men would become crafty in their approach and give up benevolence for a shot at power. Those not involved in the politics were not bothered enough to do anything about it. The meaning of friendship was lost to those who wanted to get ahead.

Imagine going back in 202 BCE and trying to get to a certain destination not knowing how far you have to travel. During this time women didn’t really have a say so in things they had to listen to the person who was head of the house. The Chinese and Roman empires had it a little rough, but thankfully they made roads. The Chinese empire made the Silk Road which the name came from them being well known for their silk. The Roman Empire built the straight Roman Roads. It made life better for many regions, so they could travel, communicate, and learn new things such as in new religions, cultures, goods, and more.

The Silk Road of the Han dynasty is the most important trade route in the world. The road is connected to India, the Middle East, and Southern Europe. At one point they had to make the Silk Road into two branches because it ended up in a dangerous desert. ‘It spread goods, ideas, and technologies between cultures with no contact.’ With traveling it was easy for their animals to carry their goods. People buy or sell silk, pottery, spices, and more. The Chinese people bought spices, wines, and horses from other stations one time and then reproduce it and sell it back to them. If China can’t reproduce the goods, then they just buy it. For example, Egypt balloon glass, which was only bought by wealthy people, pearls that were from the Red Sea, Baltic which is a stone, and an orangey color amber. China made things handmade and everybody wanted it, so they were rich. They sell tea leaves, spices, porcelain, and silk that were used for clothes, drapes, and sheets. China really just wanted money, gold, and silver.

The Roman trade route was called Roman Roads. The Roman armies were powerful and they destroyed other countries. Augustus was the emperor which means he was the head of the army and he was responsible for the Roman Road system. In the text, it says that ‘Augustus once traveled 180 miles in a single day over the Roman roads.’ Augustus brought pax Romana for a two-hundred-year period to his empire and Rome with their economics and politics. The Romans took an enormous amount of land and it made it easier for the Roman to trade, but it was crucial for them too. They made the first modern highway road and they had marked milestones, so the people can know how far their destination is. Slaves had to do hard labor and do difficult work while making the roads. ‘Roman engineers prepared a deep bed for their roads, edged them with curbs, provided for drainage, and then topped them off with large, flat paving stones.’ Most importantly it helped provide them with a source of income for food. The roads were a way for the Roman to show their authority to others. ‘Their main roads were large it was big enough to make a two-way lane out of it.’ The road was connected all over the Roman empire. They had the technology and even moved water systems through tunnels. The builders made new roads so there can be traveling especially for their army and trading. ‘Scholars estimate the combined length of the Roman roads was greater than 80,000 kilometers (50,000 miles).’

Sea lanes helped China’s merchants and sailors to have access to port things across their regions. Religions came through the sea lands which expanded through the regions. In classical times, the sea lanes in the Silk Roads were very busy. Romans took advantage of the sea lanes through the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea. The sea lanes helped them to keep ‘communications with all regions of their empire.’ Through the sea lanes, a plague came upon destroying some of the Romans.

The Silk Road was important because it helped the military to travel to different places. The Chinese people made a lot of money with selling their trade goods. ‘These routes enabled the movement of traditions, innovations, ideologies, and languages.’ The language they picked up in Chinese is Mandarin and Christianity, Buddhism, and Hinduism spread through the routes. Technology advances writing on scripts of bamboo which the paper is very thick. It was made from fibers and then they had to wet it, crisscross and beat them. The Romans ‘integrated their empire by building networks of transportation and communication.’ Traveling was much easier for the people and selling goods. The Romans’ religion, Christianity which expanded throughout the regions and they adopted most religions of the people they take in.

In conclusion, the Chinese empire and the Romans were smart during these days. During the Han dynasty, they made money from their silk but after creating the Silk Road they made a lot more. The Romans had great road builders which made creating their Roman Roads successful. The roads made a way for society to be connected and expand with different regions. Trading helped the travelers learn new religions, ideas, and goods. To this day people can use the many roads and see how they changed.

China, built from the very start as a place where dynasties once ruled.People, who would make China?s identity as a country. Throughout China?s history, there were many different dynasties that played an beneficial part in advancing China today. Dynasties, the foundation of China, the foundation for which China would be born as one of the most powerful countries in the world. Many of China?s dynasties were beneficial to China as a whole but one of the most beneficial dynasties was the Han Dynasty.

The Han Dynasty was one of the most influential and one of the powerful dynasties because of what they did while they were at power in China and here is how they began. In the year of 206 B.C., the Han Dynasty was formed and it became the dynasty that ruled China from then. The Han dynasty was the dynasty that had overthrown the Qin dynasty which was the dynasty that had been in rule of China before them. The Han Dynasty was started by a man named Liu Bang and soon he also had gained the role of becoming the Gaozu Emperor.

Liu Bang was one of the people who were responsible for the overthrow of the Qin Dynasty as he had made his own army after the Qin Dynasty had diminished and then took over the throne. According to the “Ancient History Encyclopedia”, “Liu Bang was the first Chinese Emperor who was originally a commoner.” It was from there that Liu Bang had established many different things and one of these things had occured within Chang?am and within Chang?am became the imperial capital. The city of Chang?am from that point foward became a very important city because according to the “Ancient History Encyclopedia”, “the city turned into a political, economic, military, and cultural centre of China.”

It was soon later that the Emperor of Ghazou had passed and then it was time for someone else to take over the throne in the Han Dynasty Era. It was then tht the Han Dynasty had encountered on the many sturggles that their dynasty would experience which was someone else wanted to take the throne, but the problem was that the person who wanted to take over the Dynasty was not a Han. This person was known as Lü Hou and she was a very greedy person and she had killed almost all of Liu Bang’s kids so that there would be no other Heirs to the throne and then she would be the one to take over the throne and thus a new dynasty would have started.

Little did she know that there was still one son of Liu Bang who was still alive and his name was Emperor Wen and because he was one the last sons that survived from the killings, he gained heir to the throne and because he had found out what Lü Hou tried to do, he ended up doing the same to her by killing all of the members of her family or as much as he could at the time, the Han dynasty would still live on. It was soon later that the Han Dynasty would start to do things that were beneficial for China and would help China become the Country they are today.

The Han Dynasty did amny different things that helped to make China the country they are today and here are just many of the few things that they helped to do in China at the time. The Han Dynast being one of the longest lasting dynasties in China, was able to accomplish many things that were beneficial to China and would be crucial to China’s society economically and politically.

The Han Dynasty did many things for China for example according to “ancient.eu” the Han dynasty “would have lasting effects on all who followed, particularly in the areas of government, law, philosophy, history, and art” and these were some of the main things that China is known for today. Many of the inventions that they Han dynasty had come up with is something that would help China otherwise probably would not be in China today if it weren’t for the Han Dynasty at the time. Some of the other things that the Han dynasty had created were things like the “Silk road” and according to ancient.eu, the silk road was known as “a network of trade routes” which helped to increase the amount of trade that China did with other countries/ people at the time.

The Silk road was mainly used to trade with the western cultures and this is where most trade occurred in China at the time because of how widely it was used by those people, however it became known as the Silk road because one of the main things that was traded on the trade route was silk. One of the many main things that the Han dynasty had created for China that benefited China in a huge way was the invention of paper, as paper then became a main source for them to document all of their work, research and other things and now today in China paper is vastly used today.

The Han dynasty was alwso responsible for creating many different works of art, such as pottery and many more. Many other things that the Han Dynasty had created was things such as tomb sculptures and they were also known for advancing their technology be creating tools that was used for farming and many other things that helped to benefit China today because of the many uses of the things that they created. They were also known vastly for their literature as the Han dynasty was one of the dynasties that literature was a big part in making that dynasty what it is known as today. However, the Han dynasty was known most for the agricultural aspect of advancing the Chinese society. Overall the Han Dynasty created many different thngs that helped to benefit China for the better and helped them to advance their knowledge and their technology for the better to this very day.

The Chinese culture has a deep affection for food, which means this is a part of their everyday routine that they take seriously. At every meal dishes served contain deep meaning and spiritual purpose within the Chinese belief system. Including ingredients: vegetables, spices, and meat each holds meaning. For example, rice means increasing prosperity, garlic symbolizes eternity, and bamboo shoots are a sign of wealth. The Chinese cooking system is best described as simple and clean. According to Wiki, a nutritious diet is essential to leading a happy and healthy life. From thousands of years ago, Chinese cuisine has developed to become one of the world’s most unique aromas of food and dieting. A major impact that happened to China’s society was its expansion during the Han Culture. Which meant expanding lands lead to new climate zones in China. The Han Dynasty began with a peasant revolt against the Qin Emperor. He was later killed, so the new Emperor Gaozu established a service where he educated men about to help him run the empire. The period of the Han Dynasty was a time of invention for the country. During this time, land areas were divided into tropical and subarctic. With this expansion of land led to new ingredients for eating. In the North, the staple of food was millet that was grounded up into wheat. Due to the expense, many lower-class citizens ate noodles, pancakes, and dumplings from wheat. While the higher class people ate these foods but also included meat. In the South, the staple food was rice because it was much easier to grow due to the wet environment. For all classes, many caught fish and always steamed or stewed their food. The Han Dynasty played a major role in developing modern-day China (“Chinese Cuisine”).

The Han dynasty was the generator for how traditional ancient Chinese dieting is used today. All meals in the Chinese culture contain two important components to their meals. One is a carbohydrate source, this is typically rice, noodles, or mantou. “For the most Nutritious noodles, choose 100 percent buckwheat soba noodles, whole-grain udon noodles, brown rice noodles, and Shiraki noodles,” Dr. Wong says in the article “Eating Healthy Chinese Food”. Soba noodles are made from wholegrain buckwheat flour, making them a good source of protein, fiber, potassium, and B vitamins” (“Eating Healthy Chinese Food”). The second component of there meals is accompanying dishes of vegetables, fish, and meat. Traditionally, there is soup served at the end of meals to satiate appetites. In China there is no silverware, so during the Han dynasty, they created something that affects all of China’s culture. The invention was chopsticks, the first use of them was for cooking, and stirring the fire, but not typically used for eating. Alternatively, their belief system states that typical utensils: spoons, forks, and knives are seen as weapons. In China, dining with chopsticks is the traditional etiquette. Eating with chopsticks forces you to eat slower and mindfully, which often leads to you feeling full quicker with less food. Using chopsticks forces you to eat each bite smaller, as more time is taken for your brain to signal when you’re full. This explains that you are more likely to feel fuller after eating less. This is due to the smaller bites you consume slower. The Chinese have a notion that eating with chopsticks is kinder for your body and overall health (Banna, Jinan C, et al.).

A Chinese meal is served one by one in the middle of the table. All bowls are shared with others seated at the table. The Chinese culture is famous for their family style of serving. A study done by Harvard says over 70% of Americans eat their own food portion alone today (“Healthy Eating Plate”). The unwritten rule is to have three separate dishes, one main dish, and two sides to accompany it. Most Chinese people (94%) have three meals a day, while 5% have two meals a day. However, this varies from rural cities and urbanism cities of China. The time of breakfast for the Chinese is generally from 6:00 am and 8:00 am. Not many people take breakfast and lunch together as brunch. In the Northern regions of China, people usually eat bread, porridge, noodles, and fried fitter also including dumplings. Most Chinese do not have fruits for breakfast. People usually have lunch from 11:30 am and 1:00 pm. In smaller communities of China, people go home for lunch. In the larger areas, due to the far distance and limited time, many go out for lunch at restaurants nearby. Not many bring a lunch box from home, which is prepared and packed the day before. People usually have dinner between 6:30 pm and 7:30 pm. In urban areas, dinner is the only chance to sit together and have a family meal. It generally takes 1-2 hours to make dinner (“Healthy Eating Plate”).

In China’s society, tea and water are preferred over soft drinks. At any restaurant in China, these are both free. Tea in China dates back to Emperor Shen Nung’s time around 2732 B.C. There was a legend about the creation of the drink during Nung’s time. The theory is that the emperor poisoned himself 72 times, and a leaf drifted into his mouth. Once the leaf tickled his throat, the Emperor was cured. The false accusation about the theory, it doesn’t necessarily cure diseases. The tea plant discovered is the same one that is grown around the world today. It was originally consumed as a vegetable or cooked with grain portage. Tea became known since 1500 years ago it shifted from food to a drink. This was when people realized the combination of moisture and heat could create a tasty drink out of leafy green. According to China Culture, members of the young generation should show their respect to members of the older by offering a cup of tea. In the past, people of the higher class received tea from the lower class. This rule has now become a blur in Chinese culture (“How Important the Tea Was in Ancient China?”). The standard in China became to heat tea, pack it into portable cakes, and ground it into powder. A study shows that tea is a killer for weight loss and maintenance of skin, hair, teeth, and organ health (Khan, Naghma, and Hasan Mukhtar).

Around the world, fermented foods and beverages are a part of very few people’s diets. One of the most important outcomes of food fermentation is the vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds found in them. This type of food is transformed into probiotics or good bacteria. There is a bacteria that lives in our gut always. Each particle works together to help us with digestion and accumulate more nutrients. Overall bacteria play a role in making sure our immune system is clean. Many modern diets are high in refined sugars, which means these sugars are busy feeding bad bacteria. The solution is eliminating high sugar food, and instead including more probiotic-rich fermented foods to keep your gut healthy. In China, popular fermented foods and drinks include; miso, kefir, sauerkraut, and kombucha. For example, fermentation breaks down the lactose in milk to simpler sugar. This helps make yogurt and cheese easier to digest. The gut and brain work together to sustain your mood and behavior. The anatomy of the gut is lined with neurons that can include our emotions and feelings. Probiotic bacteria is contributed to healthy gut and body systems, they are also connected to a healthier mind and thinking (“Health Benefits of Fermenting”).

In conclusion, the Chinese ways of consuming food and the culture is contains are still around today. There are elements from the dynasties that shaped the way a majority of Chinese are living. According to Wiki, “Chinese culture is one of the world’s oldest cultures, originating thousands of years ago” (“Chinese Culture”). Since the times of dynasties, many Chinese believe that providing nutrition to the body can cure disease. When you are not seriously ill, your disease can be cured by eating the right food. Soon after if the food doesn’t work you can turn to medicine. The philosophical thinking in Chinese food culture is represented by the Yin and Yang system. This represents two aspects of the human body, meaning the five elements are divided into five categories: hot, warm, neutral, cool, and cold. Eating warm and hot foods can promote the Yang to the body while eating cool promotes Yin in the human body. Chinese believe that their diet should be adapted to the natural environment they are living in. In a way that releases balance and harmony to nature. Chinese have a strong unique foundation of their cuisine culture.

In Three Kingdoms, Luo Guanzhong creates a historical novel originally based on real people and events. He narrates the fall of the Han Dynasty, the rise of the three kingdoms (Xu, Wei, and Wu), and the ultimate downfall of these kingdoms. In the beginning, many warlords are introduced each battling for dominance, but three prominent leaders are the focus of the story – they are Liu Bei, Cao Cao, and Sun Quan. These three rise to power through their formidable characters and vie with each other to determine the future of China. This paper focuses primarily on explaining Liu Bei’s failure to restoring the Han dynasty. The very quality of loyalty that makes Liu Bei the most deserving contender for the throne, is also his greatest weakness. After learning the death of Lord Guan, Liu Bei’s loyalty to his oath brothers causes him to make rash decisions and steers him away from his public responsibility.

The sworn brotherhood made between Liu Bei, Lord Guan, and Zhang Fei arose from their common desire to protect the people of the Han dynasty. Their alliance was made at a peach garden. When offering sacrifices to Heaven and earth, they pledged, “We three, though of separate ancestry, join in brotherhood here…We dare not hope to be together always but hereby vow to die the same day.” The bond made at the beginning is a strong theme that carries throughout the novel. All three brothers do their best to stand by their oath, especially Liu Bei. This brotherhood pact plays a key role in the establishment of the Kingdom of Xu, by exemplifying how the non-blood-brothers stood by each other even when the odds were against them.

Throughout the novel, there are many instances where Liu Bei displayed his loyalty to his brothers and their oath. (Lord Guan and Zhang Fei also had their moments of displaying loyalty to their brotherhood, but it will not be discussed here.) As a reward for defeating the Yellow Scarves, Liu Bei is appointed as a judicial officer. When in office, Lord Guan and Zhang Fei stood proudly by Liu Bei’s side, and Liu Bei selflessly “shared bed and board with his brothers.” Being gifted the new job title, Liu Bei chooses to share his power and earnings with his brothers rather than casting them aside and making them sustain themselves through other means. A second example is when all three brothers are separated during their countless battles against Cao Cao. The brothers do not know the whereabouts of each other and the novel gives an account of Liu Bei’s emotional state. Upon hearing no news from his brothers, Liu Bei “was in a state of constant fretfulness.” Clearly, Liu Bei is concerned about the well-being of his brothers and even goes to the extent of blaming himself for their separation and potentially bring more harm than good to them. Later, when the three brothers reunite, Liu Bei is depicted as rejoicing over the fact his brothers came back unharmed. A final example that precisely shows Liu Bei’s loyalty to the oath is when Lord Guan was about to be executed by Kongming for showing mercy to Cao Cao and his men and letting them pass. Liu Bei is reminded of the oath “to live and die—as one” and informs Kongming that he does not have “the heart to go against” their pledge. At point, already well through more than half of the book, Liu Bei still remembers the oath made at the peach garden, and it is this very oath that saves Lord Guan from execution. These three examples of Liu Bei’s loyalty to the brotherhood not only display his righteous and moral character through his actions and words but also greatly explains why he attracted many strong followers. However, his loyalty to the brotherhood eventually becomes his greatest weakness and leads to his failure in reuniting the Han dynasty.

When Liu Bei learns about the beheading of Lord Guan done under the command of Sun Quan, this served as a turning point in his demeanor. Initially, he becomes gravely grief-stricken, faints on multiple accounts, and refuses to drink or eat anything. After some mourning, Liu Bei is filled with grief and anger, and vows to avenge Lord Guan’s death at whatever cost. His judgment becomes greatly impaired and begins to reject the military advice from Kongming and Zhao Zilong. Before Lord Guan’s death, Liu Bei almost always listened to the counsel of Kongming, he never acted on his own accord or made decisions without the presence of Kongming. From making battle strategies to preparing responses for meetings with individuals of the opposing force, Liu Bei listened to Kongming intently like a student listening to his teacher. However, after Lord Guan’s death, Liu Bei took military matters into his own hands. When being informed about Lu Xun’s advances, Liu Bei remarked, “I am seasoned in the ways of the war. Do you think a milksop of a child is too much for me?” This is the first time in the novel Liu Bei boasts about his skills, his display of arrogance may have stemmed from his desire for vengeance. Prior to Lord Guan’s death, Liu Bei never bragged and usually talked lowly of himself in the face of others. Additionally, when Ma Liang advises Liu Bei to send their defense strategies to Kongming for revision, Liu Bei retorts with, “I am versed in warfare well enough to do without his opinion.” Again, Liu Bei’s current remarks seem very different from the ones he usually said before Lord Guan’s death. It seems as if his need to avenge his brother’s death has tainted his judgments and made him forget about his public responsibility to restoring the Han dynasty. The words and actions he displays after the death of Lord Guan seem to revolve solely around the matter of the brotherhood pact, which is a personal matter. Thus, Lord Guan’s death served as a critical moment where Liu Bei had to choose between his loyalty to his brothers and his chance to restoring the Han dynasty. Unfortunately, he chose to be loyal his brothers and severed his chances of uniting all of China.

Even before the death of Lord Guan, the notion of weighing the importance of public duty over personal matters was mentioned. When Kongming was conversing with his elder brother he said, “For one in the service of Lord Liu, it is only fitting that public concerns take precedence over private ones.” Kongming and the individuals serving under Liu Bei knew the importance of placing more value on unity and conformity (collectivism) rather than on the self, and they chose to serve Liu Bei because they also knew Liu Bei held that exact same view. However, with the death of Lord Guan Liu Bei’s perspective changed. He placed more value on the individual self rather than on the collective. Zhao Zilong realized this shift of perspective in Liu Bei and in his attempt to remind Liu Bei of his original intentions he told Liu Bei, “War against the traitors to Han is a public responsibility. War for the sake of a brother is a personal matter. I urge Your Majesty to give priority to the empire.” Unfortunately, Liu Bei was not moved by Zhao Zilong’s words and acted on his desire to avenge Lord Guan’s death rather than on uniting China.

Therefore, Lord Guan’s death served as a catalyst to impair Liu Bei’s judgments. Liu Bei’s loyalty to his oath-brothers ultimately took precedence over resorting to the Han Dynasty, which resulted in his failure to uniting all of China and becoming the Heavenly ruler.

We are living in a process of globalization nowadays, and the trade between countries and countries makes us nicknames that human beings are close to each other as living in the same village. However, thousand years ago, people still did not know what the Earth was, and humans dispersed wars constantly. As human self-evolution, there have been a number of unified orders that have gathered a large number of human beings, such as money, religion, and empire. From my perspective, there are three important characteristics of the success of the empire, which are a successful unification war, one or more religions that play a positive role in building a harmonious society, and the empire must rule many different nationalities with different cultural identities and independent territory, which can be flexibly adjusted.

The rise of an empire is always accompanied by a successful unification war. In 221 BCE, after the demise of six countries, Emperor Qin Shihuang established the Qin dynasty, a feudal and centralized dynasty. Emperor Qin Shihuang was an emperor who had made tremendous contributions to China’s history and had a tremendous influence. He conformed to the trend of historical development, unified China, ended the long-term separation of princes, and was conducive to the people’s life stability and on the same page with the common aspirations of the people of all ethnic groups. On the one hand, he made an indelible contribution to China’s reunification, he established a centralized system of feudal autocracy, which has had a profound impact on China’s history at that moment, and also a series of measures have been taken to consolidate and unify, such as unifying words, measuring, and currency. The unification promoted economic and cultural exchanges across the country, consolidated the unity of the country, and also expanded the territory through unified war, which made the Qin dynasty become the first unified multi-ethnic country in the history of China. On the other hand, the rule of the Qin dynasty was extremely brutal. Endless military service, servitude, and tyrannical punishment have brought tremendous disaster and suffering to the people. Furthermore, to unify the minds of the people so that he could better control the country, Emperor Qin Shihuang took the terrible method that burning of books and burying of scholars, which destroyed many precious Chinese cultures. Although the Dazexiang uprising led by Chen Sheng, also known as Chen She, failed, it eventually led to the demise of the Qin dynasty. The Qin Dynasty played a role of connecting the past and the future. It ended the history of Chinese slavery and started a period of feudalism in China’s more glorious period. The Qin Dynasty has only been in existence for more than 30 years, but it has affected China for thousands of years, and its historic status is absolutely significant.

On the positive side, religion can unite people’s strength and consolidate the role of a stable society. The same religious beliefs and a strong sense of identity-based on common religious beliefs can enable the same sect to form a unified, indivisible whole. The nationality of religion and the formation of its religious cultural circle undoubtedly build a solid foundation for the harmony and stability of the nation, the country, and a certain region of the world. For those countries with the same faith and a single nation-state, religious belief is an important factor in uniting the nation and safeguarding the stability of the nation, especially in the nation’s state, which is subject to foreign aggression and shackles. At this juncture, the same religious beliefs have become a powerful force for the survival and unity of the nation-state. In this regard, Islam played this role in its creation. Islam was born in the Arabian Peninsula in the 7th century. At that time, Arab society was in a period of great change. It has not yet formed a unified country, political disorder, and clan tribes were accustomed to each other. The mad oppression and exploitation of the ruling class has caused the vast majority of the working people to live in dire straits, and the class contradictions have become increasingly serious and prominent, and the invasion of outside forces has further deepened this crisis. At this historical moment, the founder of Islam, Muhammad, the slogan “Allah is the only god” and put forward the propositions of prohibiting usury, charity, peace, and tranquility, reflecting the requirements of the upper class and the desire of the vast majority of the exploited people to get out of trouble. Islam was created at the juncture of this historical turning point for adapting to economic changes and establishing a unified country. It objectively promoted the unity of the Arabian Peninsula and social stability. As far as the world is concerned, various ethnic religions and world religions accepted by different ethnic groups will form the region of religion itself because of the interrelationship of religions. Thus, there will be religious culture circles of different sizes, such as Christian for Europe and North and South America, Islam for Central Asia, and Buddhism for Southeast Asia and East Asia. Religion replaces a unique and attractive world for the believers, and through the canons, the teachings put forward specific requirements and norms for the behavior of the believers and thus play a greater role in social control. In class society, religion is often used by the ruling class and becomes an important tool and means for the ruling class to maintain its rule and maintain the existing social order.

At the same time, another religion, Buddhism, also had an essential influence on some countries, such as China. Buddhism is completely opposite from various aspects compared to Islam. Islam has an external god, and believers also pray to Allah for all the benefits, however, Buddhism wants people to change themselves to be better, and finally can become Buddha. The Tang dynasty in China was an era of openness, freedom, creativity, and imagination. At this powerful period, not only the various ethnic minority cultures had been promoted, but also many exotic cultures came from many other countries. Many emperors of the Tang dynasty believed in Buddhism, and Xuanzang was destined to India for studying Buddhism. When he returned to China, Tang Taizong sent the prime minister to meet and personally met him in Luoyang. Xuanzang brought back a large number of Buddhist books and Tang Taizong ordered the organization of a large-scale Buddhist scriptures forum and dispatched people to assist Xuanzang in translating Buddhist scriptures. Xuanzang is one of the greatest scholars in the study of traditional Chinese Buddhism, and a master of the Indian orthodox Buddhist doctrine. In spite of the difficult, he went to India to seek Buddhism, collected a large number of Buddhist books, and translated. It has not only profoundly affected the development of East Asian culture, but also laid the foundation for East Asian culture to play a positive role in world culture.

The empire must rule many different nationalities with different cultural identity and independent territory. The Han dynasty was one of the most powerful dynasties in Chinese history, but for the rulers of the Han dynasty, a strong country meant a huge territory and numerous opponents. Since the Han dynasty inherited the Qin dynasty, the opponents to be faced by the surrounding opponents are not only powerful northern nomadic regimes, but also many existing areas that have not yet been fully conquered. In the north of China, the biggest opponent of the Han dynasty was undoubtedly the Xiongnu. The Western Han still followed the fortifications and defense strategies originating from the Qin dynasty, and sometimes even exchanged the Xiongnu at the expense of some economic interests. The inaction of the early Han dynasty was established under this kind of peace. Under the background of partial friction and most peace, the economic potential of the farming civilization was far stronger than that of the nomadic civilization of the Xiongnu. When the strength gap between the two sides increased, the Emperor Wu of Han launched a war against the Xiongnu. The military is always only a means, and political and economic control and utilization is the purpose. After severely hitting the Xiongnu, the Han dynasty and the Xiongnu under the rule of Emperor Wu entered a period of peace

In conclusion, the success of an empire is made up of many different factors, and if an empire only has some advantages, or has some unacceptable drawbacks, the empire will soon be destroyed just like the Qin Dynasty in China. Besides, from the perspective of cultural integration, in the process of integration of many small cultures into big cultures, the imperial powers are magnificent. Whether it is ideological communication, material exchange, or exploration of the unknown, in the unified environment of the empire, it is more dispersed, quicker, and more convenient than in the past.

The Master said: “Above all, be loyal and stand by your words. Befriend only those who are kindred spirits. And when you’re wrong, don’t be afraid to change.”[endnoteRef:1] Spoken by the ancient Chinese philosopher Confucius, this saying can also serve as a great way of viewing and comparing the methods of life between the ancient Romans and the people of China during the Han dynasty. As loyalty can be seen through the militaristic and civilian lifestyle of the Romans, the fear and caution towards outsiders and foreigners by the ancient Chinese, and the willingness to change and adapt from both cultures. Even just briefly viewing the basic philosophies found within ancient China and Rome you can tell there is a multitude of different areas where the old civilizations intertwine and think similarly to each other. However, showing no signs of direct contact between the two civilizations except through trade, the odds of these two ancient cultures sharing similar values and traits still puzzles many world historians to this day. To truly compare these two vast empires, one must look at some of the most prominent areas of their civilization. Some of which include: the shape and size of their political boundaries, the roles of the military and its structure, the government and its position of power over the population, the economics and source of wealth in the empires, and finally viewing the collapse and the fall of these mighty civilizations. [1: Confucius, and David Hinton., Analects (Berkeley: Counterpoint, 20140, 75. ]

Beginning to compare these two great societies, it’s important to note how the comparison is made in a traditional and historical sense. For this essay, a comparison will be comprised of similar connections between several altering regions and various cultures while simultaneously shedding light on how each topic is found to be related within this millennium of second-wave civilizations. This technique will be used to highlight and enforce deeper thinking into how there are similar pieces to ancient Roman and Chinese societies and the many variations within each one. Such comparisons will be found throughout this essay regarding several sectors of the ancient civilizations’ ways of life. By creating a connection to things such as networks of communication, combat, and systems of control, we can see how ancient Rome and China were shaped and molded during the time frame being compared.

In a period of conflict between two of the most prominent armies clashing, the Greeks and the Persians, the stages toward two budding civilizations were just taking root. To the western portion of the Eurasian continent laid the Roman empire, and to the far eastern side laid the groundworks for future site of the Chinese Imperial State. Both of these great nations controlled a broad amount of territory and were quite similar in size. The total amount of controlled land by each empire was roughly estimated to be around one and a half million square miles.[endnoteRef:2] These two civilizations would soon grow and expand to eventually control half of the entire human species. In a census recorded in the second century, the Chinese empire recorded roughly 59.6 million people.[endnoteRef:3] Meanwhile the Roman imperial census showed that the population was approximately between 65 to 75 million by the middle of the second century.[endnoteRef:4] This is all speculation that has yet to be finalized as the current estimates show that the total number of humans living on the earth at that time varied between 170 to 330 million individuals.[endnoteRef:5] [2: Strayer, Robert W., Ways of the World: A Brief Global History (Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martins, 2019), 99] [3: Scheidel, Walter, Rome and China : Comparative Perspectives on Ancient World Empires (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 11] [4: Scheidel, 11] [5: Scheidel, 11]

While its great to know where the civilization would reach its peak in terms of population and territorial expansion, the path these civilizations took to reach this status can be comparable. Rome began in the eighth century as a poor nation state in central Italy on the western side.[endnoteRef:6] Starting out the population of this city-state was relatively low, and it has been rumored that to keep the population numbers up, the ancient Romans were forced to go out and kidnap women from neighboring settlements.[endnoteRef:7] This greatly improved the population so much so that Rome transitioned into a settlement that surrounded the entire Mediterranean basin along with key areas in Europe like modern-day Britain, North Africa, and the Middle East.[endnoteRef:8] This in turn left them to earning the title of an imperial state. [6: Strayer, 100] [7: Strayer, 100] [8: Strayer, 100]

Meanwhile, as the Romans were first making their marks in Eurasia, the imperial state of China was currently being formed and taking shape. China was brought up in a similar fashion with just a few key differences. While Rome had to start from scratch and become something new, China’s legacy was built off something older. China’s rise in the Han Dynasty is considered the revamping and restoration of ancient China. In fact, the Chinese state can be traced back as early as 2200 B.C.E. and has gone through three different dynasties before reaching the Han Dynasty.[endnoteRef:9] Although these dynasties greatly expanded the Chinese nation, by the time the Han Dynasty rolled around the nation was left almost in ruins and on the brink of collapse. Seven individual kingdoms were formed within China and the unity of the nation had disappeared as each of these smaller states had turned to conflict and war amongst each other.[endnoteRef:10] [9: Strayer, 103] [10: Strayer, 103 ]

Going back to ancient Rome, how was the rule of law and how did the governmental body affect the population and history in this region? Well, ancient Rome originally started out as a land ruled by a king. Around the year 509 B.C.E, the aristocrats established a republic in this region after overthrowing the previous monarchy.[endnoteRef:11] Now under this new republic, the patricians (a group of wealthy men in the higher class of society) rule the land. Now it may not sound as exciting and glorious now, but back then it was a revolutionary concept. The power of the king had been distributed amongst a larger group of individuals, although they were just the upper men of the land. The power balance had been shifted to be out of the hands of one person and into the hands of multiple. [11: Strayer, 100]

Comparing this to the Chinese civilization, here the remnants of an already established government had been established. Prior to the Han Dynasty, there had already been a form of bureaucracy currently being practiced. This state had equipped its army and military with advanced weapons made of iron, a growing population, and a rising amount of agricultural goods.[endnoteRef:12] The ideology and philosophical practice of Legalism held a great influence in the region which clearly laid out a system of punishments and rules to keep the citizens in line.[endnoteRef:13] This helped reinforce a common goal and similar pattern of thought within the Chinese civilians. In fact, the philosopher Laozi, in his classic of the way of virtue, describes China as a state that is ruled by measures of correction; “weapons of war may be used with crafty dexterity, but the kingdom is made one’s own only by freedom from action and purpose.”[endnoteRef:14] Here we can see how Laozi perfectly describes China’s increased military arsenal of iron weapons and how the ruling of the kingdom was made primarily based off of actions that promoted its law system. [12: Strayer, 103 ] [13: Strayer, 103 ] [14: Andrea, Alfred J., and James H. Overfield., The Human Record: Sources of Global History, (Australia: Cengage Learning, 2016), 92. ]

As with the end of any great civilization, all great civilizations have a rise in power, a period of dominance, and prolonged success, and eventually, they come to a halt. This leaves historians with the unanswered question of what contributed to their fall from grace. China and Rome shared a common set of reasons that lead to their eventual demises. It is estimated that Han China ended around the year 220 C.E. and the acknowledged date for the decimation of the Roman Empire is approximately 476 C.E.[endnoteRef:15] Although the dates of their collapse appear to be fairly prolonged, the strains that led to the eventual fall of the empires were felt generations prior to these dates. Some areas of the empires hadn’t been subjected to the total collapse entirely either, an example would be ancient Rome. In the Eastern half of the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire refused to fall. They managed to uphold their culture and traditions and survived apart from Imperial Rome for another thousand years.[endnoteRef:16] [15: Strayer, 108] [16: Strayer, 109 ]

What was a major factor that led to the decline of these great civilizations? Well, a variety of sources point towards invasion and pressure from outside forces. However, some sources also believe it was due to improper leadership and internal struggles created by the greed of the government.[endnoteRef:17] Such is true when observing Rome in the third century. There is a plethora of sources that state the great power the senate had, and how the power of the Senate almost seemed endless. Thus, being said, the corrupt individuals in the Senate can be blamed for the success of barbarians intruding on the Roman ways of life.[endnoteRef:18] The wealth of the people had been drained and the bureaucracy that was once idolized as its main source of pride was eventually the very thing that would lead to their demise. [17: Mutschler, Fritz-Heiner, and Achim Mittag, Conceiving the Empire : China and Rome Compared (OUP Oxford, 2008), 323] [18: Mutschler, 333

Bibliography

Andrea, Alfred J., and James H. Overfield. The Human Record: Sources of Global History. 7th ed. Vol. I. Australia: Cengage Learning, 2016.

1. Confucius, and David Hinton. Analects. Berkeley: Counterpoint, 2014. http://search.ebscohost.com.bl.opal-libraries.org/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=1015236&site=ehost-live.
2. Mutschler, Fritz-Heiner, and Achim Mittag. Conceiving the Empire : China and Rome Compared. Oxford: OUP Oxford, 2008. http://search.ebscohost.com.bl.opal-libraries.org/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=259510&site=ehost-live.
3. Scheidel, Walter. Rome and China : Comparative Perspectives on Ancient World Empires. Oxford Studies in Early Empires. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. http://search.ebscohost.com.bl.opal-libraries.org/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=259881&site=ehost-live.
4. Strayer, Robert W. Ways of the World: A Brief Global History. 2nd ed. Vol. I. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martins, 2019. ]

Imperial China lasted two millennia, and many differing thoughts and religions stemmed from this passage of time. During this time, massive amounts of information was collected. This along with the multitude of ideas give a startling view into this long span of time. During the time of the dynasty, each generation of Chinese history brought different changes to the public with major influences from philosophy helping them to evolve their society. Many emperors used their experiences with philosophers in order to make decisions that effected the citizens they ruled over. This multitude of diverse thoughts and beliefs had an impact on the laws passed during this time and the social norms within the society that these laws effected. Within the area and period, multiple movements caught wind and spread far and wide over the empires. Confucianism and Gautama Buddha both helped many emperors during their life in advising them to make the correct moral decisions. In 500 BC, Confucianism’s key aspects started to enter into the social life and government of those in the Zhou dynasty. The Han dynasty is where Buddhism first took root in China’s society around the first century. Each ideology influenced many different aspects of the dynasty’s law and social norms. Each philosophy changed through the decades and brought new outlooks to how certain dynasties should rule. Within the society of imperial China, you can see the need for the people to latch onto hope, something that many philosophy’s and religions offered. When choosing a deciding factor in the argument of whether the philosophy of Chinese Buddhism or Confucianism was more important, one must take in all the accounts to find an answer.

One of the most known and popular philosophies to come out of China is Confucianism. Explaining Confucianism can be difficult as it is a very prominent philosophy in ancient China. There are many different versions within the dynasties that succeed each other. Confucianism inspired a lot of movements that created inspiration for other philosophical ideas. When Confucianism first took off in the Zhou dynasty, the dynasty was at a decline which sparked many great minds to do what they do best: think. With Confucius being born during the Zhou dynasty he saw the rift that was happening that would later form the western and eastern Zhou. The Analects were written in 500 BC, these “analects” consisted of lessons written by Confucius. The analects became popular due to their usage of it by those in power during the Zhou dynasty because they already had a strong relationship with heaven that came with the defeat of the Shang dynasty. A key aspect in the analects were essays pertaining to rituals, this allowed people to consider the idea of returning to how they once governed and back to older traditions. Although the Analects were some of Confucius’s first works the idea by philosophers did not get accepted until the Han dynasty with emperor Wu. “Confucianism held a dominant position in China. It performed an important role in reinforcing the centralized monarchy and shaping ideology” (Jacobs, pg. 29). Other schools of thought had to compete with Confucianism since it had become so popular within the dynasties. “We will begin with the building blocks of an inner disposition – filial piety, dutifulness, honesty, sincerity, rightness, wisdom, and courage – and see how all of this comes together in the attitude of humanity” (Rainey, pg. 23). In my opinion Confucianism offered the people a safeguard, it was a philosophy centered around subjects that they were familiar with and that were easily understood. It was a philosophy that didn’t demand to much thinking, he made his statements very clear in his Analects and many other works. According to Arthur Waley in his “The Analects of Confucius” the founder of Confucianism was humble and had denied he had any large amounts of knowledge but instead, he was a lover of learning and self-growth. Following a man who rejects the praise of possessing such knowledge is much easier than following one who accepts it without question. It is common knowledge that the ancient world was a harsh place to live no matter the location. Confucius offered a moral compass for many emperors to follow, in the Han dynasty ethics started to become of more importance to law-making decisions. An argument ensues during the Han dynasty that is rule of law vs. rule of man. In order to conclude to the winner being rule of man, the concept of Li in Confucianism was important. Li, the concept of ritual. According to Rainey in her book “Confucius and Confucianism: The Essentials” Confucius speaks of rituals not just something religious but also something that needed to be conducted into our everyday life, such as proper conduct. This concept helped the rule of man win over rule of law simply because at the time dynasties were in power. Handing over all the power to each emperor corresponded to Confucius’s idea of ritual. This can also be an example of how the ideas formed under Confucianism change with each dynasty. In the Zhou dynasty, ruled by men had not yet been formed, and “Mencius thought that citizens were more important than the government, and the government was more important than the ruler” (Zhou, pg. 621), this idea was not popular and quickly died out and the concept was altered over time. A school of thought that rivaled Confucius’s ideas was legalism.

“The Legalism school argued that law should be applied equally among all individuals, regardless of the position of an individual” (Zhou, pg. 622). These two philosophies were founded around the same time and they share very few similarities. Legalism could be described as the opposite of Confucianism since it focuses more on the law and legal affairs while Confucianism is more focused on the harmony of society. Legalism did not acquire much traction till the Qing dynasty. There is a clear distinction of the difference between Confucianism and Legalism. Despite the difference, during the Qin dynasty, there was a merge of both philosophies. Both sides had pros and cons but to the citizens, it was easier to support Confucianism simply due to how legalism focuses so much on the emperors instead of the citizens. Confucianism has influenced each dynasty not only through law but also through familial ties. The family seems to be the most important to China in regards to seeing the world as a whole compared to western thoughts on the topic. Confucianism played an enormous role in that due to the stance of filial piety in the philosophy. “It is not surprising that they emphasized filial piety, given that, in their time, sons were rebelling against fathers and family relations were often deadly – certainly in the families of rulers. Confucius saw filial piety as an antidote to his times” (Rainey, pg. 24). Putting such intense focus on filial piety helped in many ways in creating the unity and harmony that Confucius wanted. It helped restore the relationship within families that is also stretched to the emperors. Creating the importance for relationships sparked the idea of the importance of every relationship. Writing in such a topic emphasizes in how easy for people this would be to follow in comparison to other philosophers’ ideas.

Buddhism has been the source of many debates for the duration of history. It is followed by a simple question, religion or philosophy? I have found that the terms seem to be interchangeable depending on the location and interpretation of the belief. In India Buddha is not considered to be a God. He is considered to be many different things, teacher or prophet but in China, he is prayed to and worshiped like a God. Buddhism is interesting because unlike the other philosophy and religions founded in China this was not native to the country, it was brought in. The founding of Buddhism happened in India but it didn’t stay within those boundaries. Similar to Confucianism, Buddhism also experienced multiple changes and formed branches with each dynasty and country it traveled to. Like most things the connection that brought Buddhism into China was trade. When Buddhism made contact with China many changes ensued to fit it more perfectly into the Chinese culture. Buddhism offered new a new way of thought compared to Confucianism, Buddhism offered individualistic salvation. Since Buddhism was an external way of thinking to China it did receive backlash from people thinking it was incorrect because of the stronghold Confucianism had on the people. Due to the differences between the two philosophies when Buddhism first entered China it wasn’t fully accepted in its original form. “Buddhism was attacked as unfilial…they were unfilial when they shaved off their hair, for in so doing they were violating the teaching of the Hsiao-Ching, which stressed the necessity to return our body, hair, and skin intact to our ancestors” (Chen, pg.16). This is a good example of how the culture of India clashed with that of China. In order for the religion to be accepted it would have to adhere to the culture of the country accepting it. According to Chen, there were some cases of those cutting their hair and receiving tattoos and still being praised by Confucius. Filial piety is very important to society in China and monks are important to the structure of Buddhism. Since becoming a monk requires you to leave your home. It is seen as unfilial but Chen claims that since one is becoming a monk they are transforming into a vehicle for the conversion and salvation of his parents. This form of expressing filial piety is simply different to the traditional way Confucius stated before. Some people were attracted to the allure of Buddhism because some “Chinese intellectuals dissatisfied with the Confucian classical learning established since the Han dynasty and turned their attention to cosmological questions” (Guang, pg.308). This new wave of thinking offered a more complex way of questioning the world around us. It created a reason for Confucianism to push back which offered different interpretations and responses to this new philosophy. Allowing the opposing side to converse and argue helps to have a healthy balance between the schools of thought. Each side is about bettering one’s self and becoming more morally focused. In the book “Buddhist impact on Chinese culture,” Xing Guang explains how the questions concerning life after death was not offered by Confucianism but by Buddhism. It started the questioning of things outside of the physical world. Buddhism influenced Chinese philosophy because each one flatters the other. A way China contributed their own culture to Buddhism is by influencing the eating habits installed into the religion. Kieschnick says in his book “Buddhist vegetarianism in China” that Tibet monks generally eat meat even though in India there are multiple texts demanding a strict vegetarian diet. Buddhism seems to me like something many people would flock to during Ancient China. The book “Death of Woman Wang” is riddled with stores both fiction and non-fiction during the Qing dynasty and is a good example of how in many instances the ancient times were filled with death and injustice. Everyone in this book only knew suffering and in Buddhism suffering is a vital part of life and it provides hope and how to escape suffering. Buddhism’s push into China forced many to see a different way of looking at their life, it offered individualistic practices. Along with introducing new concepts, eating habits, and hope Buddhism also helped influence the language as well. When Buddhism first made contact with China there was clearly a language boundary since it had originated in India. Once there was a following in China of Buddhism a translation of the sacred text was crucial. “Buddhist terminology contributed to Chinese vocabulary tremendously and some of these terms have already embedded in the blood of Chinese language that people do not even know that they are originally from Buddhist literature” (Xing, pg. 315). Buddhism also influenced multiple movements throughout the domain of China. Daoism is another popular philosophy that originated within China. “According to Tang Yijie, Buddhism had served as a model for the establishment of Daoism in China as an organized church, with a religious canon and a spiritual community” (Xing, Pg. 313). Due to the influence that Buddhism had on Daoism, you can see that they used Buddhism as a model for this new sect of ideas. Looking throughout the culture of the Chinese, once you’ve become well-read on the topic of Buddhism it becomes easier to see how heavy the influence was.

It is my belief that these two philosophies became vital to the growth of Imperial China. Confucianism was a very understandable philosophy that was alluring to the commoners due to the simplicity of the teachings. Each one offered new concepts to the dynasties and helped the emperors make decisions based on morals. From my perspective tradition holds a very valuable place within these two movements. With Confucius came with the importance of tradition and harmony. Buddhism and Confucius are different in how the inspired conversations and in what the topic was about. Buddhism inspired the thought process on the afterlife while Confucius inspired the idea of morals and virtue. In the end, I believe these two come to the same conclusion in different ways. The beginning of these two are different like almost all beginnings and they had different influences but they both focus on the idea of self-betterment which appealed to the exploration of morals, virtues, and how you achieve it. Even though they have similarities the difference of the two are large. Confucius is much more positive than the beliefs behind the suffering of Buddhism. Even though they both had multiple influences on Imperial China each one provided more in contrasting areas. In my opinion, Confucianism had more influence on the laws and government than Buddhism. It was used in more debates against or for the government and had more texts that pertained to the government. This could be because of the outlook on Buddhism being foreign and having to be altered in small ways to become Chinese Buddhism. Confucius focused a lot on the law when he would teach and write on the topic of ritual propriety. In the genre of philosophy, language, and diet I think Buddhism influenced the Chinese more in ways that has stayed true when put up to the modern day.

When looking back at the civilizations before ours, it becomes difficult to say that our lives are hard in comparison. The thought has proved time and time again how resilient the human race is along with many other civilizations during the previously mentioned time period. I think that with the circumstance of the time and how we would describe them now as primitive due to their outlook on many topics such as women and the power that social classes have. Each philosophy influenced China more than the other in different categories. Comparing the two and ultimately deciding if one is better than the other or deciding if one is more influential seems as though it’s unimportant, which is certainly not the case.