Category: Hammurabi’s Code

Hammurabi was the king of Babylon who instilled a set of laws consistent with the principle of “an eye for an eye.” Hammurabi’s law code gave a sense of fairness but enforced different rules for different people. The code identified three classes among the people starting with the highest and strongest being those who are royal, priests, and land-owning free men and women. The individuals in this class were referred to solely as a man within the text. The second class was the commoners and peasants who were referred to as a freedman. This left the last level to the slaves and they are referred to as such, and both levels are weak. For instance, if a man breaks another man’s arm that man can break his arm back, but if a man breaks a freedman or slave’s arm then he needed only pay money (Hammurabi, ‘Law Code’). Paying money was not as severe as having your arm broken which makes the laws unfair. Although a government that has such class systems was probably the fairest it could be without giving everyone equal rights. Hammurabi’s Law Codes protected the weak from the strong the best it could with the different treatment because it had protection equivalent to the class level.

While Hammurabi’s law code was not fair with its discrepancy in treatment, it still protected the weak. Several codes pertained to physicians when operating. When the law codes referred to a physician treating someone and saving him it still gave incentive to the physician for saving them by giving ten shekels for saving someone from the top class, five shekels for saving a freedman, and two shekels for a slave (Hammurabi, ‘Law Code’). This reward system offered protection to the weak by giving value to their lives. Giving them worth makes it means something if they were to be hurt. This idea of value can be seen in several rules such as if a man knocks out the teeth of his equal, his teeth shall be knocked out, but if of a freedman then he only pays one-third of a gold mina (Hammurabi, ‘Law Code’). Similarly, if a man quarreled and wounded another man but do so unwittingly then he only needs to pay the physician, but if it was a freedman then he only needs to pay half a mina (Hammurabi, ‘Law Code’).

There was also protection provided for women who were generally considered weaker. Women were granted certain legal rights that protected them if they were not committing things like adultery, theft, or lying. If the husband committed adultery, then the woman could initiate divorce (Hammurabi, ‘Law Code’). This was protection for the women, so they did not have to be trapped with a man who cheats. Also, if a married woman was raped by a man that was not her husband then the man was to be put to death and the woman was blameless, which was progressive because even today blame is put on women. The laws also put that if a married woman got sick then the husband could not put her out and get a new wife and that the man had to care for her until she died (Hammurabi, ‘Law Code’). Because of these codes in place, women who were the weaker people were given protection and rights.

In conclusion, the codes Hammurabi put into place protected the weak lower classes from the strong upper class by placing value on the lives of the people in the lower classes. The codes also protected the “weak” women by giving them certain rights for protection. Hammurabi felt an obligation to protect the weak because it was what the Gods told him to do.

Throughout the world’s history, all genders have experienced an inexplicable variety of lifestyles varying from good and bad. Gender equality has not always been around in many places around the world but it may be believed to only exist in certain centuries. In reality, the scarcity of lifestyles that were and still are advantages has been going on since the early days of our history. Both genders have played a role in these types of lifestyles but males have mainly had the dominant, more powerful lives to live which meant that women had lower, more inferior lives to live. In Mesopotamia, from 2300-428 BCE, women became objectified by having been thought to be lower than men, with severe punishments, and no rights.

During 2300-428 BCE, women being objectified were thought to be lower than men in most cases due to their gender. No matter the situation, many women were seen as a person with no authority over most people. According to the article, “Code of Hammurabi”, it states, “If a man has accused his wife but she has not been caught lying with another man, she shall take an oath in the name of god and return to her house”[footnoteRef:0]. This quote is an example of when a woman can be considered a lower person than a male. The fact that a man can easily accuse a woman of an action she possibly did not commit shows the lack of importance of women. This conflict would relate to the main claim because women who are punished for something men accuse them of doing and not being sure about shows how much lower they thought of women in Mesopotamia. [0: “Code of Hammurabi”. Wright State University. 2019. http://www.wright.edu/~christopher.oldstone-moore/Hamm.htm. Page ⅓. ]

Severe punishments rapidly became accustomed among the Mesopotamian women in many unnecessary cases in 2300-428 BCE. Many punishments women would get, had reasons behind them that nowadays are pointless and not that severe. Due to the significance of the reason in their days, the punishments were not thought thoroughly and instead were just done. In the article, ‘Code of Hammurabi’, it states, ‘ If she has not been discreet, has gone out, ruined her house, belittled her husband, she shall be drowned”[footnoteRef:1]. In this quote, the woman may have done some damage to certain things and people but it would not be such a severe thing she had done. The punishment the women would get was unnecessary due to its severity since the actions were not worth the punishment given. The statement relates to the fact that the women in Mesopotamia were objectified since they got punished severely because it shows how women were punished too harshly after doing things that were not as severe as actions men would have. [1: “Code of Hammurabi”. Wright State University. 2019. http://www.wright.edu/~christopher.oldstone-moore/Hamm.htm. Page ⅔. ]

Women in early Mesopotamia became objectified by having no rights when it came to various things. The women were not free when it came to marriage or who she was going to be living with and how. In the article, ‘Code of Hammurabi’, it states, ‘ If the wife of a man who is living in her husband’s house, has persisted in going out, has acted the fool, has wasted her house, has belittled her husband, he shall prosecute her. If her husband has said, ‘I divorce her,’ she shall go her way; he shall give her nothing as her price of divorce. If her husband has said ‘I will not divorce her’ he may take another woman to wife; the wife shall live as a slave in her husband’s house”[footnoteRef:2]. This law from the article shows how women had no right in deciding many things for their own life. The women were passed around and just simply owned by their fathers and/or husband. They didn’t get to choose anything for themselves and if they tried to and they would get rejected, they would be punished because they even tried to violate how they have no right to choose what they want. This relates to the claim that the women were objectified because the women had no rights by showing how they did not get to choose what they wanted for themselves or their own life. [2: “Code of Hammurabi”. Wright State University. 2019. http://www.wright.edu/~christopher.oldstone-moore/Hamm.htm. Page 2⁄3.]

Women became objectified by having been thought to be lower than men, severe punishments, and no rights in Mesopotamia, from 2300-428 BCE. Women having been seen and treated as objects show how much of important role they played during certain periods in history. They were mainly not the dominant, more powerful gender in Mesopotamia, and it can be seen in much of the historic content known whether male dominance is rather larger than that of a woman or not. Nowadays, women can be seen as the superior gender in many cases, sometimes along with males. Overall, gender equality has not always been around but not having it has shaped the way both genders are treated in modern times, especially when it comes to women.

Hammurabi’s code could be the cure for bad behavior with these brutal punishments. Hammurabi ruled for 42 years. People either get their hands cut off for stealing, or for breaking into someone’s house and then being hung in the hole they came in through. Believe it or not, this actually happened a long time ago. This was called Hammurabi’s code. These are just some of the many things that happened to bad people according to Hammurabi’s code. This is most definitely just. (fair)

First, let’s talk about what happened when Hammurabi ruled about 38 centuries ago. This was 1810-1750 BCE. He was definitely strict with his ruling but it was totally fair. Whatever the punishment was that the rule breaker got, they definitely deserved it. Punishments varied from getting your hands cut off to being hung in a hole in the wall. This was very brutal yet fair to the people.

Hammurabi liked to carve things into stone. He made a stone full of words and images that stood 8 feet tall. According to Document A Hammurabi carved a shamash (the god of justice) sitting on his throne. This represents that Shamash was instructing laws. Below the drawing on the stone is a prologue. The prologue lists the gods’ names showing that they have given Hammurabi the right to rule. Below the prologue, There is a list of 282 laws. These laws were organized by theme, including family life, agriculture, theft, and professional standards. There are exactly 3,500 lines of writing carved into the stone taking up both sides of Steele. Finally, following the laws is the Epilogue, which states how Hammurabi would like the laws to be carried out.

Hammurabi was extremely strict on good behavior. Many bad choices and actions ended in very brutal punishments. There are many of them that have to do with death or cutting off body parts. Law 129 states that if a married woman is with another man (cheats on her husband) then she and the person she was with will be blinded and cast into the river. Law 195 states that if a son struck his father then the son’s hands must be cut off. Law 21 states that if a man breaks through the wall of a house to rob it and gets caught then the man will be killed and either pierced or hung in the hole that he broke in through. These are just three of many laws that Hammurabi created.

In conclusion, Hammurabi was really brutal when it came to punishments. He was also very strict with his laws. If people break his laws they will have a terrible punishment. From cheating on your husband to robbing a house was his most brutal consequences if they are broken. This may not be fair to the rule breaker but it is definitely fair to society.

The initial account of Babylon dating back, is a record of battles between trivial city-federations, each looking for authority, and glorification. The second era (3800-2250) was opened propitiously by Sargon I., who set up a tricky authority and established the frameworks for an amalgamation at last accomplished by Hammurabi, who reigned for 55 years at some point in the 23rd century before Christ (Goodspeed, 1902, p. 59). ). Babylon under Hammurabi was a gathering of city-territories in the procedure of unification through, the impact of a nationalized religion, an incredible, brought-together government, firmly associated business, and an all-around perceived lawful framework that secured property rights and invigorated farming and commerce. The state was exemplified in the priest-king, in which were individual notoriety and heavenly right. Royal lands were held under a primitive residency by a class of ministers, followers, nobles, military, and common authorities, in whose intrigue the laws were in sure regards cautiously confined (Vincent, 1904, p. 741).

Hammurabi, the Amraphel of the Old Testament, was a commanding lord, a warrior, and a capable head of state (Vincent, 1904, p 738). He frets about legitimate issues, directions for the retrial of cases, the installment of loans, and the return of property. He brings defendants to the royal residence for an uncommon hearing. He directs open works, anticipating new waterways and sending laborers for these endeavors. He administers military issues, naming the troops to be conveyed, the vessels to be utilized, and apportions to be purchased. He was a supporter of workmanship and letters and directs his transcribers to get ready accumulations of the national writing. Hammurabi shows up as the hireling of the divine beings, considerate of their celebrations and statues (King, 1900). In the introduction to their code of his, the extraordinary ruler, in obvious oriental form, presents his deeds, and declares his relations with the divine beings. The ruler, the admirer of the divine beings, has to make equity in the land, devastate the fiendish and the shrewdness, to keep the powerful from mistreating the powerless.’ Yet the keynote of this common code is struck in such expressions as, ‘who sets up in security their property in Babylon,’ and the closing sentence of the preface, ‘I built up law and equity in the land and advanced the wellbeing of the general population (Harper, 1904, pp 3-9)

There are 282 codes exhibited by Hammurabi. The first part of the code manages misleading allegations, the second with witchcraft, while the following three identify with observers and judges. At that point pursues a gathering which is worried about the robbery, including kidnapping, the supporting or harboring of outlaw slaves, thievery, and criminals. In another arrangement (26-41) the obligations and benefits of officers and constables are characterized. The following section manages to arrive at laws and incorporates the duties of agriculturists, herders, and nursery workers. After the business division closes with a few segments on wine merchants and the cost of wine and a fairly full treatment of obligation and store. At that point pursues an intricate code of the family and marriage (I27-93). The central themes of this division are: defame, marriage contracts, infidelity, assault, separation and partition, the status of mistresses, kinds of unethical behavior, the property of ladies, the assurance to be wedded present, and the marriage settlement, the laws of legacy, and the espousal of kids. The following gathering of laws identifies with punishments for manslaughter and attack and meanders on into the obligations and expenses of specialists and veterinaries, the branders of slaves, house manufacturers, and shipwrights (King, 1900). Another arrangement of laws manages monetary issues, for example, the leasing of bulls, duty regarding misfortune, together with duties of wages and charges for draft creatures and trucks. These scales are enhanced by comparable directions concerning pontoon contracts. The entire closes with a gathering of five segments on the clearance of slaves, and the mutilation of a slave who denies his lord. The idea of the conditions and the structure of the code itself affirm the conviction that the point of Hammurabi was to consolidate contradictory uses, traditions, and verdicts of judges, into a solitary collection of law, as opposed to declaring new enactment (Vincent, 1904)

Some of the codes of Hammurabi are the destiny of the Babylonian spouse who, scheming with a paramour, compasses the demise of her better half, and is pierced in the outcome, is basically copied by that of the Chinese lady, who in comparative conditions is executed by moderate torment (Vincent, 1904, p. 751). The sexual evils are considered by the code of Hammurabi with changing degrees of impugning, as demonstrated by the size of penalties, however, in one respect, the Babylonian law records a well-near general judgment, in particular, with respect to one type of inbreeding (Code, I 57). ‘The degrees of family relationship,’ inside which intercourse is prohibited is in no way, shape, or form wherever the same. It is most, and all around, severely disliked among guardians and kids, particularly in the case of mother and child. The Babylonian slave who may wed a liberated female and obtain property was not any luckier than the west-African bondsman as owning slaves, and having numerous spouses, expansive riches, and the order of a gathering of free warriors. The mutilation of a slave who denied his lord is additionally the training among similar individuals (Ellis, 1887, p 291)

The code of Hammurabi gives acuity of definition to numerous sorts which generally would be ambiguous. These are, be that as it may, the monetary, municipal, and residential relations as they were. Religion, craftsmanship, writing, and science are not dealt with by the codes (Vincent, 1904, p 741). In the laws, the priest-king sovereignty and power, so fundamental to the combination and propagation of the country, were authorized at all focuses. On the off chance that his officers were careless or sent substitutes on administration, the lord’s anger fell vigorously upon the shifty. Then again, fighters and officers have ensured benefits: their territories couldn’t be removed on the off chance that they were missing; they delighted in significant vulnerabilities. The Lord expected the choice all things considered and the curse, all things considered, accordingly expelling from the relations of residents the disturbing impact of private retribution and gathering fight. One can see the code makes strikingly the strength of financial interests. One can extravagant the weight by which innumerable clashes were merged into this group of laws. On the off chance that the code was very much authorized, Babylon had more likely been well known with men of riches.

Reference

1. Ellis, Alfred B, (1887). The Tshi-Speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast of West Africa; Their Religion, Manners, Customs, Laws, Language, Blatter Press 2011, ISBN 1446050750
2. Goodspeed, G S,(1902). A History of the Babylonians and Assyrians, Create Space Independent Publishing Platform, 2014, pp. 59-65, ISBN 1496183878
3. Harper, R F, (1904). The Code of Hammurabi, King of Babylon about 2500 B.C, Chicago University Press, vol. I, ISBN-10: 1584770031.
4. King, Leonard W (1900), The Letters and Inscriptions of Hammurabi, King of Babylon: About B.C. 2200, Read Books 2009, pp. 4-17, ISBN 9781444630879
5. Kohler, J., & Peiser, F. E. (1890-1898). Hammurabi Gestz. Peiser, Felix E.; Ungnad
6. Vincent, George E. (1904), “The Laws of Hammurabi”, American Journal of Sociology, vol. 9, no. 6, pp. 737-754

My response paper will be on the code of Hammurabi. I will be stating some of the most important marks made or left by the code of Hammurabi. The code of Hammurabi is a ‘’collection of 282 clauses engraved on a 7-foot-high stele’’ (create; ancient/classical humanities). In the Mesopotamian culture, the code of Hammurabi was the most valued way of life. It was also a conjunction of laws to establish and control society. For example, in civic cases, moral cases, and social cases. King Hammurabi received the law from Shamash who is the god of the sun, and we can see from history that Hammurabi was chosen by the god to enforce the law. King Hammurabi was the sixth Babylon ruler of the first Babylonian dynasty. He was also the founder of the Babylonian Empire. King Hammurabi won a lot of battles against adjoining territories. King Hammurabi’s legacy is the code of Hammurabi, such as unifying his kingdom based on common laws. These laws represented punishment for people who didn’t meet the established rules. Written law represented a landmark advance in developing human rights and protecting individuals. Hammurabi’s code covers a broad spectrum of moral, social, and commercial obligations.

According to clause 129, “If the wife of a man is found lying with another male, they shall be bounded and thrown into the water; unless the husband lets his wife live, and the king lets his servant live.” This means that the woman caught being unfaithful to her husband would be punished by being tied to the man she was unfaithful with, the punishment depended on her husband. The man that she was unfaithful to would also be punished, but his punishment would be solely dependent on the king’s rules.

A clause that falls under penalty laws would be clause 196 which states, “If a man has destroyed the eye of a free man, his own eye shall be destroyed” This phrase is used still to this day, is known as “an eye for an eye”, which is classified as the Talion law. Which is presented in both biblical and early Roman laws. In other words, this stands for whatever happens to you, happens to the other person. This can also be classified as karma.

Clause 282,” If a slave shall say to his master, “thou are not my master,” he shall be persecuted as a slave, and his owner shall cut off his ear.” This represents that slaves couldn’t go against their masters or even advocate for themselves. Slaves had no civil rights under the law and enjoyed household protection to which they belong. All of the clauses were based on social classes, even the punishments.

We can see in detail that these laws are not only punishments but justice as well. These laws were created during the Babylonian period. In the Jewish village during the time of Moses, God gave Moses the Ten Commandments for the Jewish people.

1. You shall have no other god before me.
2. Make no idols.
3. Don’t take the name of the Lord your God in vain.
4. Keep the Sabbath day holy.
5. Honor your father and your mother.
6. Don’t commit murder.
7. Don’t commit adultery.
8. Don’t steal.
9. Don’t bear false witness against your neighbor.
10. Don’t desire another person’s stuff

Which are comparable to the Hammurabi code. Because they both deal with social, moral, and civic laws.

We can see that in the book of Exodus, God wrote those Ten Commandments on two tables of stone. The ones that he gave Moses in Mount Sinai. Of those Ten Commandments they resume in love God with all your heart, with all your soul and mind. The second one is loving your fellow brothers and sisters like yourself. In the long run of the story, we can observe that now a day’s laws are evolving and they have been modified for people to get justice.

Overall, we can see how laws affect our life and how from the beginning laws were established to help us be righteous. Because of these laws, there is good and out in the world and bad. People choose their path but there is a guide to what we should do to succeed. We can see that time has changed what laws were established by the Hammurabi Code, they were modified and established in a different way with overall the same category of moral, civic, and social rules.

There have always been laws of the land. Early Christians believed in the 10 commandments of God. These laws have always impacted society because without laws the belief is there would be anarchy. Hammurabi’s codes are considered a system of laws that helped shape society. In this essay, I will explore How Hammurabi’s 282 codes of law impact modern-day society. “The sixth ruler of Babylon, Hammurabi, established a code of 282 clauses engraved on a 7-foot-high slab of the stele” that contained laws that would establish a system of equal and fair consequences/punishments.

This is a way to keep balance within civilizations to ensure no one person or people of a certain status, whether rich or poor, had power over another. These codes are still relevant today as they help establish our legal system and provide means as to how certain laws broken should be handled appropriately. Some people believe an eye for an eye would suffice. Hammurabi also took to this ideology with some of his harsh punishments. He believed in the death penalty for over 20 different offenses. For example, death and perjury were punishable by death. When today in modern society perjury would not by any means be considered a crime for execution.

Hammurabi’s written law is one of the earliest codes written from ancient times providing a sense of order and justice, governing the city-states into a strong province, and giving the leader the well-earned respect of the Mesopotamian society. The laws also served as a prototype for other cultures, influencing the Hebrew scribes, and resulting in the book of Exodus. The slab in which these codes are enclosed was important in its own way as they were the laws

recorded and embodied to make sure the laws themselves were not altered or quoted with different interpretations or meanings. The punishments of these laws were also made based on factors such as gender, class, and social status. For example, if a woman and son were caught committing incest, both would be burned to death or if a son hits his father, his hands would be chopped off. Most punishments were considered gruesome and bizarre to most in the ways one would be executed.

These laws touched on matters that we in modern times deal with as well such as family, criminal, and civil tendencies. We in modern times have developed a way to give people a trial in court systems that give accusers and defendants the opportunity of proving innocence. This is important because back in Hammurabi’s time this was not an equal opportunity to be given a trial. The information given on both sides was not always open to equal or fair findings by a judicial court system. For instance code 3 states “If anyone brings an accusation of any crime before the elders and does not prove what he has charged, he shall, if it is a capital offense charged, be put to death” which relates to today’s Florida statute section 817.49 states that “it is a criminal offense to knowingly give a false report regarding a crime that did not occur” while Hammurabi’s punishment was death, present days offense is subjected to one year in jail or a $1,000 fine.

The reason this work is so important is that Hammurabi took initiative to calm the anger of civilization. He cared about the well-being of the surrounding empire and created such harsh punishments to prove how serious and concerned he was if one did not follow. The city-states had territories that needed leadership and political unification. Without these laws, citizens would fall into the power of unstable decisions of the current emperor, leading to unjust implications. Humans were not considered equals under Babylonian law, wealth and social status determined their importance. With Hammurabi’s law, there was a general understanding of moral values one would express. Women were finally acknowledged and felt protected by certain childbearing and housekeeping laws. Hammurabi was perceived as a great ruler of his time because he administered justice, and laws were taught fair. Instead of it being spoken word, he wrote it so it would not be altered even the slightest. He also believed that his laws descended from the later known as the God of Justice Shamash, pictured in the sculpture. This creation led to life for generations as others recognized and followed somewhat of the same concepts.

Works Cited

Books:

1. Gloria K. Fiero, 2017. Landmarks In Humanities. Fourth Edition.
2. McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121 (Fiero, 2017, p# 11-14)

Websites:

1. Hussein & Weber,2019, Definition of False Report of a Crime, retrieved from:
2. https://www.husseinandwebber.com/crimes/public-order-obstruction/false-report- of-a- crime/ (Hussein and Weber, 2019)
3. Ushistory.org, 2019, Hammurabi’s Code: An Eye for an Eye, retrieved from:
4. https://www.ushistory.org/civ/4c.asp (Ushistory.org, 2019)

Women of Babylonians had to sign a contract before they got married, and they need to be faithful to their husbands. The role of women was to take care of the family and had a child before developing their own careers which promoted the economic development of society. In Babylonian families, women were inferior to husbands and brothers.

In Babylonian times, husbands were the center of families as slave owners, and both the wives and the slaves served the husbands. Wives were like guardians of the home. They took care of the household for their husbands and managed the slaves. The code of Hammurabi 141 was introduced, when a seignior’s wife decided to leave in order to concentrate on her career, ignoring her house, and humiliating her husband, If her husband decided to divorce, he may divorce, without giving her property when she divorced. If her husband has not decided on her divorce, her husband may marry another female and live with the former wife in the husband’s house like a maid. (CP,)Ignoring the family and abusing the husband of Babylonian wives was not allowed by laws. The family was the center of a woman who had to take care of her family and her husband before she did anything. This was the Babylonian pattern of life men went out to make money and women took care of the family. If both the wife and the husband develop their own business, their family affairs couldn’t be managed well. Thus, there was this kind of law to restrict wives. If the law was violated, the wife would get nothing or be abandoned by the husband. Because of these laws, which punish women for abusing their husbands, The wife didn’t dare to neglect her husband. Thus, the law formed a model of serving husbands.

Although the model limited women’s freedom to do much of what they wanted and to get divorced, she could still be divorced and took away all her property if the wife went to city court to defend herself. As Chapter 142 of the code of Hammurabi introduced, ‘If a woman so hated her husband that she has declared,’ You may not have me, ‘ her record shall be investigated at her city council, and if she was careful and was not at fault, even though her husband has been going out and disparaging here greatly, that woman, without incurring any blame at all, may take her dowry and go off to her father’s house. ‘ Although a wife’s status was lower than a husband’s, it didn’t mean she didn’t have any status. Although the law favors the husband’s interests, it still protected the wife’s fundamental rights as a human being. Women could still have the right to revolt and reached their own purpose as long as they didn’t have a fault, the husband couldn’t stop divorcing with his wife to protect her interests. However, a wife must make sure to take good care of her husband and not insult him or neglect the family, so that she could protect her own interests.

The Babylonian women drove the economic development of society. While we know that wives need to take care of their families, it didn’t mean they had to stay home every day. There were still many women who had their own careers, such as priestesses, poets, tavern-keepers, weavers, and cooked drinks, especially beer. In chapter 111 of the Code of Hammurabi, there was also a reference to the occupation of a woman wine seller. Although these occupations did not have a very high social status like men did, they still gave Babylonian women some choices. Women’s occupations provided the most basic security for modern society, and their occupations were generally in business, which provided a lot of wealth for Babylon.

In ancient Babylon, women’s marriage was similar to the trade of goods. Marriage must be clearly priced and signed a contract to ensure the interests of both parties. In the code of Hammurabi, 128, “If a seignior acquires a wife, but did not draw up the contracts for her, that woman is no wife.” The contract is proof of marriage just like when we buy and sell goods, we also need to pay a deposit and sign a contract to ensure the interests of both if we can’t immediately spend money to buy the goods. This kind of marriage model could guarantee one party to get reasonable compensation when breaking the contract, but this kind of compensation was not equal for the man and the woman. Chapter 159 of the code of Hammurabi claims, if a seignior had given his betrothal gift to the house of his father-in-law but fell in love with another woman and refused to marry his daughter, the daughter’s father will keep the wedding gift. Chapter 160 of the code of Hammurabi claims, ‘If a seignior had the betrothal gift – brought to the house of the (prospective) father-in-law, (and) paid the marriage – price and the father of the daughter has then said, “I will not give my daughter to you’, he shall pay back double the full amount that was brought to him.” We knew from these two laws that the marriage price would be taken away by the other party if they broke the contract, which was like they would not get their deposit back if people were not prepared to buy the thing which paid the deposit. This was a kind of security for both parties, but at the same time, this way of marriage was against the true meaning of marriage that both men and women should be married together because of love. However, these laws make marriage more like a transaction, and women traded goods.

An Eye for an Eye, A Tooth for a Tooth

The deserts of modern-day Iraq were once the home to mighty Babylon (1792-1750 BC). Babylon began as one of many city-states in the Mesopotamian region, which set its roots along the Euphrates and Tigris rivers. During this time in history, climate change caused many societies to move and relocate, causing cultures to emerge. The Middle East, Egypt, and Anatolia at this time were small states and were ruled by local dynasties. Babylon shared cultural elements from previous nomadic societies of Sumer (4000 BC) and Akkad (2334 BC). The humble beginnings of Mesopotamian societies were a clan-based system of cultivators ruled by chiefs. Then around 2000 BC, they were invaded by the Amorite tribe from the west and founded the first Babylonian Dynasty. Amongst the First Dynasty comes its most famous ruler, King Hammurabi of Babylon. Hammurabi’s date of birth is unknown, but he remained in power from 1792 BC-1749 BC. Hammurabi’s unique leadership and strategic political organization enabled him to conquer and bring all of Mesopotamia under Babylonian rule.

To understand Hammurabi as a leader, we must first look at where he came from. Much of Hammurabi’s life before the throne is unknown. However, we do know he came from Amorite ancestry, “the name Hammurabi combined the Amorite word for “family” [Hammu] with the Akkadian adjective “great” [Rabi]” (Van De Mieroop 3). His name shows that Hammurabi’s family kept its ancestral roots but merged itself with the local culture, again, showing the influence of the Amorites’ invasion of Mesopotamia.

The initial years of Hammurabi’s ascension in 1792 BC were quite calm, which isn’t very common in kings who were newly appointed because they want to show their strength, which often lead to rash decisions. He was given the throne after his father, Sin-muballit, became ill and could no longer rule. Hammurabi’s age at the time is unknown, but one can presume he must have been young when he ascended the throne because Babylon was under his rule for approximately 43 years. His young age could have also been a factor as to why he did not immediately make plans to conquer neighboring cities. “One of the main reasons for Hammurabi’s greatness was the fact that he could clearly see his own limitations” (MacQueen 4). Hammurabi was very strategic in his plans for the Kingdom of Babylon and understood the importance of patience.

Hammurabi started his time in office by seeing out many public works, “thus started relieving the population of its general debt burden” (Van De Mieroop 12). He cleared the vicious cycle of debt amongst his people because it would allow everyone to have a new beginning under his reign. The forgiveness of debt was a popular move amongst newly appointed Kings at the time because the creditors made a system that made it virtually impossible for anyone to pay off, as stated in an ancient text of the period “ “ If an obligation has resulted in foreclosure against a citizen…and he placed himself, his wife, or children in debt servitude for silver…he is released because the King has instituted justice in the land; his freedom is in effect” (Van De Mieroop 11). King Hammurabi knew that by clearing the debt of the people, he would gain their support for any future endeavors. King Hammurabi understood he was responsible for the well-being of Babylon and that meant appeasing the Gods. He continuously donated to priests and temples because religion was a very important part of the Babylonian culture. “In his most eloquent year-name, he claims that he made a throne “finished with gold, silver, semi-precious stones, and lapis-lazuli, like a blaze for Babylon,” (Van De Mieroop 12), showing Hammurabi’s dedication to the Gods, and following the steps of a good king. He also reinforced the city walls to protect Babylon which reveals he was preparing for battle in the near future.

The first 18 years of his reign allowed him to build a strong foundation and prepare for the next phase which lead to the conquest of Mesopotamia. The first city to fall to Hammurabi was Elam.

“Elam was the source of some highly desired materials which were absent in Mesopotamia itself. It controlled one of the few trade routes used to import tin, crucial for the manufacture of bronze tools and weapons, and lapis lazuli…prized for the production of jewelry…stone and wood were also brought from Elam into Babylonia” (Van De Meiroop 16).

Elam was a wealthier city in the means of natural resources it exported. It was very tactical to conquer this city first in order to finance and use their resources to strengthen Hammurabi’s conquest. However, the opportunity presented itself at the most favorable time. Elam’s ruler decided to attack Eshnunna because it blocked trade routes that were crucial for Elam, and he was successful in raiding the city. The ruler of Elam then felt he was superior to Hammurabi and the King of Mari and demanded their loyalty which both agreed. However, the King of Elam was asking Larsa for its support to attack Babylon, and at the same time asking Babylon for support against Larsa. “When the two Mesopotamian rulers compared notes, they saw Elam’s duplicity and agreed to join forces,” Hammurabi’s strategy to be in contact with Larsa allowed both regions to unite and defeat Elam.

Up to Hammurabi’s ascension, much of Mesopotamian city-states were in constant quarrels with one another over land and control. “Because these states were often close together and needed agricultural fields to feed their populations, conflict was a regular part of their interactions” (Van De Mieroop 16). Hammurabi’s tactful leadership skills allowed Babylon to play in the big games.

The underlying systems of the Law of Hammurabi, Draco, Solon, and Diocletian can be compared in many different ways. It can demonstrate competence in information literacy by selecting, utilizing, and documenting appropriate sources. It can be compared and differentiated in the basic structure of legal codes, who the beneficiaries were, and the many historical facts. Hammurabi ( Born in Babylon) was the sixth king of the Babylon dynasty of the Amorite tribe (1792 BC – 1750 BC). His father Sin Muballit died due to poor health, and that is when Hammurabi took over as King. Hammurabi ventured out and conquered plenty of city-states such as Mari, Larsa, etc. Hammurabi was one of the best rulers of Babylon and was known for surviving a set of laws, was once considered the oldest promulgation of laws in history. Hammurabi has been best known for the code of laws known as the Code of Hammurabi.

The Code of Hammurabi was used to regulate Mesopotamian society. Hammurabi’s code of laws had 282 laws, it established plenty of things such as commercial interactions and they set fines and punishments to meet the requirements of justice. The codes were carved onto a huge Blackstone that was looted by people (Invaders) and was rediscovered in 1901 and it was the first written insurance policy. Hammurabi was seen as a god even in his lifetime. He was known for great building projects, for example, Canals which were essential to Hammurabi empires agriculture. Draco (Born in Greece) was the first recorded legislator of Athens, Ancient Greece, and an early manifestation of Athenian democracy. Draco was known for replacing the law of oral law and blood feud with a written code to be enforced by a court of law. The Law of Draco was created in 620BC and was a written law, this law was in response to the unjust interpretation and modification of the oral law. Draco was commissioned by the people of Athens to devise a constitution and written law code. The written code would be placed at a location where everyone can easily reach. Plato has been the major beneficiary for centuries.

The Draco system of Law was written on a wooden tablet with human blood. The rules were brutal, which lead to getting replaced by new ones. The new rules were created by the “Father of Modern Western Law” Solo of Athens. Solon (Born 640 BC, Greece) was a poet, Athenian statesman, and lawmaker. Solon was a Greek and was known for having laid the foundations for Athenian democracy and his efforts to legislate against the moral and political decline in Athens. Solon’s Laws embraced the whole private and public life and the salutary effects which lasted a long time after the end of his constitution. Solon’s legal codes replaced Draco’s bad laws and the constitution was based on four classes determined by wealth, Solon retained political responsibility. Solon’s reforms say that all debts were distinguished and all debt slaves were finally free. Solon’s poems were the main beneficiaries of his cancellation of debt. Solon was Athens’s first poet, his poetry urged the people to action and counseled the people. Solon made his poetry the instrument of his statesmanship.

Diocletian (Born 244 AD, in Croatia) was a Roman Emperor from 284-305. His family was known as being low-status in Dalmatia. Diocletian joined the military hoping to become a Roman commander to Emperor Carus. After the death of his son and the death of Carus, Diocletian was proclaimed emperor. In 303, Emperor Diocletian and others issued a series, that rescinded Christians’ legal rights and demanded that they comply. Diocletian divided the Roman empire because the empire had become too big to rule effectively, and the outer provinces started to do what they wanted. Emperor Diocletian decided to try to fix this problem and others, he decided to break the empire into two pieces. Galerius, the new Augustus, was the major beneficiary of the new Caesars. Diocletian’s major emphasis was that he change the tax policy of the empire by making all tax information to the public. The underlying systems of law of Hammurabi, Draco, Solon, and Diocletian showed how different they all are from each other. Diocletian divided the roman empire into two pieces thinking it will fix everything. Then there is the Draconian law, which was known for being very disgusting and harsh, Instead of writing the laws in ink they used blood. Almost all criminal offenses were prescribed death. Solon distinguished all of Draco’s laws except the ones regarding homicide but Solon abolished all debts and all slaves were freed. Solon made Athens powerful and granted Athens its fame all over for centuries.

Hammurabi’s laws established plenty of things such as commercial interactions, he set fines and punishments to meet the requirements of justice and had the first written insurance policy. Hammurabi and Solon’s laws were similar because it was humane and they did care about the people, Solon and Hammurabi were looked at in a good light. Draco and Diocletian laws were similar because they both made really bad mistakes as a ruler and people didn’t like them as much. It’s important to utilize and document appropriate sources because it will let the people in the future know what not to do and it can also keep a record of when and where it took place. If these laws were not written down, nobody would know it happened or people wouldn’t know whether to believe it or not.

Unfair Distribution of Power

Throughout history, enduring issues have developed across time and societies. One such enduring issue is the unfair distribution of power. Unfair distribution of power is when one group of people has more power than others. This issue affects people negatively because it shows that power favors some people over others. The unfair distribution of power is shown in Hammurabi’s Code(the personal injury laws), The Indian caste system, and Confucianism(the power in a relationship).

One enduring issue is the personal injury laws from the code of Hammurabi. Hammurabi’s code was a set of laws written by King Hammurabi during the Sumerian civilization in 1754 B.C.E. The personal injury laws were unfair because the laws favored free men over slaves and women. The law said “If a free man knocks the eye out of another free man, the same thing shall be done to him but if a free man knocks the eye out of a slave, he shall pay half the price” It also said if a man causes women to lose her child then he shall pay 10 shackles. These personal injury laws affect people in a negative way because Hammurabi’s code was patriarchial; favoring mostly free men. This is to the segregation of African Americans because the slaves and African Americans were both treated unequally one based on their status and the other based on their color.

Another enduring issue is the treatment of the lower status in the Indian caste system. Vishnu created the caste system and labeled it as his body parts: the head: Brahmins, The Torso: Khshatriyas, and the feet Vaisyas. The Dalits were the untouchables and had no part in Vishnu’s body parts. The untouchables were considered so filthy that others rang a bell when the Dalits came near. The Dalits had filthy jobs like cleaning the streets and cleaning bathrooms. The caste system was unfair because the Dalits couldn’t buy or marry their way out of their status. This has a negative impact on people of lower status. This issue is similar to women’s rights. This is similar to women’s rights because before women got rights they were also treated unfairly and mostly made fun of if they did something out of their comfort zone.

The last enduring issue is Confucianism(the types of power in relationships). Around 479-551 B.C.E. Confucius gave advice to leaders and princes in China during the corruption of the Chinese government. The advice of Confucius on power in relationships was unfair because Confucius said only the elder man and the power in the family and everywhere. Also, he said that people must listen to their leaders even if the leader is corrupt or unfair. This affects society in a negative way because corrupt leaders can bring down the country with them and destroy the natural balance in a community. This is similar to the corrupt leader of North Korea Kim Jong Un. He’s a dictator that literally bans everything creative and allows only the things he likes. He also doesn’t give any power to the citizens and abuses the power he has.