The lab exercise under consideration was untitled “Acceleration Due to Gravity,” and it is possible to state that its real purpose was to provide students with the opportunity to acquire practical skills of calculating one of the basic physical constants. In the process of performing the lab exercise, observed evidence from two sources was collected. Firstly, a falling paper strip was used, and secondly, a pendulum was employed for the same purpose of calculating acceleration due to gravity. Two different sources were used to enable students to calculate acceleration due to gravity in a classical manner (by observing a falling object) and to perform the same calculation by watching the pendulum swing, which also represents the process of falling.
It is also highly important to emphasize why the same quantity derived from two different activities. As acceleration due to gravity is the physical constant, it does not matter what shape and size are the falling objects (any other thing could be used instead of the paper strip), and thus both methods give the same result, despite that the input data differs. If materials of different weights, size, or shape had been used in the performed lab exercise, the results would still be the same because the physical force of gravity is constant for all falling objects.
Another significant aspect of this lab exercise is that it was not merely an academic exercise because the concept of acceleration due to gravity is highly applicable in practice. For example, the power of gravity allows artificial satellites to orbit around Earth without falling as their mass is calculated regarding acceleration due to gravity. Considering pendulums, their practical value is apparent since they are used as parts of clocks, metronomes, and seismometers.
Gravity has been an invariable element right through the history of Earth. Gravity not only affects our body but also every aspect of our life. It is very important to understand the meaning of gravity as well as its effects on us so we can compensate for it.
In 1965 the universal law of gravitation was discovered by Sir Isaac Newton. Gravity is that force that has an extent at every point in space. Gravitational load deals with every object at the surface of the earth and marks out its weight. Gravity affects our life. If gravity can make changes physically, then gravity can be considered as a prominent physical ecological force from which life is originated on Earth. Gravitational force helps in lifting an object from the surface of the Earth. While doing so, the distance is maintained from that the object is raised (Morey-Holton, 2003).
Defining Gravity: The law of gravity helps us to understand the movement of the planets and spaceflights.
“The universal law of gravitation states that the attractive force between any two bodies is given by:
Fg =Gu Mm/ d2
Where M (of Earth) and m (of any object) are the masses of the two attracting bodies, d is the distance between their centers of mass and Gu is the universal gravitational constant (6.67* 10-8 Cm³/g.s²)” (Morey-Holton, 2003, p. 144).
Will life change if Gravity changes? The interaction of gravity with other environmental factors of the earth is very important since it gives life to every object on the earth. Due to gravity, the objects of the earth get weight. For example, gravity makes the rainfall; separates air from water and for water to drain, etc.
“We seldom are exposed to gravity levels other than 1 G for any length of time on Earth making it very difficult to grasp the subtleties of altered gravity. Thus, we have developed an evolutionary ‘1 G mentality” (Morey-Holton, 2003, p. 146).
It means that we make use of gravity in our life but we do not know that we are doing so. That is why it is difficult for us to understand life without gravity. Since we do not understand that we are using gravity, we design hardware for a 1G, instead of a changed G, environment.
NASA reveals that roughly 40% of the equipment that flies in space for the first time does not function properly. It happens due to heat build-up or surroundings based on designs that are more suitable for the earth. In space, if the animals are put in a cage, they can use all sides of their cage but on the earth, it does not happen. On the earth, the animals can use only the floor. It suggests that housing standards that are suitable on the earth may not necessarily be suitable in space.
The necessity of gravity for life: Life is synthetic and it changes with the environment. Life in space will be different after many generations. It can become accustomed to the changes in gravity.
Suppose, if the gravity on earth is turned off then what is going to happen with the things attached to the earth. The earth rotates on its axis at a very high speed. If we will spin something on our head with the help of a string, it will move in a circle till we are holding the string. When we will leave the string, then that object will fly in a straight line. The size of the straight line depends on the size of the circle initially but later there are two different pathways since the circle is curved but the straight line remains as it is.
If we ‘switch off’ gravity, the things will not be attached to the earth. They will fly away into space in a straight line and they will be far away from the surface of the earth. People living or working in buildings will not be able to stand on the floor. They will glide upwards and will bang themselves on the ceilings of the buildings. “Outside of the buildings the things will start floating and their straight line will move them away from the surface of the earth gradually and with a much faster speed, they will go away from the circular path of the earth” (Masters, 2002, para 3).
Turning off gravity is not going to affect things like trees and buildings, etc. since they are embedded in the earth but these things will not be able to stand on the surface of the earth so steadily. The earth may also break into pieces and will float into space because the earth is being held by gravity only (Masters, 2002).
After discussing the definition of gravity and what will be the effect of the things on the earth if gravity is switched off, the paper will now discuss the effect of gravity on our body.
Effect of gravity on our bodies: The effect of gravity can be felt every day on the human body. One cannot smell, touch, taste, or see it but still, gravity has a drastic influence on our bodies. No other force than gravity is so stronger that affects our bodies considerably.
When Sir Isaac Newton first discovered the law of gravity, he understood that gravity can control the moon’s orbit but possibly he could not see the serious effect of gravity on human bodies.
Now, the effects of the compressive force of gravity on human bodies- Have you ever felt the tightness of your pants around your waist as the day ends? Have you ever become conscious that after the age of twenty, your height will be decreased after twenty years? The average loss of the height will be around ½ inch. Are you suffering from any kind of these problems like swollen feet, back pain, etc.? Have you ever played around with your rearview mirror either in the morning or in the night?
If the answer to all of the above questions is yes, then the human being is seriously affected by the force of gravity. Gravity does not create any difference among the objects of the earth when it puts its effects whether the person is young or old, gravity affects everyone. We can always feel the effect of gravity on our backs, faces, necks, chests, legs, organs, and feet, which is painful. We all experience change in our bodies since we are living creatures on the earth.
Doing exercises keep us fit but exercise can be both good and bad for our bodies. As much as we will run and as much as weight we will lift, our bodies bear the force of gravity. It is known as compression exhaustion.
Spine: Possibly, in our all body parts, the spine is the most affected part due to the force of gravity. Our spine is made of vertebrae and sponge-like discs. These discs lose moisture the whole day due to the downward force of gravity. Consequently, a person can lose up to ½”-3/4” of height daily. The discs recover the moisture in the night but it is fully recovered. A person can eternally lose between ½’-2’ in height in his whole life.
Waist: This height loss affects our spine as well as the whole body so it is like a “domino effect.” The organs of our body become dense and the size of our waist grows but there is not any real weight gain. They are known as love handles but in point of fact, they are the wrinkles, which happen due to the density of the spine. This affects our ability to move and turn and it can badly get in the way of doing simple daily activities.
Organs: Gravity not only affects the outer side of our bodies. It inflicts chaos even on the inner side of our bodies. Gradually, organs start falling from their actual place. The function of the organs starts deteriorating. It becomes very common for people to have problems in their digestive system. If truth be told, yoga practitioners guide people for proper organ placement.
Flexibility: Due to height loss, people lose flexibility in their bodies. As the person grows old, he is not able to perform so actively, especially in his old age. Gravity affects our general activities like gardening, playing, etc.
Circulation: As we know that gravity can stop water flowing from upwards hills so similarly, it can stop the blood in our bodies from liberally flowing upward. Gravity affects our circular system for a longer period. The effect is mainly on our scalp circulation, varicose veins, and swollen limbs. Over some time, our important organs like, the eyes, ears, scalp, and brain get worse due to this reason (“Effects of gravity on the body”, 2012).
Skin: The role of gravity is very prominent in aging our skin. When our skin is less stretchy, gravity controls our eyebrows and eyelids and they hang down. It makes them loose and gives fullness under the cheeks and jaw. It also increases the size of the ear lobes.
A study done by Michael Haussman that was published in LA Weekly in 2012 shows the effect of gravity on human emotion. This study is filmed in five dimension video sequences, challenging gravity, floating upward, then going downward, etc. the body of the people does not move even an inch. Only their skin, muscles, and bones move including their expressions. That creates upsetting but striking shifts in body mass and emotions.
The shocking effects of gravity can be observed on our bodies. As discussed that gravity pulls the body down to earth, which causes the facial expression also hang down. The body looks wrinkled and saggy. It is dilapidated and the face looks older and depressed. Then suddenly we can observe a change in emotion when they become weightless. We can observe that the body looks very young; the expressions are satisfactory and the quality of the skin is unblemished as soon as the body is away from the gravity of the earth. The film shows that all physical and emotional expressions move upwards without making any efforts in a positive direction (Haussman, 2012).
We can experiment to see the strong effect of gravity on our circulatory system. One should lift the right arm for two minutes and then lower it and should put side by side the right and left hands. One would be able to observe the more pink hand. We can also observe the effect of gravity on our lower limbs if stand throughout the day (“Effects of gravity on the body”, 2012).
We avoid such problems related to our bodies by thinking that these are due to our growing age but this is just due to the steady force of gravity and we should not avoid it.
To examine the power of gravity, we can also think about this phenomenon that the height of the astronauts grows when they are in space. Since they remain in the orbit for a longer period, their discs take wetness from the blood tributary. In the absence of gravitational force in space, the discs stay fleshy and are taller. The reality is that we will always be earthbound for our whole life. Following are the ways by which we can compensate:
The above table depicts the effect of gravity on various stages of human life. The description is as follow:
As fetuses, we develop in our mothers’ wombs where we move upside down in a different period of pregnancy that helps in developing our brain.
When we are infants, we normally sleep making our heads lower in comparison to our hearts. In this way, our brain gets blood and oxygen.
When we are children, we enjoy doing some activities like hanging upside down and riding the swings that ‘escape us from gravity.’
When we are adults, we use support like desks, etc. to keep our legs up and maintain a posture. It pays off the gravity’s constant presence.
When we are humans, we are always scared that we will fall when we will climb a mountain or will go in an elevator or an airplane, etc.
When we are earthlings, we still do speculations about our continued existence under the effect of gravity.
Body in Space: To make the effect of gravity on earth clear, we can analyze the situation of our bodies when they are in space and we can see how our bodies react there:
Bones: The loss of bones could be tremendous. In Z-gravity, bones deteriorate at a rate of about 1% a month and it is expected that this loss can go up to 40 to 60% (Gravity Hurts, 2001).
Astronauts do not walk in their spaceship when they have to move inside it, rather they float. It shows that the bones of the lower parts of the body cannot much endure the weight. These parts of the body could be legs, hips, and spine. This kind of reduction releases calcium, which is taken by our bodies again and it makes bones weaker.
Muscles: The muscles of the back, which are used for the posture, are not in good shape due to the longer use of spaceship so the muscles of the astronauts also become feeble. They have to exercise to maintain their muscles.
We cannot call gravity just a force. It is a signal for our bodies that how to react. It tells us that our muscles and bones should be strong enough to bear the force of gravity. In the state of zero-G, muscles deteriorate very fast since the body thinks that they are no more required. The muscles of the calves and spine struggle with gravity so we can make a posture but if they are not much used in zero-G so in that case, we may lose some of the amounts of them.
Fluid shift: “Our body does not experience the compression of gravity in space due to which the lower part of the body, especially, our legs get the distribution of blood and other body fluids” (“Gravity and the human body”, n.d., para 5). So in space, the astronauts generally have a puffy face because of the redistribution of the fluid to the upper part of the body. When the fluid shift to the head, it gives give the feeling of clogging (“Ask an Astrophysicist”, 2005).
Cardiovascular System: This system works well in space but the work of the heart is not much tough in that kind of environment which could decrease the size of the heart. Also, endothelial cells may be affected which can lead to coronary heart disease (“Gravity and the human body”, n.d.).
The Spine: Astronauts become taller in space since, on the earth, gravity compresses the vertebrae of the spinal column. But as gravity is absent in space, the discs are long-drawn-out and the astronauts become taller in space.
Inner Ear and Balance System: Neural circuits level out our vision and help us in understanding the whole balancing system. The brain gets information from many other different sensory organs like eyes, muscles, joints, etc. but the prototype of information is not the same in space. The inner side of the ear is very much sensitive to gravity and it does not work properly as it is intended.
When astronauts return to earth, they try to adjust themselves to earth’s gravity once again but still, it takes time for them to walk or stand initially. They cannot fix their eyes on anything. They have low blood pressure (Yaylaian, 2013). The sudden contact with gravity keeps the blood in astronauts’ bodies running down. To support their bodies in connection with the gravity of the earth, astronauts can drink salt water, which will enhance the number of fluids in their bodies. They can wear G-suits that are in rubber forms, which are puffed up to compress the extremity. They can also take new drugs to enhance their blood pressure (“Known effects of long-term space flights on the human body”, n.d.).
Sleep and Performance: An astronaut has a different schedule in space in comparison to the earth where he has to follow a twelve hours day and twelve hours night cycle. Also, in space, there is no restricted working environment so it affects an astronaut’s ability to work well. The exploration team of the astronauts has to adjust as per the schedule of the space. Scientists support them to increase their preparedness and decrease performance blunders. For that, they develop spacecraft lighting system, sleep schedules, and their work shifts time-tables (“The body in space”, 2010).
Conclusion: Nobody can break away from gravity but it is for sure that we can use some activities to balance it, which should be useful for us. It can be done by turning around our bodies’ position. Gravity is useful for extending our bodies. The Nachemson study points towards an idea that the compression of gravity can be prevailed over by using the 60% of traction of our body weight.
Inversion is supposed to be very good therapy for keeping our bodies in line under the force of gravity. This therapy helps in improving back pain as well as in rectifying other negative effects which we have on our bodies due to compression of gravity. Inversion can be taken as a proactive approach to maintaining our overall back health. If we hang upside down, it will support in stretching our bodies’ muscles; reducing stress, and providing vigorous movement for ligaments.
The continuous pull of gravity has a very negative effect on our bodies, especially on the joints and spinal discs. When we roll upside down, it helps our heart in cleansing the blood from our lower body parts. The blood circulates in our limbs more easily.
So finally, we can observe the tension created by gravity on our body parts like muscles, bones and facial expressions, etc. People go to the physiotherapist for that reason to take help for their body problems caused due to gravity.
What are the three key variables in the gravity model? Why are they important in explaining bilateral trade flows? In addition to these key variables, what are the additional factors that are important in explaining bilateral trade flows?
The gravity model of international trade has achieved its name because it resembles Isaac Newton’s formula for calculating the force of gravity between two objects. According to the gravity model, the trade flow between two countries (or other entities) can be statistically predicted from the size of their economies and the geographical distance between the countries:
F = (G × M1 × M2) / D,
where F is the trade flow between countries, M1 and M2 are the sizes of the economies of the countries (usually measured in GDP), D is the geographical distance between the countries, G is a coefficient.
Thus, the three key variables in the gravity models are the two sizes of the economies of the countries (or other entities that engage in trading) and the geographical distance between them. The sizes of the economies are important because upon these sizes depends how much a country will be able to sell or buy, whereas the distance is important because the shorter it is, the lower are the logistics expenditures, and the more profitable the trade is.
For example, the U.S. and Canada may have large trade flow, because the countries are located nearby, and their economies are large. On the other hand, Lesotho and Panama are unlikely to have large trade flows, because their economies are small, and it is expensive to transport goods from one country to the other due to the long distance.
Some other factors that influence the trade flows are the level of development of countries (for instance, countries at different stages of development will have more trade, e.g., the less developed country will sell minerals, the more developed country will sell hi-tech products); the customs policies of the countries (this directly affects the size of profits; e.g., large customs will make imported goods very expensive in the market, decreasing the demand for them), currency exchange rates (£10 may be a large sum of money in some countries, so British beverages will be very expensive in Madagascar), etc.
Developing countries in the 20th century mainly adopted two trade policies. What are they? Which is less successful? For the less successful one, what are the potential problems of the policy which may have contributed to its failure?
The two main types of trade policies mainly adopted by developed countries in the 20th century are the 1) export-oriented industrialization and 2) import substitution industrialization. Both of them are aimed at stimulating the country’s development and industrialization but in different ways.
Export-oriented industrialization is aimed at stimulating the industrialization of a country by exporting goods for which the country has an advantage in comparison to other countries, and focusing on the production of such goods, simultaneously opening the country’s market to competitors from other countries.
On the contrary, import substitution industrialization is aimed at stimulating the industrialization by providing beneficent conditions for home manufacturers. The country closes its market to foreign competitors (e.g., by implementing customs policies), and relies mainly on home businesses to produce goods and services; these businesses, thus, do not have to compete with foreign manufacturers and exist in a less competitive environment. This should allow more of them to better develop and grow, simultaneously providing more workplaces for employees. At the same time, this is supposed to reduce the country’s dependence on imported goods.
Historically, export-oriented industrialization was more effective because it allows a country to specialize in an industry in which it has a competitive advantage, retaining that advantage and using it. Simultaneously, import substitution industrialization, while lowering competition in the home market, decreases the stimulus for home manufacturers to make their goods cheaper and of higher quality; these manufacturers, therefore, have a lower incentive to develop. The country does not gain benefits from specialization and imports.
Simultaneously, there also exist limitations of export-oriented industrialization. For instance, a country with a specialized economy and strongly dependent upon foreign exports may be more sensitive to external factors such as political relationships with its trade partner countries.
What is ‘infant industry policy’? Discuss the assumptions of this policy. Two market failures are identified to justify this theory. What are they? Why did the policy fail?
Infant industry policy is a protectionist trade policy aimed at helping a country’s home industry which is currently at an early stage of development to advance by removing competition from foreign manufacturers until the home industry achieves a similar economy of scale (i.e., the advantages achieved thanks to the size, the volume of output, etc.). Import substitution industrialization is an example of an infant industry policy.
An infant industry policy, it is assumed, for example, that the home industry will develop without the (foreign) competitors prompting it to do so, and that this industry will not be able to survive and develop in stiff competition. The first assumption may be doubted because, without the competition, a company will often have few stimuli to develop. The second assumption may be true for particular companies, but if a company is able to gain a sustainable advantage, it should be able to survive and develop.
Two market failures are used to justify an infant industry policy. They are the 1) imperfect capital markets and 2) appropriability argument. According to the imperfect capital markets argument, in the case when in a developing country there are no financial organizations which would permit for investing the savings from traditional sectors (such as agriculture or mining) into new industries (such as manufacturing), the development of the new industries will be limited by the ability of new firms to obtain profits, and thus should be additionally stimulated. According to the appropriability argument, companies in a new industry create new social benefits that are not compensated in the market properly.
The infant industry policy often may fail because companies are placed in an environment where they can make profits without the need to develop further. In addition, if a country closes its markets to foreign industries, it may often face retaliatory obstacles and thus be unable to sell its goods in foreign markets.
One of the interesting points that Tucker makes is how the sculptures are perceived: “At all events, both sculptures, together with several stone stools… are accepted as decorative elements in a public space, whose power as art, the capacity to surprise and disturb, has been drained off…” (129). Indeed, unlike the Endless Column, these sculptures are accepted by the public, which undermines the public’s view of it as a form of art. It is important to ask how the sculpture needs to be placed in a context and what exactly is the aim of setting this sculpture in this or that public space. If the public place is reconstructed, there is a chance that the sculpture and the context will change, thus changing the initial aim of the work of art (if there was any).
The second point relates to the first: “Brancusi is reported as saying that the spectator should not be made to feel like an atom in the presence of the work of art” (Tucker 131). Surprisingly, despite the massiveness of the described works, Brancusi was able to create the effect of intimacy, which can be difficult to achieve with the objects of such scale. However, another example of such achievement (and the third point) is provided with The Kiss sculpture, which Tucker describes as “light and airy… The sculpture has an immensely warm and friendly presence” (136). Although it is difficult for me to understand how exactly this sculpture creates a friendly presence, I agree with the author that the central block of air in the middle creates a floating impression. Perhaps this is what makes the sculpture seem airy.
Tucker’s explanation of the Endless Column was also important to me: “…its character as a whole, as a complete and finite object, emerges as dominant” (142). I do not understand how the completeness of other objects is not dominant as all works of Brancusi seem finite and complete to me in their massiveness. However, I would agree with the author that Brancusi invented “a radically new role for sculpture” since he gradually moved from everyday objects to abstraction (Tucker 142).
Gravity
To better understand the skill of Rodin, Tucker suggests examining the countered “perceived illusion of movement” expressed through “stability of the pose, the spread, straight legs…” (145). Indeed, there is no feeling of movement, but the stability of the figure seems almost physical as if it were possible to touch it. Tucker’s second vital point is that this stability achieved through the feet, “their role as a gravitational anchor” (146). If we examine other sculptures such as Eve and Nude Balzac Study, we can notice that the gravity in them is especially visible, almost viable. Gravity in Degas’ work is described differently, but this description also helps in understanding his mastery: “…real and illusioned balance about gravity” (Tucker 152). This notion of the author is important because it explicitly states what factors or characteristics of Degas’ work need to be taken into consideration to understand how physicality or activity is expressed in his sculptures.
When describing the work of Rodin, Tucker indicates that their “restlessness of the surfaces, the unrelieved dynamic of diagonal axes… affirm an ancestry in the Baroque” (154). I was trying to comprehend why his sculptures reminded me of some seen on and in Baroque architectural works, as well as in some paintings, and only Tucker’s note helped me understand what features exactly had a resemblance to the Baroque art. At the same time, I was not able to agree with some of the points made by Tucker, specifically with the following: “…there is more pathos, heroism…in his use of the human figure…” than in Rodin’s sculptures (158). In my opinion, the method of expression is different: Rodin’s pathos is expressed through the stability of bodies, while Degas uses its “grimace”. Heroism here is just expressed with different tools, but there is not more or less of it in the works of both artists.
Work Cited
Tucker, William. Early Modern Sculpture: Rodin, Degas, Matisse, Brancusi, Picasso, Gonzalez. Oxford University Press, 1974.
