There has been a debate on the usage of the terms sentence and clause in English syntax with most scholar arguing that there is an overlap in the usage of the terms (Freidin, 2006). There are those who feel that there is no significant difference between a sentence and a clause and that the two terms should not be used separately. However, there are those scholars who feel that the two terms are distinct and should continue to be used separately in English syntax. Before looking at this syntactical debate pitting the two constituents of English grammar, it is important to look at their distinctive definitions.
Definitions
What is a sentence? Syntactically, a sentence is a group of words that have been combined together using the grammatical rules to express a meaning or to convey an idea, a thought, an event or a description. The main points in this definition are expression of ideas and the grammatical rules. These rules create order and also regulate the expansion and the shortening of the sentence (Griffin, 2001). It is easy to recognize the structure and the boundaries of a sentence. Every sentence starts with a capital letter and its end is marked by terminal marks such as the full stop and the question mark.
However, a clause is a group of words, with a special relationship. The words must contain a subject and a verb. This is what creates a difference between a phrase and a clause because a phrase does not have the subject verb agreement.
Relationship between clauses and sentences
To understand the relationship between the clauses and the sentences, it is important to review the various major clauses that are present in English syntax. The first type of a clause that is found in English syntax is the independent clause. An independent clause is a clause that contains a subject and a verb and can make meaning on its own. An independent clause does not need another clause to make meaning. Two main clauses when coordinated form compound sentences and the clauses still remain independent of each other even in their hypotactic relationship. The conjunctions that are used to combine two or more independent clauses to make a compound sentence are called coordinating conductions. Independent clauses are commonly referred to as main clauses (Carnie, 2006).
The other type of clause in English syntax is the subordinate or dependent clauses. A dependent or subordinate clause contains a subject and a verb; however, it cannot make meaning alone. It needs an independent clause to make meaning. When a main clause and a subordinate clause are joined together, they make a complex sentence. A complex sentence is made up of a main clause plus one or more subordinate clauses that have been joined together using subordinating conjunctions. This lesson on clauses brings the debate to three main types of sentences (Brown, 1996). The three are simple sentences, complex sentences and compound sentences. All these types of sentences are formed using different types of clauses combined using different ways. A simple sentence is a one clause sentence that expresses only one idea because it has a single subject and a only one main doing word (Halliday, 2002). There are no conjunctions used in simple sentences, because the moment a conjunction is used, the sentences express more than one idea and it ceases being a simple sentence. If a simple sentence is a one clause sentence, then at the level of the simple sentence, there is no difference between a sentence and a clause. The examples below illustrate the simple sentence concept
Alex is a teacher
They went to school yesterday
Mandela was the first president of South Africa
Manchester United failed to qualify for the champions league for the second year in a row
Looking at the above sentences, it is evident that the sentences contain only one subject, a single verb and a single idea. These sentences are simple sentences and since a simple sentence is a one clause sentences, the above sentences are also clauses. Clauses can be combined together to express more than one ideas. The examples below illustrate combined clauses that make more than one ideas.
Jane and Eric like history
Manchester united and A.C.Milan did not qualify for the champion’s league
Bush and Clinton are former presidents of the United States of America.
Nepal and Niger are the poorest countries in the world
From the above sentences, it is evident that they contain compound subjects and the sentences can be broken down into their constituent clauses. For example, the first sentence is made up of two clauses; Jane likes history and Eric likes history. The two clauses or simple sentences have been combined together to make a compound sentence that expresses two ideas because of the presence of the compound subject.. Going back to the debate of whether the word sentence and clause should be used interchangeable or whether one word should be dropped in favor of the other, it is important to note that a sentence and a clause are only equal at the level of the simple sentence. However at the level of compound sentences, a sentence is on a higher syntactical level than a clause which means that the two words cannot be used interchangeable neither can the word sentence be dropped so that a compound sentence can be syntactically referred to as a compound clause. The same applies to complex sentences. The sentences below illustrate the concept of complex sentences.
Do not remain in the hostels, unless you are sick
We went to Bentonville, where we found the oldest Wal-Mart branch
If you don’t score three goals, you will not emerge as the top scorer in this tournament.
The above sentences contain two clauses each. There are some clauses that can make meaning independently while there are others that cannot. In the first sentence the clause “unless you are sick” is a subordinate clause. It needs the presence of the first part to make meaning. In the third sentence, the clause “if you don’t score three goals” is still a dependent or a subordinate clause and can only make meaning in the presence of a main clause in the second part. It is now apparent that a subordinate clause is not a sentence. This is because, the definition of a sentence at the beginning of this paper vividly identifies the key characteristics of a sentence that are absent in a subordinate clause. They key characteristic of a sentence that is absent is a subordinate clause is the ability to make meaning.
It is very hard to do away with the idea of a sentence in written language. This is because there are standard writing systems which utilize the conventions that are connected to the written sentence. However, most grammarians tend to avoid using the term sentence when they are referring to a relationship between clauses. The term they prefer to use is clause complex. However, as the above examples have illustrated, the term clause complex is limited in its usage especially where the subordinate clauses are concerned (Biber, 1999). This general term also contains several biases that may create syntactical problems. This is why it is almost impossible to do away with the term sentence in English syntax. The Sentence occupies a higher syntactical level than the clauses and it is through the process of parataxis and hypo taxis that clauses become sentences. In a paratactic relationship between clauses, coordinating conjunctions are used to join the clauses to make a sentence, while in a hypotactic relationship, subordinating conjunctions are used.
Conclusion
The term clause tends to overshadow the sentence in English syntax due to its contribution in the making of a sentence. It is impossible for sentences to exist without clauses because even the simplest form of a sentence is a clause. However, the concept of a sentence and the concept of clause are different and this is why some clauses have some deficiencies that deny them the opportunity to enjoy the same syntactic status as a sentence.
List of References
Biber, T et al (1999).Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English.London :Longman
Brown, K. (1996). Concise Encyclopedia of Syntactic Theories,. New York: Elsevier Science
Carnie, E.(2006). Syntax: A Generative Introduction. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
Freidin, R. (2006). Syntax. Critical Concepts in Linguistics. New York: Routledge.
Griffin, G. (2001). 2000 Years of Syntax. A Critical Survey. Studies in the History of the Language Sciences 98. Amsterdam: Benjamins
Halliday, M. (2002). An Introduction to Functional Grammar. New York: Willey
The language we speak has a drastic effect on our thoughts, beliefs, and habits. While this idea may be somewhat intuitive for all of us, it may be difficult to realize how deeply our minds and the words we utter are interwoven. An essay by Kimmerer (2017) titled “Learning the grammar of animacy” develops the topic with great detail, contributing to understanding this interconnection. In her discussion, Kimmerer (2017) discusses how the grammar of Potawatomi, one of the languages of Native Americans, is different from English grammar. She demonstrates how the English language limits the ability of people to appreciate the personalities of creatures other than people. The author also states that the English language is so arrogant that the only way to be animate is to be a human. While I agree that there is a strong link between language and thoughts, I think that the reason for the English language failing to acknowledge animacy is a strive for efficiency rather than arrogance.
In her essay, Kimmerer (2017) states that the significant difference between the Potawatomi language and English is that Potawatomi acknowledges every object as a person. Potawatomi people were very close to nature, and they had very special verbs for “to be a hill” or “to be Saturday.” In other words, Potawatomi is a very personal language, which treats every object in the world as a person. The English language does not have the tools to appreciate the animacy of objects, as the only way for someone or something to be called a “she” or a “he” is to be a human. Therefore, people who can speak only English do not even have a chance to start appreciating the personalities of animals, plants, rocks, and water. Kimmer (2017) concludes her essay with the idea that if we all could treat objects around us as beings rather than mere subjects, things would have been different, and people would try to fit into nature instead of trying to control it.
I agree with the author that there is a strong link between words people speak and the ideas they have. Kimmerer (2017) states that when we say that “a tree is not a who, but it, we make that maple an object, we put a barrier between us” (p. 133). This implies that people’s attitudes change drastically depending on how they talk about an object. One does not need to be bilingual to understand this idea. Suppose a person lost a cellphone, which served for five years. On the one hand, one can call this a problem and try to address it. On the other hand, a person can call this situation an opportunity to buy a new phone or to learn how to survive in this hectic world without having a phone. In the first case, a person is likely to be feeling sorrow, while in the other case, one would feel challenged or excited. Thus, by merely changing the way we call things, which is our language, we can change our thoughts and attitude.
While the English language does not have the tools to treat everything as animate objects, I disagree that the reason for that is arrogance. Kimmerer (2017) says, “the arrogance of English is that the only way to be animate, to be worthy of respect and moral concern, is to be a human” (p. 133). I think that the reason for the language to become impersonal is the ultimate strive for efficiency. The English language has lost not only animacy but also cases, inflections, suffixes, and prefixes. In modern English, it is impossible to distinguish between a noun, an adjective, and a verb without context. The purpose of the English language has become to pass on information in the most efficient way without any emotions. I believe that losing animacy was another consequence of the strive for efficiency rather than arrogance.
In conclusion, the essay by Kimmerer (2017) provides exciting evidence that there is a direct link between the thoughts and attitudes of people. Grammar and vocabulary can change the way people percept objects and judge events. The author pays much attention to how Potawatomi enables the speaker to think about all things around us as animate objects. However, by focusing on arrogance, the author overlooked a deeper problem of the English language losing the richness of emotions. In the strive for efficiency, the language of William Shakespeare and Thomas Hobbes is surrendering its beauty and sensitivity. Animacy is only one of the numerous features our language has lost, along with inflections that distinguish between grammatical cases, parts of speech, and grammatical gender. If the current trend prevails, in the future, English may even lose “he” and “she” altogether and call everything an “it.”
Reference
Kimmerer, R. W. (2017). Learning the grammar of animacy. Anthropology of Consciousness, 28(2), 128-134.
The article was co-authored by three teachers and experts in the field of grammar. Constance Weaver is one of the leading authors in the field of grammar teaching. Carol McNally has extensive experience in school teaching and also runs an educational channel on the YouTube platform. Sharon Moerman is a seventh-grade teacher.
Main Purpose of the Text
In the center of the article is the question of the need to teach grammar in schools and academies, but at the same time, the controversial autonomy of this discipline is discussed.
Relation to Other Works
The article draws heavily on the work of Harry Noden in his book Image Grammar, which offers a more creative approach to language and grammar learning. The novelty of the article is the experience of practical application and the author’s processing of many theories proposed by Noden, which through the article confirm their ability to modify and practical effectiveness (Weaver et al., 2001). The article contains reports on the experience of teaching grammar by the authors of the article and their original approaches.
The standpoint of the Author
According to the authors, teaching grammar should be included in the broader context of other activities. The authors state that more than a set of rules, students need to know how to use options in order to really excel at writing (Weaver et al., 2001). The authors of the article argue that by offering unconventional, creative strategies for learning grammar in context, they have significantly expanded the language capabilities of students (Weaver et al., 2001). By learning grammar not as rules but as opportunities, students were able to better capture images and details in their written narratives.
Audience
This article can be perceived as a practical guide for language teachers who need strategies to improve their practice. The difficulty level of the article can be described as moderate since it combines the theoretical calculations of linguists with the practical experience of a language teacher.
Summary
The article offers original approaches to teaching but is also interesting from a theoretical point of view, offering an original perspective on the multidisciplinary perception of science.
Reference
Weaver, C., McNally, C., & Moerman, S. (2001). To grammar or not to grammar: That is not the question! Voices From the Middle, 8(3), 17-34.
Teaching the language as the second one is one of the most difficult tasks of contemporary teacher. Different factors should be taken into account: social, psychological, the factor of language surrounding.
It should be noted that studying the second language requires background knowledge and understanding the typical rules and system of grammar and phonological structure of the language (Herrell, 2007, p 55).
In practical aims of teaching the second language the task of grammar learning is to form spelling skills in productive and receptive forms of speech activity.
Communicative purpose of teaching grammar allows formulating the basic requirement for the amount of grammatical material to be studied: it must be sufficient language using as a means of communication. In addition students should be ready to speak about the text they have read or retell it using the grammatical structures of it. (For example as in the text chosen for this work – Passive and Active voice.)
The need for restrictions on language, including grammar material is determined by the following factors.
In terms real opportunities there is no possibility for all students to master the grammar of this particular language because of its difficulties in formation of grammatical skills.
Recently, the view has spread about the importance of the non-arbitrary memorization of grammatical phenomena in the speech, making the alleged excessive focus and special work on grammatical phenomena.
In this case there is improper execution of two processes: memorization and mastery of grammatical phenomena. Memory is one of the stages of mastery; the latter is possible only in the result of special, targeted exercises.
If you bear in mind that the creation of grammatical skills has spent considerable amount of time to perform the exercises, then it would be difficult to master all the phenomena foreign language to the point of autoimmunization. There is a need for defining the very significant limitations in the selection of grammatical material and, above all those grammatical phenomena that students must master actively – in the productive and receptive modes of speech.
Making higher the demands to the volume of active grammatical material, as evidenced by the practice affects the quality of its mastering in negative way: the students are not good in the most basic phenomena of morphology and syntax.
There are the main principles of selection of the grammatical minimum material.
In the active grammar least are included those phenomena that are absolutely necessary for productive types of speech activity.
The main principles generally accepted in the selection of active grammatical least are considered the following:
The principle of the prevalence in common language
the principle of sample,
the principle of exclusion synonymous grammatical phenomena.
In accordance with the first two principles of active minimum include only those grammatical phenomena, which are predominantly used in the spoken language and in a wide range of vocabulary. All other grammatical phenomena are learned lexically.
According to the third principle active minimum includes only one phenomenon of the whole number of synonymous – neutral in stylistic terms. This principle is the specification of the first two and consists in limiting the grammatical means.
To passive grammatical minimum refer the grammatical phenomena, the most commonly used in written modern speech and which students need to understand while listening and reading.
It is obvious that the passive minimum can be longer than the minimum amount of active.
The main principles of the selection of grammatical phenomena in the passive minimum are included:
The principle of spreading in written speech;
The principle of polysemy.
According to these principles, the most common grammatical phenomena of literary type are included, which have several meanings. The organization of the grammatical material is very important in the teaching the second language. It determines to a large extent, the success of the grammatical side of various types of work.
Grammatical material should be organized functionally, i.e., so that grammatical phenomena are organically combined with the lexical and communicative units of no less than the sentence. A sentence, thus, is the original unit, which is the unity of the sentence structure (i.e., the regular sequence in the arrangement of the principal members), the morphological forms of the elements of this structure, intonation and rhythmic design is defined by its communicative function and context.
One of the main problems of organization of grammatical study of the material consists of uniting the two sides of speech – the content (especially lexical) and grammatical (formal).
In the methodological literature there is an attempt to resolve the problem of mastering the formal and content side by a phased sequence of mastering materials in a complex organization: the first (the structural and thematic) stage, students learn grammar material (structures and morphological forms) to the previously studied thematically related vocabulary. The second (thematically, structurally) stage is focused on the new vocabulary on the subject on the basis of previously learned patterns. The third (intertopical) stage the conditions for creativity and the right using of earlier lessons are created.
Grammatical skill is a grammar-synthesized act committed in skillful parameters and ensures adequate morphologic-syntactic processing unit at any level of speech.
In grammar skill there are the components of a private action:
the choice of the structure, an adequate idea of the speaker’s speech (in this case);
speech processing unit, which fills the structure in accordance with the rules of the language and a time parameter;
assessment of the correctness and adequacy of these actions.
Apparently, the structure of our consciousness are associated with particular communicative tasks: for each task there is a functional nest structure. But the challenges – that’s not all. The fact that the speaker chooses any particular structure, has been depended on specific conditions: the interlocutor, the relationship with him, sentiments, culture, etc. (Herrell, 2007, p 59).
The choice of structure can be described as a functional skill. But there is a formal side – the right organization. The accuracy in terms of the language and speed of speech depends on it. This side (organization) is closely linked to both lexical subskills by skill-challenge combinations of speech and, indeed, design the structure based on them, depending on their level. That is why it is possible to develop the grammar skill only when it is based on the lexical units that the student knows enough freely.
It is a well-known fact that grammar skills differ from each other as far as different types of verbal communication are (speaking, reading, listening, writing).
Under the grammar skill of communication it is usuall understood the use of automated grammatical phenomena in the spoken language.
Grammar skills which ensure the correct forms and their use are the morphological skills (for example, forming the personal endings of verbs). Those skills, which are responsible for correct automatic arrangement of words in all types of sentences are defined as syntactic speech skills.
Morphological and syntactic skills are more analytical (discursive) due to the fact that they have the specifics of the written kind of speech.
Since the perception and understanding of oral or written text happens with the active or passive, with knowledge of the language material, receptive grammatical skills are divided into receptive-active and receptive-passive and skills of reading and listening.
There is another type of skills, which in the psychological literature refers to the “intellectual”, or “intelligent”: linguistic discursive analytical grammar. They are formed on the basis of grammatical knowledge and used as the background component which is mainly in the written speech, rarely speaking. Language skills help to control the speaker the performance of speech acts, and if it fails the performance provides a correction of inaccuracies.
The operation of the grammatical part of speaking is happening as follows:
the speaker chooses a model, an adequate idea of their speech. The choice, of course, occurs unconsciously.
the speaker draws up the speech unit, which is filled by the model.
The two operations – the choice and design – are synthesized in the grammar in a single operation, displaying the skill of the speech itself.
Chosen Text
History of London
The history of London as a permanent settlement goes back almost 2000 thousand years. The city’s story is an interesting one, its destiny is closely connected with that of the British Isles. London has no known founder. Legend tells of a King Lud, after whom Ludgate hill and Ludgate Circus are named. A scratched and weather-beaten statue of mythic monarch, flanked by his supposed sons. Can still be seen, tucked away beside the church of St Dustan in the West of Fleet street. A quite place, where few people go.
London has no specific foundation date either. Shortly after the Roman conquest of 43 AD the invaders understood the strategic significant of the river Thames, flowing through the flattest, most productive part of their new province, its estuary providing easy access to the European mainland. With the fall of Roman administration Londinium was abandoned in the fifth century. As farming people the invading Anglo-Saxons who gradually pushed the Roman – British westwards, had no taste for city life and preferred to found villages which are now London’s suburbs or satellites such as Fulham, Matcham, Ealing, and Barking.
The Norman invasion of 1066 was marked by one construction of the mighty Tower of London, sited both to protect London Bridge from Invaders coming upstream and located from corner to corner of the city’s eastern wall, to impress its inhabitants as a symbol of personification of personification power. London as much as anywhere else in Europe was devastated by the epidemic of bulbonic plague, known as Black Death, which carried off a third of the population in 1348 – 1349.
The population of London tripled under the Tudors, making it not only the nation’s greatest city but by far the greatest – almost a hundred times bigger than Stradford-on-Avon in which Shakespeare grew up before coming to the bustling Bankside as actor-manager at the Globe Theatre. By 1700 London’s population had passed the half million mark, ranking it with Paris and Naples as one of Europe’s three largest cities.
Analysis of the Text
Before speaking about the grammatical analysis of the text it would be appropriate to give the definition of the text itself. So, text can be considered to be the unique communicative phenomenon which has structural, semantic, compositional, stylistic and functional integrity and is characterized by some categorical peculiarities such as information, completeness, and integrity and so on.
The social purpose and context
The social purpose of the text is quite informative because it gives a wide range of information of historical content and in addition the author of the text tried to give the educative value of it. Informative and educative values are very close and interrelated. The text tells about the history of London and the early centuries of he development of he great city.
Audience
The text is aimed to give the information for people who are working on their education and who are just interested in history of Great Britain and London in particular.
Actually the text can be for different age-groups and as it was mentioned above it have informative value.
Register
The author of the text uses simple words to describe serious and great events in the history of Great Britain and London in particular. The author does it in order the text would be understandable for wide range of people. The sentences are quite simple and do not require re-reading for understanding the sense. The author uses a wide range of synonyms in the text, for example – city, settlement, place and so on. This helps to enrich the vocabulary of the reader.
Grammatical features at the level of the text
But before turning to the grammatical side and actual coherence of the text, there is some clarification of terminology needed, and the defining if the limits of the use of terms such as “coherence”, “cohesion”. First of all, there is an improper use of the terms which is considered sometimes to be synonymous in the sense of “coherence”, fairly widespread in the literature. However, it is possible to talk about the coherence of the text as a whole, i.e. as a property of the text, but also the cohesion of the text as a property of the sentence units, the types of connection between the elements of the text. Therefore, coherence is understood as the integrity of the text which consists of logical-semantic, grammar (especially syntax) and stylistic relevance and interdependence of its sentences. In other words, the coherence of the text is the result of interaction between the logical and semantic, syntactic and stylistic forms of cohesion, and coherence is the basis of logical and semantic cohesion of sentences. (Mason, 2009, p101)
In the modern use cohesion and coherence got their own spheres of influence, although not without some terminological confusion which is explained by the close relations of the two words. And so, in some papers the term of integrity of the text serves only as a synonym for cohesion and terminology match semantic coherence – coherence – is the wholeness (integrity), which is regarded as a special category.
So, it is possible to make a conclusion that coherence is greater than cohesion; it covers not only formal grammatical features of speech, and semantic-pragmatic (thematic and functional including) aspects of meaning and interactive connections within the text. (Mason, 2009, p100)
It is possible to state that the text given above is structures according to the laws of coherence. There is an introduction which introduces the early centuries of development of the city London, the main body of the text represent the most significant ideas about the history of London and the concluding part contains the information about London as one of the greatest cities of nowadays.
In the small volume of texts, especially in the so-called neutral language styles cohesion is fully integrate. In these texts, communications and intersectionality are often too obvious. Another case is in the texts of literature, where, on the other hand, cohesion is only a subsidiary tool of small segments, and link major pieces and parts which are not always easily captured.
The complexity of the integration process is exacerbated by the fact that in works of literature may appear irrelevant thoughts and reasoning. In order to bring them to the same denominator sometimes some efforts of analytical mind are required which are directed to the understanding of implicit conjugacy of such deviations.
It is necessary to conclude that the formal features (cohesion) are not determinative for the text, as insufficient to their selection as an independent unit. This means that the text is the unit not of the language system, but speech and communicative. It has its own laws of structure and functioning, as distinct from the linguistic units, although it is one of them. (Mason, 2009, p103)
Speaking about the types of cohesive relations it is possible to define four of them. They are reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction.
The example of reference is : The city’s story is an interesting one, its destiny is closely connected with that of the British Isles.
A wide range of substitution can be represented by synonyms, what was mentioned above already.
Sentence or clause level grammatical features
The text is rich of the sentences in Active Voice : The history of London as a permanent settlement goes back almost 2000 thousand years, and passive one : its destiny is closely connected with that of the British Isles, what helps to create the grammatical variety in the text.
The text has the sentences which contain gerundial clauses : Shortly after the Roman conquest of 43 AD the invaders understood the strategic significant of the river Thames, flowing through the flattest, most productive part of their new province, its estuary providing easy access to the European mainland. The population of London tripled under the Tudors, making it not only the nation’s greatest city but by far the greatest… By 1700 London’s population had passed the half million mark, ranking it with Paris and Naples as one of Europe’s three largest cities.
It should be admitted that mostly simple sentences are used in the text. In general the simple sentence is a unit of speech which serves as a means of conveying the thought. The example from the text is: The history of London as a permanent settlement goes back almost 2000 thousand years.
Also it is possible to meet the compound sentences. In general understanding compound sentence is a sentence which consists of two or more clauses coordinated with each other. So, the example is: The city’s story is an interesting one, its destiny is closely connected with that of the British Isles. (Here it is possible to that two parts of the sentence are connected asyndetically).
Speaking about complex sentences it should be noted that there are many of them in the text, in general notion complex sentence is a unit of speech which consists of principal and subordinate clause. The example is: As farming people the invading Anglo-Saxons who gradually pushed the Roman – British westwards, had no taste for city life and preferred to found villages which are now London’s suburbs or satellites such as Fulham, Matcham, Ealing, and Barking. (Subject clause).
Learning activities based on the text
Description of learners and the purpose for learning English
The learners of English are the people who learn the language for their educative purposes and they are the citizens of Australia or any other foreign country.
The first thing for learning the second language is defining the purposes for learning. Sometimes they are caused by social or individual reasons. If the student is not confident about the character of the purpose and its character the function of explaining this should be performed by the teacher. There are several approaches to this (Herrell, 2007, p 55).
Activity approach assumes that people in the learning process should not just learn something, but learn how to do something.
At the forefront of this activity there is knowledge which is a prerequisite for the implementation of this activity (Herrell, 2007, p 55).
The task of learning is the formation of means of activity to ensure the results of training activities and facilitate the development of key competencies.
In the modern sense to know means to use the knowledge for carrying out certain activities, not just to remember certain knowledge.
The activities of the teacher are not just “transferring” the knowledge, but also:
designing learning activities,
Organization of training activities,
Management training.
A clear definition of the objectives of education is the basis:
for defining the content and teaching methods,
for enhancing the training of trainees, turning them into conscious participants in the learning process,
for assessing learning outcomes,
And finally – for the development of the individuality of a student.
Activities based on the text and grammatical analysis
What are the types of the sentences are there in the text?
Describe the specific features of the impersonal sentences, using the examples from the text.
Find the sentences of Active Voice in the text and explain the tense using there.
Find the sentences of Passive Voice in the text and explain the tense using there.
Define the morphological structure of the sentences.
Conclusions
Speaking about what grammatical features are there in the text it should be noted that this text is mainly for learning syntactical structure of English. So, I would incorporate the learning of Passive and Active voice because it is impossible to learn the language without these grammatical features. Also the learning about the grammatical type of sentence is very important.
Gebhard Jerry G.. (2006). Teaching English as a Foreign or Second Language, Second Edition: A Teacher Self-Development and Methodology Guide: University of Michigan Press/ESL; Second Edition edition.
Herrell Adrienne L. , Jordan Michael L.. (2007). Fifty Strategies for Teaching English Language Learners: Prentice Hall; 3 edition.
Mason C. P. (2009). English Grammar: Including the Principles of Grammatical Analysis: BiblioLife.
The Second Language Acquisition (SLA) and Universal Grammar (UG) were studied by various scholars, yet some controversial issues remain. The cognitive systems of an adult learner (L2) operate based on the three key components the first of which is the external data that people receive from the outside world. The second implies some inherent knowledge – the so-called tool that converts the external data into experience, and the third one is focused on the broader outside context (Dąbrowska 8). The second component can be considered as UG – a theory of language that offers a system of principles and parameters of a certain language (Hadavi and Ghashang 843). In other words, UG is a set of categories that manifests itself without being taught due to its inherent nature.
SLA refers to the learning of the second language that is not native for a learner. According to Simoiu, a language is a part of the natural world, and the grammar of a particular language acts as a theory of this language (26). There are several hypotheses related to the availability level of UG in SLA. For example, no access hypothesis implies that adult learners have no access to UG due to their age and the non-linguistic way of SLA (Yin and Kaiser 455). On the contrary, the full access hypothesis states that UG is completely available for L2 learners as they integrate both lexical and functional aspects in their learning (VanPatten and Williams 34). The availability of UG is also discussed in the article by Farahani et al. (298). In particular, it is stated that UG plays an integral role in SLA, especially in partial and full access positions.
The way the L2 learners acquire a new language depends not only on the availability of UG but also on their peculiarities. The idea of diversity is developed by Saville-Troike who states that SLA may occur in different contexts (5). For example, adults may learn at work, at home, somewhere abroad, or in any other context. At this point, different factors affect SLA effectiveness, depending on a certain learning environment. Discussing the theory by Chomsky, Hulin and Na suggest that a human language consists of an infinite set of interpretive expressions each of which is associated with such systems as sensory-motor, conceptual, mental, and so on (2). The connection of language with the sensory-motor system helps learners to communicate with others, grabbing their attention, and acquiring necessary information.
Furthermore, elaborating on the ideas expressed by Chomsky, Menezes argues that they are rather important in understanding the role of UG in SLA (402). More precisely, the author provides convincing arguments, claiming that such theories as behaviorism and some others should not be excluded from linguistics interpretation. Instead, they are to be taken into account and accurately explored, thus leading to the reconciling of traditional and modern theories. To prove her assumptions, Menezes discovers the perceptions of L2 learners and concludes that SLA is a complex and rather volatile system. In her turn, Hummel reflects on practices and perspectives in SLA (77). The author claims that the study of neurolinguistic and psycholinguistic categories and constructions can significantly improve the understanding of an adult SLA and UG phenomenon. As a result, the comprehension of the above issues is likely to lead to enhanced and faster SLA in adults.
Works Cited
Dąbrowska, Ewa. “What Exactly is Universal Grammar, and Has Anyone Seen It?” Frontiers in Psychology, vol. 6, no. 1, 2015, pp. 1–17.
Farahani, Ali Akbar Khomeijani, et al. “Access to Universal Grammar in Adult Second Language Acquisition.” Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, vol. 136, no. 9, 2014, pp. 298–301.
Hadavi, Melika, and Maryam Ghashang. “The Nature of Accessibility to Universal Grammar by EFL Learners.” Journal of Language Teaching and Research, vol. 6, no. 4, 2015, pp. 842–846.
Hulin, Ren, and Xu Na. “A Study of Chomsky’s Universal Grammar in Second Language Acquisition.” International Journal on Studies in English Language and Literature, vol. 2, no. 12, 2014, pp. 1–7.
Hummel, Kirsten M. Introducing Second Language Acquisition: Perspectives and Practices. Wiiley & Sons , 2014.
Menezes, Vera. “Second Language Acquisition: Reconciling Theories.” Open Journal of Applied Sciences, vol. 3, no. 7, 2013, pp. 404–412.
Saville-Troike, Muriel. Introducing Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge University Press, 2012.
Simoiu, Adela. The Split IP Parameter in Second Language Learning. Cambridge Scholars, 2014.
VanPatten, Bill, and Jessica Williams. Theories in Second Language Acquisition: An Introduction. Routledge, 2015.
Yin, Bin, and Elsi Kaiser. “Second Language Learners’ Knowledge of Syntax in the Acquisition of Aspectual Semantics.” Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, vol. 97, no. 6, 2013, pp. 454–463.
When teaching English syntax to students, both native and non-native, it is vital for the instructor to consider both facts and theory, and balance the two. This is because classes in English syntax are aimed at assisting students to improve on their understanding of the structure of English in a systematic and scientific manner.
The acquisition of such knowledge is essential for the students, as it will enable them to progress to other stages, in which they can perform linguistic analyses for both simple and complex English phenomena (Hornstein, 2009).
Why Do We Study Syntax and What Is It Good for?
There are a variety of reasons as to why the study of syntax is vital, and involve general humanistic or behavioural motivations, as well as specific goals such as: an aid to illustrating the patterns of English more effectively and clearly; and to aid in the systematic and explicit analysis of the structure of English sentences.
The example below allows us to look into the syntactic notion of head (the essential element within a phrase), using an informal rule of English; the main verb agrees with the head element of the subject (Akamajian, 2001).
The recent strike by pilots have cost the country a great deal of money from tourism and so on.
Structural knowledge of sentences like the one above allows us to identify the essential element of the subject as ‘strike’ as opposed to ‘pilots’. Having realized this, the man verb should be changed from have to has, in order to be in agreement with the rule of English stated above.
The change is important since there is more than one noun, and the sentence should be structured to talk about the noun that gives its character to the phrase, the head. As a result, a singular head requires a singular phrase, and the plural is also true (Akamajian, 2001).
Syntactic knowledge can be useful in learning English grammar. One of the common sentences used for beginners in the analysis of English statements is ‘He said that that ‘that’ that that man used was wrong.’
Structural or syntactic knowledge can be used in the diagnosis of differences in the five thats. Research on syntax, transformational grammar and systemic functional grammar, will be beneficial in clarifying how each word is categorized, and the contribution that it makes in a sentence.
The knowledge of English syntax is useful when studying complex sentences as it helps to understand them in a systematic way (Griffiths, 2002).
Objectives of the research
Micro-grammar looks at numerous phenomena including
“simple types of moods such as imperatives and yes-no questions; a small sub-set of the type of ‘modal verbs’ that express the performer’s assessment of the validity of what is being expressed; ‘tense’ forms; the ‘passive’ construction; the idiosyncratic syntactic and morphemic behaviour of the verb be; ‘emphatic’ forms of do; and simple ‘negation’” (Miller, 2008).
For each problem area in the grammar, the essential question to be considered is “In which component(s) and with what type of descriptive apparatus should this complexity be handled” (Miller, 2008)? In Systemic Functional Grammar, the response provided reflects on the approach that looks for any contrast at the level of form: “Is this contrast also a contrast at the level of meaning” (Miller, 2008)?
In the event that it is, then it is articulated in a selection between semantic features in the system network. If the opposite is true, then it is handled by the realization rules; make use of the concept of circumstances on the recognition of those semantic characteristics.
Thus, in a Systemic Functional Grammar in which the features in the system networks are explicitly semantic, “a higher proportion of realization rules include conditions that in SFGs in which the system networks are less clearly semantic or are even described as being at the level of form” (Miller, 2008).
Literature review
Systemic functional grammar however, does not use ‘re-write’ regulations to create the primary structure. There are also no transformational rules to modify the present structures. Instead, “the grammar merely stores up the choices of semantic aspects that are made for every semantic unit, and then generates the appropriate syntactic unit” (Hornstein, 2009).
The process of generation is controlled by system networks, which comprise statements about relationships between semantic features. They are useful in modelling the meaning potential of the language (Hornstein, 2009).
Conclusion
The main difference between theories used in transformational grammar (conservative approach) and systemic functional grammar is that the latter supports and demands a reference that is technologically more advanced than the former. The systemic-functional theory is multidimensional in terms of rank, delicacy, metafunction, axis and instantiation.
This makes it possible to adopt a logical view, an experiential view, an interpersonal view, or a textual view, either of which constitutes different ‘projections’ of the map of the overall resources of the grammar. It is also possible to vary the view according to rank, system, realization or register variation (Radford, 2004).
References
Akamajian, A. (2001). Linguistics: An Introduction to Language and Communication. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Griffiths, P. (2002). An Introduction to English Semantics and Pragmatics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Hornstein, N. (2009). A Theory of Syntax: Minimal Operations and Universal Grammar. New York: CUP.
Miller, J. E. (2008). An Introduction to English Syntax. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Radford, A. (2004). English Syntax: An Introduction. New York: CUP.
For many years, English has clearly dominated the world stage. Business, politics, and social media are just a few reasons why people all over the world study the English language. English is a language with incredibly diverse grammar rules depending on origin and upbringing.
English grammar rules vary depending on the country, region, society, and state. However, there have been many initiatives to teach English grammar in an instructive manner. In my case, English is a second language. There are three forms of grammar: prescriptive, descriptive, and structural styles, yet, none is superior to the others. There is no single effective method of teaching English grammar; all grammar styles have a special role to play.
In grammar books and grammar classes, lessons tend to focus on parts of speech, their definitions, and rules for combining them into phrases and clauses. Emphasis is also laid on sentence exercises demonstrating grammatical errors to avoid (Kolln and Funk 78). Many people may experience considerable difficulty learning English.
It may be complex and confusing for many learners. For me, understanding all the rules and ways to avoid grammatical errors was difficult; primarily, due to the fact that there are many exceptions to the rules. In general, there are eight parts of speech in English. One has to connect the parts in a logical manner when constructing a sentence (McArthur 126). A different arrangement may convey a different message. This is a problem affecting mainly those learning English as a second language (ESL).
However, the rules are not universal. In other regions, rules for combining parts of speech may be different. This gives rise to a situation in which one sentence may convey two separate messages. Therefore, learners should be informed of this fact at an early. This is to enable them adapt to various situations they find themselves in.
One style of grammar originated from an English philosopher in 1693. This style of grammar is seen as a traditional form of grammar. It is described as prescriptive grammar. Prescriptive grammar is based on the premise that everything is in black and white. It is followed by preordained rules on how English should be and will be spoken and taught (Chambers 1).
As a rule, when English is taught in the classroom, it is taught in the prescriptive grammar form. Prescriptive grammar focuses on the traditional language structure. This tends to ignore the fact that language should be about communication but not rules. There are many situations in which native speakers use grammatically incorrect sentences, yet they manage to communicate well. Language is dynamic and imposing strict grammar rules may not be the answer.
A more modern approach to language education, however, is guided by the work of linguists, who look at the way the language is actually used (Kolln and Funk 89). Descriptive grammar is a recent form of grammar. Instead of focusing on rules and sentence structures, descriptive grammar focuses on a day-to-day usage. It is a constantly evolving form of grammar. It enables both teachers and learners to look at grammar in the context of either country or region of origin.
Descriptive grammar experts look at how language is used and then try to come up with rules and regulations inherent in the language (Pullum, “Power and linguistics” 12). This enables learners and teachers to appreciate that some forms of grammar are correct even though they are not acceptable in a traditional grammar setting. However, care must be taken when approaching grammar this way.
It may alter the language confusing both the native and English as second language speakers (Pullum, “50 years” 3). On the other hand, it is important to note that language is not static. The English language has evolved to its current form over centuries. It has undoubtedly undergone numerous modifications. Other languages have exerted their influence on it.
Structural grammar is based on the analysis of a language structure. Like the anthropologists studying the speech of Native Americans, the structuralists also recognize the importance of describing language on its own terms (Kolln and Robert 46). It describes the structure of language as a standalone phenomenon.
It attempts to give a detailed analysis of the language in terms of sentence structure, usage and origin. In my opinion, structural grammar is more difficult to describe. This type of style is depicted as more of an analysis than a grammar style. By far, structural grammar is more technical than any other style. It is a difficult method of instruction.
Grammar styles and structure are constantly changing. Therefore, there should be a way of effectively instructing language. The methods of instruction used should be instructive and meaningful to the learner. Because of the varied forms, grammar does not need to be taught in a rigid way. Yet, care should also be taken not to profoundly alter the language. The National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) has addressed a number of questions in a document called “Students’ Right to Their Own Language” (Kolln and Robert 42).
The issues tackled in the document have enabled grammar teachers to teach in a manner that is respectful and accepting of the different language styles. Prescriptive and descriptive forms normally exist together. In most informal works, it is common to find both forms of grammar in use. For example, newspapers and magazines are often written in the widely used form of language. Therefore, this is an indication that in future language will be used depending on the context.
English will continue to dominate the world stage. No other language has been taught in more classrooms than English. All grammar structures, from traditional to modern, have an equal and important part to play in the dynamic and exponential growth of the English language. To be successful on the international stage, one has to have a basic understanding of the language. This is due to the fact that English is widely spoken in the world. Those who speak the language have an advantage over those who rely on interpreters.
This paper analyzed the different forms of grammar and their relevance in English language instruction. Prescriptive style focuses on the grammar rules. It judges the spoken language using laid down rules. It is a rigid method of studying the language. Descriptive style describes language on the basis of context, region, and country.
In this style, emphasis is laid on how language is used as opposed to rules. Structural grammar focuses on the analysis of language structure. This is a complex method of studying language. This form is more of a theoretical framework than a form of grammar. Both prescriptive and descriptive styles often exist together. Language is dynamic and no form of grammar is superior to the other. The English language has evolved over a long period of time.
Works Cited
Chambers, Neal. 2010. Descriptive English Grammar vs Prescriptive English Grammar. PDF file. Web.
Kolln, Martha and Robert Funk. Understanding English Grammar (9th ed), Upper Saddle River: Pearson, 2012. Print.
McArthur, Tom. The Oxford Companion to the English Language, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992. Print.
Pullum, Geoffrey. 2004. Ideology, Power and Linguistic Theory.PDF file. Web.
Pullum, Geoffrey. “50 Years of Stupid Grammar Advice.” The Chronicle of Higher Education. 2009. Web.
Grammar entails learning rules which dictate how best to apply language and is a segment of the wide-ranging verbal communication studies known as linguistic. In order to develop a good writing skill, it requires one to appreciate the grammar set of laws though several students find it uninteresting, difficult and tedious to learn these rules.
Nevertheless, there are many ways which can be employed to different students of different ages to make it interesting and fun to study grammar. All these ways have to do with presentation that is how the subject is brought up to the students.
One of these ways is teaching grammar through use of ‘fun learning games. This is a strategy that can best be employed to students in an ESL classroom. When for instance teaching a topic on punctuation signs, a teacher may use this strategy by grouping the class into two, and take one group at a time for presentation.
Using a written sentence, the teacher will give every student in that group a particular word including all punctuation marks from that sentence which he/she should write down on a card. Then each and every student will line up with their cards in the proper order of the sentence. Subsequently the students holding the punctuation symbols will fit themselves within the sentence to fill in the punctuations appropriately.
To make this effective, the group that fits the sentence correctly will be get ten points and so on. If there is a mistake in sentence punctuation, the teacher will ask the other group to identify and correct them. If one student wrongly identifies the punctuation problem, he/she gets out for the group and the other group gets one point.
However, if he/she correctly identifies the problem, the group will be awarded two points. The process goes on till every mistake is identified or there is no one else from the opposite group who remains to give an answer or they fail to detect the mistakes.
At this point, the teach calls it “the end” of the first round, helps the students to identify the remaining mistakes if any and call for the second group which will be assigned a new sentence to present. After the competition, the group with the highest number of points will be termed as the winner which will be awarded through applauding or any other gift.
Use of rhymes and songs is another creative way of coaching grammar. Songs are useful in enhancing remembrance of learned grammar. Most importantly, they create a chance of routine classroom activities where every student gets involved in learning.
A song that holds the rule of punctuation, such as “period comes at the end of every sentence”, “comma establishes a pause”, “question mark comes after a question statement” among other verses or musicale verses will make it easier for the student to recall which punctuation mark falls where.
Use of games in grammar teaching can be considered as the best communicative activity in ESL class. This is because, the use of game helps the students to gain both knowledge as well as skills to apply and use this knowledge. Games also create an environment which encourages students to practice and internalize structure, grammar and vocabulary comprehensively.
One reason for success in this strategy is that students are more interested in playing than sitting on desks to study. In addition games do capture the attention of the students and enable them to concentrate on the subject which enables them to absorb the language, grammar and punctuations (grammar rules) subconsciously.
Through use of familiar songs to the students, teachers can eliminate their challenges in classroom. Apart from being memorable, songs are as well motivating. They will motivate students to practice more as they identify with what they like, which includes the songs they are familiar with.
Through introduction of punctuation marks within a song, and practically performing it, students will always remember the usage of these marks when they come across statements similar to one they know.
More importantly, songs are essential in development of student’s ability in verbal communication, writing, paying attention and interpretation. Songs in ESL classrooms are significant tools in encouragement of extensive and intensive listening, and inspire use of imagination and creativity in a student when it comes to writing or speaking.
As second and foreign language teachers, we have to look for opportunities to improve the teaching process and enhance its effectiveness. Deepening our knowledge of the current approaches, strategies and methodologies, the educators are enabled to create personal opinion concerning the most effective principles of the language acquisitions.
Reading of Nassaji (2000) and Nunan (1998) researches shedding light upon the issues of the form-focused and communicative approaches to language teaching was helpful for enhancing my awareness of the problem and strengthening my persuasion that the integrative approach incorporating principle of both of the theories is the most effective one.
The primary goal of every foreign language teacher is to prepare the learners for real life communication. The form-focused approach deprives students of opportunities to develop the necessary skills for meeting this demand. Nunan (1998) noted that “We need to supplement form-focused exercises with an approach that dramatizes for learners the fact that different forms enable them to express different meanings; that grammar allows them to make meanings of increasingly sophisticated kinds” (p. 103).
In other words, there is nothing wrong with the form-focused assignments though they should be coupled with communicative exercises for the purpose of filling the gap between theory (cramming the forms) and practice (expressing one’s opinion during the interpersonal communication).
From my own experience of a language learner, it should be noted that the transition between the form-focused and organic exercises might be rather stressful. Being certain what form should be use in every particular case in form-focused exercises, a student might be confused trying to express one’s own ideas. This separation of grammar forms from the context of communication creates the feeling of discrepancy between the grammar norms and the communicative goals in the learner’s consciousness.
The process of language acquisition depends upon the peculiarities of the learners’ perception of the course materials. It has been proven that learners remember not only things but also the context within which they were acquired. Thus, having learnt the table of forms by heart I must recollect the chart in which they have been represented for choosing the appropriate one, while choosing the words for expressing my thoughts at the same time might overcomplicate the process of communication exchange.
For this reason, a teacher should allot time to diverse activities planning language lessons. Nassaji (2000) noted that “the most effective way … is to consider activities that result in attention to form while maintaining meaningful communication and using form for communication” (p. 244). Going from one extreme to another would be unwise; both sides of the language acquisition process are equally significant.
Those who consider the information exchange to be the end goal of second language learning are in the wrong underestimating the importance of accuracy of the student’s speech. The fact is that neglecting the form-focused approach may result in neglecting the grammar forms and distorting the interlocutor’s perception of one’s message.
An ideal language lesson should contain the elements of both approaches. It would enhance the learner’s understanding of the materials and create a colorful picture instead of focusing on separated fragments of the language components.
The primary goal of a contemporary teacher is to incorporate the elements of both form-focused and communicative approaches into the process of language acquisition giving preference to meaningful interaction within the teaching-learning process paying attention to the language accuracy at the same time.
Reference List
Nassaji, H. (2000) Towards integrating form-focused instruction and communicative interaction in the second language classroom: Some pedagogical possibilities, The Modern Language Journal, 84 (2), pp.241-250.
Nunan, D. (1998) Teaching grammar in context. ELT Journal, 52 (2), pp.101-109.
ELL students often face serious difficulty when it comes to the use of prepositions. Most languages have very different logic of the use of prepositions, and a different system of cases to replace prepositions at all.
What Can be Done to Overcome the Difficulty?
Communicative grammar strategy is the answer. This approach is now considered to be a panacea for teachers working with ELL students (Celce-Murcia 1991). Numerous outstanding instructors apply it successfully. One of them is Bill Johanson who is now considered to be a leader in developing successful methods in teaching grammar using communicative grammar strategy. He offers some interesting ideas on how to help ELL students to learn difficult grammar material concerning the use of prepositions and more in his book Daily Grammar Lessons (2010).
Bill Johanson’s Methods for Teaching Prepositions
The first effective method is to offer the students a few sentences containing some common prepositional phrases and to ask them to find these phrases (2010). Let us consider the examples of the offered sentences:
Jim painted a picture on the wall of the house.
I like to lie in the shade of the apricot tree and think of the jobs for the day.
The dog jumped over the mound behind the barn and ran into the street.
Everyone but you will need a note from home with parental permission.
Around the yard for miles, you could see nothing except junk.
All of these sentences are commonly used by the native speakers and contain some of the wide-spread prepositional phrases, which are on the wall, of the house, in the shade, of the apricot tree, of the jobs, for the day, over the mound, behind the barn, into the street and others. Thus, using such a method you will be able to get a double result, both helping your students in sharpening their knowledge about the use of prepositions, and seeing the way they are applied in the daily flow of speech.
The other interesting method is to offer the students to “play” with sentence structures using the rules of the use of prepositions. For example, to make a compound sentence from two simple ones using the prepositional phrase as in the following example: “The sunset was beautiful. The sunset was in the west. The sunset in the west was beautiful”.
One more method to consider is to offer the students printed cards with the sentences featuring prepositions and prepositional constructions shown in italics along with the other words and to ask them to identify the prepositions. For example,
Come in and sit down with me.
He climbed up on the ladder and through the window.
Mrs. Jones came by at suppertime but not since.
In this case, the learners will be able to differentiate between different parts of speech and thus, between different grammar rules for their usage.
Conclusion
The Benefits of Applying the Methods Offered by Johanson – Your lessons are interesting, engaging and effective.
Your Smart Choice. Effective communicative grammar strategies will become a sheet anchor both for you and your students. By choosing them you choose your professional success.
References
Celce-Murcia, M. (1991). Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. United States: Heinle ELT.
Johanson, B. (2010). Daily Grammar Lessons. Salt Lake City: Word Place, Inc.