Category: Globalization

Many regions of the world have felt the impact of globalization in one way or another especially in the twenty first century.

Globalization can be defined as the process of or a set of global forces which encompasses a significant organization and reorganization of the various social relationships and engagements, and can be assessed in terms of their intensity, extents, rate of spread, and the resultant impact, which in turn lead to intercontinental or interregional connectivity, interrelationships, and the general power dispensation (Held 16). Globalization has been associated to a greater extent with western culture, especially that of the United States of America.

It is one of the most significant forces that have played a central role in modeling the socio-economic orientation of several countries during the late 1970s and the past earlier years of the 21st century. It is acknowledged that despite the fact that the globalization process has hastened the rate of economic growth in third world countries, its forces have also contributed to a number of challenges.

These include; non-uniform rate of economic growth, lack of taking into consideration the aspect of equality, as well as the likelihood of creating socio-political turmoil in these countries. Most states in the larger Asian continent like Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, China, Japan, and Thailand have not been an exception when it comes to the influence of globalization.

This essay, therefore, seeks to discuss the effects of globalization in Malaysia. It will focus on the impact of globalization on its economy, education, culture, and politics.

Malaysia, a Muslim country, is one of the fastest growing economies in Asia and the world at large. It is an island country found in the South-East Asia and is composed of thirteen different states, including three Federal Territories. The country occupies a surface area of about 329,845 square kilometers making it the 66th largest country and the 43rd worlds most populated country with the population standing at 28 million according to the 2008 National Population and Housing Census (Held 18).

Malaysia got independence from the British in 1957 through negotiation rather than bloodshed like is common for most states which were under different colonials like the French, British, Germany, and Portuguese. However, during the earlier years of post-colonialism era, Malaysia witnessed armed conflicts with the neighboring Indonesia in 1964-65.

It was after this period that Malaysia, with Singapore having been expelled from the then Malaysian Union, started to redefine its course. Towards the end of the twentieth century, Malaysia witnessed a significant economic boom and soon it recorded a rapid rate of development during the last two decades of the 20th century.

There is the Strait of Malacca which forms a very significant international shipping bay and hence facilitating international trade which is central to Malaysias economic growth. Moreover, manufacturing and industry sector constitute major pillars for the national economy (Rasiah 13). The country has diverse plant and animal distribution over its vast geographical orientation making it one of the worlds greatest tourist destinations.

The effects of globalization, just like in other parts of the world, have been felt significantly in Malaysia. As mentioned earlier, the late 1990s saw Malaysias economy shift from over-reliance on agricultural production to a more industry and manufacturing-based economy especially in fields such as the use of computer technology and other consumer electronics all through the wake of the twenty first century (Hoogvelt 3).

The concept of globalization has received different interpretations in Malaysia ranging from scholars, contemporary writers, to political leaders (Hoogvelt 5). Most writers have resorted to offering critical analyses of the seemingly unstoppable forces of globalization, especially the authors engaged in post-structuralism period. These accounts try to offer alternative ways of looking at globalization in general and how the states of the world can benefit from this phenomenon.

Malaysia, like other countries of the world, has not resisted the globalization process in its totality (Stiglitz 3). Instead, it has derived a way of engaging the looming forces of globalization from the west. In most instances, this country has been very selective when it comes to embracing the ideas brought about by the globalization process (Nesadurai 71).

The emerging concept of modernity has been assimilated into the Malaysian state in a highly sophisticated way. This approach has helped in significantly redefining Malaysias autonomy in relation to the globalization process. Malaysia has positioned itself as a fierce critic of some western ideologies, specifically those of the United States of America.

It has not been hesitant in making outright proclamations as well as political opinions and these characteristics have helped position Malaysia as a formidable force in the Asian continent (Nesadurai 73). Malaysia has modeled itself as a good case of how states can withstand the otherwise unstoppable impact of the globalization process. It is a role model of how countries can selectively maneuver the concept of global capitalism in the name of globalization.

With an attempt to understand the effect of globalization on Malaysian economy, many Malay scholars have tried to explore the opportunities as well as the challenges that this global process can bring about. The perception of these scholars concerning globalization is significantly optimistic. They believe that there are practices that are being propagated by the western countries, especially the United States, which are worth emulating rather than looking down upon them (Stiglitz 4).

The spirit of equality in America has inculcated the same sense in the Malaysians and they champion the need for mutual respect, specifically between the Malays and the non-Malays. They argue that people should feel for one another in the sense that if something is good, then it should be good for everyone else just the same way as something bad will affect everyone.

The negative attitude that the Malaysians have towards the colonialists is strongly reprimanded by the scholars. They say that nursing the colonialism memories will only serve to worsen the relationship with the outside world instead of promoting mutual cooperation (Stiglitz 7).

The scholars urge the people of Malaysia to look at the western communities as development partners instead of perceiving them as potential enemies. One scholar emphasizes the fact that globalization is a force that is shaping the entire world in modern times (Stiglitz 17). As a rapidly developing country, Malaysians are encouraged to play a central role in the global arena if they are to attain sustainable development status.

The globalization process, the scholar notes, received a major blow in 2001 during the September 11 terrorists attacks on America coupled with the global financial crisis of 2007. But the most defining moment in Malaysian international relationship came during the wake of the 1997 Asian financial crisis (Stiglitz 26).

It took stringent measures in reaction to this unprecedented economic downward trend. Dr. Mahathir Mohamad, the longest serving Prime Minister, was in charge during the crisis and he played a major role in criticizing the west for what was perceived as negative impacts of the globalization process (Mahathir, 2000, 4).

The precautionary measures recommended by Muhathir won him a number of admirers as well as opponents. The opponents argued that the proposed market approaches were crude and also, they criticized Malaysias lack of concern for human rights (Mauzy 210).

His admirers, on the other hand, singled out Mahathirs independent-mindedness, anti-colonialist pronouncements, and the proposal of alternative approaches of dealing with economic upheavals as a sure way of dealing with such global economic and political realities (Rahman 23).

It was the successful management of the crisis by Mahathir using the autonomy of national policy that was seen as the greatest challenge to the conventional economic dictatorship of liberalization brought about by the perceived forces of globalization (Nesadurai 87).

Mahathirs approaches did not only win him national support but also regional backing. As opposed to popular beliefs that Malaysia under the reign of Mahathir condemned globalization in its totality, it is crucial to note that over the last two decades of the 20th century, Malaysia welcomed, developed and promoted what it perceived as good aspects globalization (Rahman 28).

The negative impact of the globalization process in 1997 was vocally criticized by Malaysia and marked it as a betrayal by the western economies through the forces of the global market.

The analysts of the global economic phenomena regard globalization as a new force to be reckoned as far as world market relationship is concerned. This process has a historical account and the analysts have concluded that there is a notable qualitative improvement in the successive instances (Held 23).

With time, there has been increased influence by the American hegemony, division of labor on the international scale, and the introduction of stringent systems of economic policies. Initially, these regulatory influences were through the Bretton Woods system and in modern times via the World Trade Organization (WTO), coupled with the upcoming neo-liberal world market (Hoogvelt 37).

Neo-liberal system is characterized by the continued growth and critical import of financial capital facilitated by technological forces as well as political influence (Helleiner 12). The ever increasing transfer of financial capital, especially the speed of its mobility and the volume transacted, has resulted in grave consequences to the various national economies including that of Malaysia.

In particular, most national economies have been rendered redundant and taken hostage to this new capital mobility and general world order marked by the dramatic globalization process. From a comparative perspective, the neo-liberal experience has been felt in smaller economies like Singapore and Malaysia as well as for developed economies, United States of America and France alike (Helleiner 17). This is due to the fact that the stock trading determines the recovery rate after a drastic fall in financial markets.

It can be universally accepted that globalization is not a universal concept; instead, it is multi-dimensional especially in the Malaysian context. Different people in Malaysia have varying perceptions of this concept. Some Malaysians associate it with the infiltration of foreign multinationals, new brands and ways of life, while others belief that it is development of technological applications like the internet, the ever increasing number of non-governmental organizations and the great influence of global market trends on Malaysia (Held 29).

These forces are believed to have shaped the capital and labor order in the country and hence influencing the daily lives of the people.

The initial engagement of Malaysia with global economy can be traced to the time when it ventured in the export-led strategy of growth in 1969. It was followed by heated debates concerning the stand of the Malays in the midst of the looming socio-cultural mindset revolution (Rahman 34).

This era witnessed the introduction of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Group and the increasing Malaysian involvement with the United Nations.

In 1981, the year when Dr. Mahathir took over as the Prime Minister, Malaysias internationalization became more pronounced through the introduction of new policies.

Mahathir brought with him new policies and other reform measures which were geared towards the adoption of neo-liberalized market trend (Mahathir, 1991, 2. Most state-owned utilities were privatized; drastic cuts in both the direct and corporate taxes were witnessed, as well as reduced expenditure by the Malaysian government (Mahathir, 1991, 7). This enthusiastic process was seen as a new dawn for Malaysian development.

The need for economic stability was reinforced by the declaration of clear economic development objectives which were aimed at revolutionizing the industrial, agriculture, and services sectors. The challenge was to ensure that Malaysias economy became competitive as to be able to take on the forces of the world market.

As a result of these efforts, a rapidly growing economy was witnessed, with annual growth rates ranging between 8% and 9%. Furthermore, Malaysia experienced a growing foreign investment over a period of five years from 1985. During the early years of 1990s, the economy continued to expand significantly, resulting in increased rate of globalization and the regulations controlling capital and labor were subsequently liberalized (Mahathir, 1991, 13).

Within five years, the major factor that engineered Malaysian economic growth was the foreign capital from investors (Mahathir, 1996, 4). This upward economic trend, as mentioned earlier, was to receive a major blow in the 1997 Asian financial crisis.

The unique leadership style adopted by Dr. Mahathir was not without disapproval from western allies. This was due to Malaysias government decision to Look East in its effort to keep control of the countrys economic stability. However, the Malaysian persistent search for economic autonomy did not diminish the strong ties with the west especially the United States of America whose investments in the countys semiconductor industry remained strong (Helleiner 32).

Despite the globalization process influencing the Malaysian economic sector significantly, it also affected the socio-cultural dimension as well. There was a social and cultural shake up when globalization was taking root as Malaysia sought alternative approaches of attaining sustainable development (Rosenberger 222). A number of writers in the larger Asia identified this period as the Asian renaissance (Ibrahim 2).

Another important area which has been influenced by the globalization process is education. With Malaysia expecting to be an industrialized state by 2020, vocational education and training has received increased attention especially from the government and private sector (Mahathir, 1996, 8). This is driven by the motive of having a well educated, skilled and efficient human resource especially in this highly technological economy which is based on a countrys know-how.

The broadband interconnectivity has enable Malaysia to connect with the developed countries, thanks to the Multimedia Super Corridor. This urgent need for education reform in technical-vocational systems has been triggered by the globalization process (Held 31).

On the political dimension, globalization was not without some degree of influence on the politics of Malaysia and other Asian states. In 1987, there was a serious global attack of Malaysian and Singaporean treatment of social and political agitators. The outside world questioned their way of regarding human rights (Mauzy 223).

These criticisms, however, received criticism of equal magnitude from the Malaysian Prime Minister who referred to them as interfering with sovereign states affairs in the name of human rights. He termed this approach as neo-colonialism (Mahathir, 1991, 15). Dr. Mahathir was especially angered by the double standards approach employed by the Americans as far as human rights was concerned (Mahathir, 1991, 18).

The heated criticisms and counter-criticisms, however, seemed not to affect the ever increasing Malaysian relationship with the west, especially on foreign policy development. This can be attributed to the mutual benefit that each party enjoyed from the engagement (Rasiah 16).

Moreover, the Malaysian political dimension was seriously shaken by the 1997 Asian financial crisis which, according to Mahathir, was a product of the globalization process (Mahathir, 2000, 2). It was unfortunate that during this year, there ensued a political crisis which resultant in the sacking of the then deputy prime minister, Anwar Ibrahim, who was arrested and later imprisoned.

Besides some Malays need for a generational change, the crisis was triggered by ideological clash concerning the globalization process and how to effectively respond to it. The Prime Minister saw his deputy as an agent of the western economies who were determined to force their misleading policies and regulations in the name of globalization (Mahathir, 2000, 5).

He noted that Anwars and his supporters call for eradication of corruption in the country were very similar to the neo-liberal objectives of International Monetary Fund (IMF) and those of the World Bank in the name of advocating for good governance. These experiences positioned Mahathir as an architect of the globalization process in Malaysia who new what was good or bad for the country.

The Prime Minister warned his fellow countrymen of the dangers of blindly embracing globalization. He said that the new process was a scheme by the west to rule and dominate the developing and poor countries through their neo-liberal policies. Mahathir noted that the objective this time round would not be to exploit local labor; instead, it is to continually exploit the resources in the poor countries and render them stagnant in the underdeveloped state.

The end result of such exploitation, according to him, would be the presence of multi-billion banks and corporations which would curtail the growth of local ones. Dr. Mahathir defined globalization as the process of westernization and the unchecked, unmonitored absorption of western business ideologies and standards, as well as political arrangements all over the world (Mahathir, 2000, 4)

The essay has attempted to provide a comprehensive analysis of the impact of globalization on Malaysia. It has offered a working definition for the controversial concept of globalization within the Malaysian context. Furthermore, the essay has elaborated the impact of the process on Malaysian economy, education system, culture, and the political dimension.

We can conclude that, besides the scholars and writers, the longest serving Prime Minister of Malaysia, Dr, Mahathir played a great role in shaping and determining the magnitude of the impact of globalization on Malaysia.

This was through his seemingly unconventional approaches of handling economic crises which in most cases were criticized by the western economies. In fact, his alternative approaches of engaging globalization received approval from most states of the Asian continent (Machado 638). The forces of globalization, especially through technological advancement, are still being felt worldwide even as we start the second decade of the twenty first century.

Works Cited

Ibrahim, A. The Dawn of Asian Renaissance. Times Book International. 1996, 2-23.

Held, D. Globalization and Transformations (4th ed.). Stanford: Stanford University Press. 2008, 12-32.

Helleiner, E. Countries and the Reintroduction of Global Finance. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 1994, 4-37.

Hoogvelt, A. Globalization: A Post-colonial Perspective. Basingstoke: Macmillan. 1997, 3-67.

Machado, K. Malaysia and its Cultural Relationships in the 1980s: Look East. Asian Survey. 1992, 27(6): 637-62.

Mahathir, M. The Hidden Agenda. Kuala Lumpur: Lim Kokwing Integrated. 2000, 1-27.

Mahathir, M. The Meaning of Globalization. Kuala Lumpur: Malaysian Business Council. 1996, 1-14.

Mahathir, M. Defining Malaysias Destiny. Kuala Lumpur: Malaysian Business Council. 1991, 1-19.

Mauzy, D. The Human Rights: Malaysian Perspective. Pacific Review. 1997, 10(3): 209-35.

Nesadurai, H. Understanding National Economic Autonomy? Malaysias Adjustment

During the Financial Crisis, The Pacific Review. 2000, 14(2): 71-110.

Rahman, S. A. The Malaysian Mental Revolution. Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Utusan Melayu. 1971, 23-45.

Rasiah, R. Industrialization in Malaysia: A Focus on Foreign Capital. London: Macmillan Plc. 1995, 13-48.

Rosenberger, L. R. Malaysias Currency Crisis: An Analysis, Contemporary Southeast Asia. 1997, 19(2): 221-52.

Stiglitz, J. The Globalization Process and Its Disgruntlements. London: Allen Lane. 2002, 3-34.

Benefits of CEMEX

Globalization enabled CEMEX in a path of expansion, by operating in 15 countries and owing production accounted to 60 percent of assets, with revenue of over 50%. By 1999, six major cement companies Holderbank, Lafarge CEMEX, Heidelberger, Italcementi, and Blue Circle had emerged in the international market, they outperformed local competitors at any given point. The Six major controlled 500 million tons of capacity, which was slightly one  quarter of the worlds total (Ghemawat, 2004).

Globalization made CEMEX the third largest cement company in the world in terms of capacity and the largest in trading internationally. It helped CEMEX entry countries which larger markets, they realized that in the long run, demand for cement was directly related to the Countrys GDP. The higher the population the greater the infrastructure needed, Globalization gave CEMEX its opportunity. Its no surprise why the CEMEX executives at times think of its international operations as a ring of grey gold (Ghemawat, 2004).

During the 1970s the U.S cement industry collapsed and gave the opening for European Cement firms, making them buy existing Cement companies and give them a head start rather than setting up a factory themselves. They concentrated on production volumes for their of shore profitability and by around 2000 European cement companies owed 65% of the U.S market (Prahalad, 2006).

CEMEX managed to outperform competitors

Among its 5 competitors in its Asia Cemex manages to out perform them in terms of production and price, another interesting fact about CEMEX is, its biggest competition Holderbank have holding in five companies which is the extract same amount of holding CEMEX have, however CEMEX manages to out perform Holderbank in terms of price and capacity and with Lafarge, Italcementi and Blue Circle, its operation cost if far more efficient and effective. Example:  Blue Circle has around stake in 8 Asian companies but its production output is 12.6 tons compared to CEMEX capacity of 25.9 with a stake of 5 Asian companies.

CEMEX 12 months stock data showed it had a 114% returns on its stock investments compared to the 20% average competitors. Among the major 5 companies CEMEX is the second largest cement company in turn of global reach, with 38 countries compared to its top competitor with 58 countries (Prahalad, 2006).

Accounts for the sequence

CEMEX became the third largest cement company in the world. However as the Mexico also started to open its market in the late 80s, it allowed Holderbank and Lafarge to move in for expansion, faced with a possible threat to its business, CEMEX in turn decided to acquire other companies and boost its production capacity. This made CEMEX the second largest producer of cement in Mexico with seven new plants and 6.6 million tons of capacity. CEMEX entered the U.S market in the late 70s and by the late 80s CEMEX acquired a 1 million ton plant in Texas and by 1999 its accounted a 12% percent of total sales in the U.S market (Prahalad, 2006).

CEMEX in 1992 brought 68% percent in stocks and had 94% percent voting rights in two of the largest Cement companies in Spain. Expanding in other countries like Chile having 12% stake in Chiles third largest Company Cementos Bio- Bio and its investments in Philippines, Indonesia, China, Egypt and Latin America (Ghemawat, 2004).

Unlike the other markets it entered before, CEMEX became more selective and it focused at high population and high growth for it to venture.CEMEX also wanted to control at least 25% of the market it invested in, having it dominance on the cement market it decided to be more selective in its investments.

Recommendations

CEMEX should look at focusing on its image, like focusing on global issues and trying to look more of an environmental friendly company, the future lies in CEMEX showing it is concerned and will do what it needs in the fighting global warming. However in terms of expansion, it should still look at investing in developing countries, as the scope of infrastructure will boost their sales in cement, staying away from unstable governments and countries would be a good idea. CEMEX should try holding its stakes in Countries like China, India and developing countries with a good amount of multi national companys presence. CEMEX should also focus on the countries with good transports facilities which would cut down on their production cost drastically.

The world is getting closer together in term of opening their markets to other companies. CEMEX would benefit in having its presence in as many as possible and it would create a stronger base to its over all operations (Prahalad, 2006). Its accusations and holding stakes in other companies are good tactical move and it should continue doing so. Having its stake or acquiring companies rather then setting up a new one, helps them understand the market and its customer more effectively.

References

Ghemawat, P. (2004). The Globalization of CEMEX. NY: McGraw-Hill.

Prahalad, CK. (2006). The fortune at the bottom of the pyramid. LA: Wharton School Publishing.

The world is coming closer together due to the increase in trade and businesses amongst countries. The same problems are being faced by all currently, specifically the economic crisis. The world seems to be a smaller place compared to what it used to be till even a decade ago. This reduction in the size of the globe and increase in communication between the nations of the world is what I would call globalization.

Since globalization has made the world a smaller place, it has also become easily approachable. It is easier to reach out to other nations, and an opportunity to achieve peace and friendly relations worldwide, is also a result of globalization. Globalization may affect my life tremendously especially because of the lessening of the gaps between countries, not distance-wise, but due to outsourcing and increase in trade relations. This will leave me an opportunity to seek for benefits from other countries, instead of being enclosed to the boundaries of just the one country I am living in.

My profession will also be affected due to globalization, because of the rise in world trade. Better options will be made in businesses and trade offers will be enhanced due to more exposure to a variety of nations.

The article that I am going to review is named, The Ten Benefits of the WTO Trading System. It is an article from the WTO, and is worth the read, due to the positive aspects regarding the organization given.

The article begins with a list of the benefits of the World Trade Organization (WTO), which are ten in number. It enlists elements such as promotion of peace, constructive settlement of disputes, reduced costs of living, rules to make life more efficient, and the sort. The ten points are then discussed in further detail one by one.

There is a positive outlook on the role that the WTO is playing according to the article. With each benefit elaborated thoroughly, we come to learn that the main aim of this organization is to promote peace and harmony amongst countries, keeping in view the principles of trading. Trading which is carried out smoothly results in lesser conflicting issues between nations.

An important point that has been included in the praise of the WTO is that when a large number of countries are interacting and trading with one another, there are more chances of conflicts. WTO plays the role of reducing such chances and resolves any disputes that arise, peacefully.

The benefits of the WTO is an unbiased write up, and has additionally mentioned that the institution aims to provide maximum justification to all countries, by giving smaller countries the chance to voice out their say too, along with the larger nations. The resulting lowering prices of food, clothing, goods and services, all are owed to the strategies put forth by the WTO.

Illustrations have also been included in the article, to make it more attractive till the very end. High employment chances after economic growth is an eye-opening point for the youngsters; economic growth can take place with the aid of the World Trade Organization.

The article selected is a beneficial one for those studying world trade specifically, and all those interested to know about how the World Trade Organization helps nations become economically, and peacefully stable.

Reference

World Trade Organization. Ten Benefits of the World Trading System 2008. Web.

Introduction

The rise of the globalization project was a move geared towards establishing a global order in economic development. The success of the project was to be facilitated through abandonment and dismantling of a development project in favor of a more globalized socio-economic order. ¹The initial economic trend was unanimously referred to as postdevelopmentalism, in which states undertook to manage their own socio-economic affairs, also called state economy (Robertson, 53-77). With the globalization project becoming a vital subject, dismantling of the postdevelopmentalism topped the economic development agendas.

Preliminary stages of globalization involved states attempting to explore new principles of governance. ²The process was characterized by both centralization and decentralization of power. Decentralization of power divested certain crucial social responsibilities from the central state authorities to the global arena, so that development issues like the social budgetary role were not a one-state affair. Centralization of power enabled different state members to group themselves at the macro-regional levels such as RFATs, to come up with common market rules, policies, and binding principles of trade (McMichael, 153-155).

The emergence of the globalization project was actually surrounded by a couple of economic and governance uncertainties. This paper presents a general assessment of the development and social change coming forth with the rise of the globalization project.

Review on the Globalization phenomenon

The growth of globalization projects is generally construed as a direct attack on a development project. It is understood as ³a global development strategy whose key purpose is to enforce for successful state participation in global economic activities. ⁴The 1980s definition of the concept of globalization was made extensive to incorporate a policy of broad liberalization (McMichael, 155-157). Liberalization became the centerpiece of the globalization project. This policy took a center stage in the debt regime, in which the debt managers rewarded debtor governments for reducing their sizes and roles. This in turn facilitated the opening of state economies to global influences, leading to polarization of wealth, compromising domestic populations security and threatening the sustainability of local resources (Cerny, 270-103).

Rooting for efficiency in the global market drastically weakened the domestic fibers of social securities, and stifled the local economic development. National resources were exploited and commercialized at the expense of International debt, the case in China (Cerny, 270-103).

Debt servicing involved buying and selling domestic products at the global economic avenues. The global economic agencies then supplied to the global economy which delivered revenues to multilateral lenders as debt payment. The process of ⁵globalization also eroded local natural resources, the main source of sustenance to the local people, precisely the poor.

Its important to note here that ⁶the rise of the globalization project was not a strategy to completely dismantle or wholly replace the development project. It was rather a shift from development project to globalization project, a change from state to the global economy while retaining the traditional economic governance and management trends (McMichael, 157).

The 21^st-century economic development has, however, been characterized by contentions and controversies between globalization and state protection. Global market figures redefined development to imply ⁷a globally managed growth focusing on world market principles as the most efficient way of allocating resources (McMichael, 157). State governments on the other hand are still held in the midst of quagmire, they are faced with the responsibility of balancing between globalization and state protection.

Theoretical Perspective

The theory of comparative advantage was developed with the aim of trying to justify the notion of liberalism in globalization. ⁸Comparative advantage theory is accredited to David Ricardo, a political economist. Ricardo argued that property derives from maximizing a nations relative resource endowments and that economic efficiency is achieved at the global market where states participate to exchange their products competitively (McMichael, 160).

The comparative advantage proposition disregards development project as not ideal in economic world order where by the global market is perceived as the unit of development. This theory also rejects the idea of capital mobility.

The Global Governance

In attempt to reduce growing tension between globalization and development, global states established a powerful governing role. The responsibility was made absolute and required that states comply accordingly. Compliance was essentially ensured in two ways, either through coercion or consensus (McMichael, 165).

Coercion was employed when states resisted or failed to comply or when liberalization failed to prevail. Consensus on the other hand was based on common agreement and support from both the governments and citizens of the states. Conversely, coercion and consensus were not the only ways of ensuring compliance to new world economic order. ⁹Institutionalization of the market rule was deemed the most effective in ensuring compliance. In institutionalizing the market rule, individual states functions were recommended as global governance functions and were enforced through WTO, World Trade Organization (McMichael, 165).

One of fundamental developments during the debt regime was advancement of ¹⁰Britton Woods Institution to a governance role targeting third world states (McMichael , 168).Years between 1986 and 1994 saw the world reaching a compromise on General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs, shortened as GATT. This agenda was named GATT Uruguay Round, and was set up to establish new and binding rules with regard to free trade, protection of intellectual property rights and freedom of investment (McMichael, 168). The new rules formed the basis on which WTO, World Trade Organization, operated.

Globalization project as a Utopia

Globalization project prevailed as an ideal in different ways, building on those factors which were otherwise the shortcomings in development project. Even though globalization project became powerful, a number of economists still believed development project ¹¹was a success because it was never intended to be absolute (McMichael, 193). Whichever the case, it was apparent development project provided platform on which states tried to manage their national economic integration. Albeit the extent of integration was not absolute.

Discussions

Implementation of globalization project came with diverse challenges. Its advocation was a big threat to development project and public economy. The proponents of this ideology hold that globalization is the most efficient way in allocating natural resources, though there is a feeling that its not the best of economic projects the world could offer.

Those economists preaching the gospel of globalization might be ignorant of the idea that globalization may have brought about challenges such as unfair competition in the market, exploitation of local natural resources, reduced employment rates, poor health, just to list a few instances in third world countries. This is the point at which I seem to disregard globalization not being the most efficient way of allocating natural resources. Endorsement of globalization should not have been done at the expense of states economy. Governments and states are indispensably in need of their natural resources to sufficiently cater for their populations.

States and governments are therefore responsible for protecting their resources from exploitation, providing adequate sources of employment to their citizens, upholding standard health care services, ensuring environmental sustainability and so forth. Global forces have made achievement of these crucial agendas very challenging. The state governors are actually caught in the dilemma of having to decide between globalization and state protection. How effective or efficient then is globalization?

When the policies for competition in global market only favors reduction of public expenditures, resulting into decreased national employment rates, low level of education, and poor healthcare services, then the idea of globalization is basically a political agenda and not in any way a natural phenomenon (McMichael, 157).

The very nature of globalization project has posed more questions than answers, raising lots of controversies. Major divergences have been witnessed in trying to compromise on key issues, distinguishing between government by economic efficiency and government by social justice, corporate and social welfare, ecological sustainability and exploitation, decentralization and centralization of power (McMichael, 157-158). These make it very difficult for qualify globalization project as efficient and plausibly enough.

Conclusions

Globalization project was introduced to bring forth the economic trends at a global scale, and to provide a platform where all states could participate in economic activities at international level. In spite of its success in bringing together different states in the world market and proliferating natural resources across the world, it also presented a number of negative challenges. Consequently, it may be appropriate to conclude that globalization was not a natural phenomenon, but a global political agenda

Works Cited

Cerny, Philip. Paradoxes of the Competition State. The Dynamics of Political Globalization, Government and Opposition.1997. 2701.

McGrew, Anthony. Modernity and Its Futures. A Global Society in Stuart Hall, David Held and Anthony McGrew. Cambridge. Polity Press. 1990. 34-88.

McMichael, Philip. Globalization, Myths and Realities. The Rural Sociology 61. 1996. 153-200.

Robertson, Roland. Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture. London: Sage Publication. 1992.53-77.

Footnotes

1. Decentralization vs. centralization of power. McMichael, Philip. Globalization, Myths and Realities. The Rural Sociology 61. 1996. 153 200.
2. Postdevelopmentalism. Robertson, Roland. Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture. London: Sage Publication. 1992.53-77.
3. Competition in the global marketplace. Cerny, Philip. Paradoxes of the Competition State. The dynamics of political globalization, government, and opposition.1997. 2701.
4. The policy of liberalism in the globalization project. McMichael, Philip. Globalization, Myths and Realities. The Rural Sociology 61. 1996. 153-200.
5. Ibid.
6. Cerny, Philip. Paradoxes of the Competition State. The Dynamics of Political Globalization, Government and Opposition.1997. 2701.
7. McGrew, Anthony. Modernity and Its Futures. A Global Society in Stuart Hall, David Held and Anthony McGrew. Cambridge. Polity Press. 1990. 34-88.
8. McMichael, Philip. Globalization, Myths and Realities. The Rural Sociology 61. 1996. 160 & Robertson, Roland. Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture. London: Sage Publication. 1992.53-77.
9. Institutionalization of the market rule. McGrew, Anthony. Modernity and Its Futures. A Global Society in Stuart Hall, David Held and Anthony McGrew. Cambridge. Polity Press. 1990. 34-88. & McMichael, Philip, 19996, 165-167.
10. McMichael, Philip. Globalization, Myths and Realities. The Rural Sociology 61. 1996. 153-200.
11. Globalization project as Utopia. McMichael, Philip. Globalization, Myths and Realities. The Rural Sociology 61. 1996. 193.

The problem

Globalization has resulted in certain benefits and shortcomings, some countries are benefiting a great deal than others; in extreme cases, some countries are losing as a result of globalization. Scientific inventions in technology and communication networks have facilitated international trade and movement of people from one region to another, the result of the trade is economic, social, and political gains. Countries that have limited resources and technology have minimal participation in international trade and are net importers; this works to their disadvantage.

The dimension of the problem

Although globalization has had many benefits, it has not been able to encompass all sectors. Many nations continue to experience regional disparities. Poverty rates are still high in sub-Sahara Africa although there has been a fall in its rates in South and East Asia. Statistics from the United Nations (UN) show that about one billion people live on less than one dollar per day and about 2.6 billion live on less than two dollars. it is believed that this has been a result of too little globalization. If globalization is increased, some of these problems can be eliminated.

The benefits of globalization came along with some risks associated with it. These are a result of capital movements among nations. IMF employs policies from time to time that helps nations manage some of these risks. It offers technical assistance in some of the macroeconomic policies, the exchange rate, and the financial sector.

Today almost all nations depend on the global economy. Governments are finding it difficult to respond to their domestic issues as they used to do. There have been many trade agreements that influence the performance of member countries and which put restrictions on the use of their monetary policies. These governments have to rely on the international monetary fund for regulations. Poor nations are becoming poorer day in day out because of the low comparative advantage they have in international trade. They have to rely on the World Bank for aids and grants for development. To curb this, the Doha Development Agenda was launched but it has to yet been accepted. Unless it is accepted, the poor nationals will continue to suffer at the expense of the rich nations which have developed economies and comparative advantage in terms of trade (Schulte, 2000).

In the future, the trend of globalization is expected to improve even further especially with the invention of a digital world, people and countries will have the means and products to trade with each other thus facilitating trade. The world population is on an upward trend, countries are finding it challenging to feed their economies from their own countries resources alone, they are thus willing to trade with others in the efforts of feeding their growing population.

Evaluating evidence

International integration is on an upward rise and it is expected to continue in the future. Countries have contributed to appreciate the benefits they can attain from globalization and have embarked on measures to improve their competitiveness in the global markets. Globalization is taking different shapes which among others include cultural globalization resulting in global culture, social globalization, economic and political globalization. Several international organizations have been implemented in the efforts of managing the global environment; they include World Bank, United Nations, international protocol, and conventions among others.

Type of evidence offered

The writer has used historical, statistical data to develop the two topics; he has used tread analysis to forecast what the future of globalization is likely to be. In the two chapters, the writer did not focus on theoretical explanations however he was interested in testable statistics and data that the world is undergoing. The evidence he offers is straight forward and reflects what is happening on the ground. In the textual and historical context, the writer develops the topic in a straightforward manner where he offers an insightful analysis of the trend in the community at the local and global levels.

Data representation and Idiosyncratic

The data has been presented in a textual and statistically simple manner; the writer does not use any academic jargon or use some information that cannot be tested. He develops the text from a local angle and develops an international understanding of what is happening around the globe (Manfred, 2003).

Can data be interpolated differently?

People have different ways of interpolating data and information; readers of chapters 7 and 8 get one general understanding that some benefits accrue from globalization and at the same time there are some weak points of the system. In chapter eight, the writer analyses and explains how globalization is here to stay and states that if countries can use their comparative and absolute advantages effectively, then the benefits could accrue to the entire globe.

Conclusion

Scientific invention and innovation in communication and transport networks have resulted in an increased international corporation through trade. International cooperation has facilitated globalization; although globalization has had many benefits, it has not been able to encompass all sectors; several nations continue to experience regional disparities.

References

Manfred, B. (2003).Globalization: a very short introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Schulte, J. A. (2000). Globalization: a critical introduction. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

The problem

As people interact, trade, socialize, and live together, they develop a common culture; they learn to appreciate and respect other peoples views objectives, values, standpoints, and opinions. The culture of a people is unique to them; cultural differences among countries are a hindrance to globalization.

The dimension of the problem

Cultural globalization is used to refer to the erosion of an individual group or country culture, to create a common and generally accepted system of doing things. When full cultural globalization is reached, then people will be interacting freely and can easily predict the actions of each other. The people of the area uphold a certain culture and it is transmitted to new entrants into society. it covers areas of the language used by the people, the way they do a thing, a religion that they practice, structure, identity, norms, beliefs, and values they hold, Art, music, and songs also form another form of culture that the people hold. When cultural globalization is attained, then all the above elements of culture will be common across all tribes and countries (Schulte, 2000).

Evaluating evidence

One of the breakthroughs that globalization has brought is enhancing the movement of people from one region to another. Persons of different cultures interact, share values, discuss various issues, and get a chance to appreciate each others way of life. It is appreciated that human beings develop a certain mode of behavior from factors arising from socialization right from childhood to adulthood. Our values, beliefs, and morals are largely influenced by the society we live in, culture, and hereditary factors. Societies have different mechanisms that are geared to re-enforcing certain behavior deemed acceptable. However, as human beings interact with each other change their lifestyle, or are compelled to change their mode of belief whether consciously or not, a behavior modification, which in most cases conflicts with previously instilled values, occurs. Globalization has enabled people to interact with each other. They have different cultures and the emergence of a global culture is starting to be experienced. Such leads to the acquisition of new ways of doing things and cultural exchanges. Of the greatest, influence the information and technologys role in enhancing cultural effects. The consolidation of the media such as the television, the internet, radio, magazines, and newspapers from one country find their way to another because of the open interaction between nations, consequently influencing peoples way of life.

People with different ideologies come together and share their standpoints and opinions, when they are doing this; they are developing common ideologies and creating a platform of understanding. A certain cultures ideology when shared with another gives a better reflection of the society and people are willing and able to work together as a team. Common issues are solved on the same platform and respect among people is upheld.

The development of multiculturalism generation is also another effect of globalization; people who cannot say they prescribe to a certain culture that they find unique; they are guided by the general condition in the environment they are living. When a company is developing internationally, it needs to understand the culture of the venturing country. Cultural intelligence is a management tool within organizational psychology, that emphasizes that understanding or individual, group, communal and national culture enhances strategic management; it influences the capacity for a business to engage successfully in a certain environment.

Type of evidence offered

The writer uses historical and trend data analysis to develop the topic, he cuts back to the traditional way of doing this, then discusses the modern situation, and using the trend he projects the future of possible global culture. The writer reflects on secondary material and primary sources of data to give a rich document about the topic.

Data representation and Idiosyncratic

The two topics are written without any language jargon but they are straight forwards and enriching the reader. They have a close connection with what the world is going through this a reader can relate the topics to real life situations. The language used is simple, explanatory, and to the point.

Can data be interpolated differently?

Different scholars have different ways of interpolating data and information; depending on the reader of the two topics and probably the exposure that the reader has had, interpolation may be different. What stands out in either interpolation is that globalization has an effect on world culture and in the future, if the trend continues, then the world will have a common global culture (Manfred, 2003).

Conclusion

As economies expand and trade with each other with the assistance of improved technology, the world is becoming a global village. Globalization is a process of integration of regional economies and cultures into a global network of trade. Interaction among different categories of people has lead to multiculturalism; in the future, it is projected that the world will have a common culture.

References

Manfred, B. (2003).Globalization: a very short introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Schulte, J. A. (2000). Globalization: a critical introduction. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Introduction

One of the main aspects of post-industrial living has to do with the fact that, as time goes on, the world becomes increasingly flat, in the metaphorical sense of this world  the forces of Globalization predetermine this state of affairs. Therefore, it is fully explainable why during the course of the last few decades, there has been published a number of books that authors of which aimed to enlighten readers on what accounts for the essence of the Globalization-related processes in the world.

Among the most critically acclaimed books on the mentioned subject matter is The world is flat: a brief history of the twenty-first century (2005) by Thomas Friedman. This book was published in New York by Farrar, Straus, and Giroux and almost instantaneously attained the status of a bestseller. Partially, this explains why in the years 2006 and 2007, Farrar, Straus, and Giroux published the edited versions of The world is flat.

The main idea, promoted throughout the books entirety, is that the very laws of history create the objective preconditions for the process of Globalization to continue gaining an exponential momentum. In its turn, this implies that it is in peoples best interests to be trying to adjust to the process in question, as something that will significantly increase the measure of their existential competitiveness. In this respect, one would benefit rather substantially from assuming that: a) In the Globalized world, national borders become an obstacle on the way of free trade, b) The Globalizations main effects are necessarily positive, b) It is specifically the neo-Liberal/Libertarian economic paradigm, which appears to be most consistent with the process of Globalization (Giroux 2005).

Thomas Friedman is considered one of the leading experts on Globalization in America. Throughout his career as a columnist/journalist, he published a number of books that discuss Globalization from a variety of different cultural, socio-economic, and geopolitical perspectives. The most famous of these books is The Lexus and the olive tree: understanding Globalization (1999) and Longitudes and attitudes: exploring the world after September 11 (2002). In 2005, Friedman was elected a member of the Pulitzer Prize Board

In this paper, I will focus on reviewing Chapter 3 of the initially mentioned book, which is called Developing countries and the flat world. In it, the author discusses the effects of Globalization in the Third World countries and provides insights into what kind of strategies can be used, in order for the flattening of the world to prove beneficial to these countries citizens.

The reason I choose this specific Chapter to be reviewed is that within the context of how different authors go about discussing the effects of Globalization, the ways in which the concerned process affects people in developing countries, are being often overlooked. Yet, there are a number of good reasons to believe that these people represent Globalizations actual fuel. In its turn, this implies that Chapter 3 can be well considered the books most important one.

Review of Chapter 3

Chapter 3 in Freidmans book is dedicated to discussing how developing countries should proceed with trying to integrate into the Globalized world. In this respect, the author comes up with the following suggestions:

1. The policy-makers in developing countries must work on increasing the measure of their awareness of what may be deemed these countries Globalization-related objective strengths. The reason for this is that the ways, in which Globalization affects the Third World, often prove counterintuitive, which in turn implies that the subject matter in question should be subjected to an analytical inquiry. As Freidman pointed out, Countries that fall off the development wagon are a bit like drunks; to get back on they have to learn to see themselves as they really are (p. 382). According to the author, this implies that developing countries may never cease being preoccupied with trying to find their own niche in the flat world, which in turn should result in increasing the extent of their geopolitical competitiveness.
2. While striving to cope with the realities of Globalization, the governmental officials in the Third World countries should choose in favor of the neo-Liberal model of economic development, associated with, Privatization of state companies, deregulation of financial markets, currency adjustments, foreign direct investment, shrinking subsidies, lowering of protectionist tariff barriers, and introduction of more flexible labor laws (p. 383). Friedman believes that this will instantaneously revitalize the economies of these countries  hence, making it possible for the affiliated citizens to begin taking practical advantage of Globalization. The author tactfully avoids mentioning that the introduction of flexible labor laws means subjecting workers to massive layoffs (Kaplinsky 2001, p. 46).
3. Developing countries should consider implementing the so-called reform wholesale, as the main precondition for being able to benefit from Globalization. According to the author, the mentioned term stands for implementing economic reforms in a thoroughly integrative manner, It (reform wholesale) involves looking at four key aspects of your society-infrastructure, regulatory institutions, education, and culture (p. 386). The purpose of the reform wholesale is to eliminate as many obstacles, on the way of attracting foreign investments in the economies of developing countries, as possible. The author believes that this will automatically result in a substantial improvement of living standards in these countries.
4. The likelihood of a particular developing country to benefit from Globalization directly depends on what happened to be qualitative aspects of how this countrys citizens go about addressing life-challenges (p. 396). According to the author, the mentioned provision explains why, whereas, some developing countries were able to profit from the implementation of the neo-Liberal economic reforms, the others were not. This, of course, implies that the objections against Globalization, as such that results in widening a gap between the rich and poor in the Third World, cannot be considered thoroughly rational  the suggestion that once again points out to the authors affiliation with the neo-Liberal economic paradigm (Weber 2004, p. 360).
5. The lesser is the number of natural resources in a particular developing country; the higher are its chances to adapt to the realities of Globalization. According to the author, this is because there are a number of psychological undertones to the measure of just about any countrys Globalization-related adaptability, Countries without natural resources are much more likely, through human evolution, to develop the habits of openness to new ideas, because it is the only way they can survive and advance (p. 401). This appears to be the most unsubstantiated of all of the Chapters claims. After all, there are a number of developing countries, which despite being resource-rich, were nevertheless able to adjust to the ideals of Globalization with ease.

Critical commentaries

Even though that the reviewed Chapter 3 in Friedmans book does contain many in-depth insights into how the process of Globalization affects developing countries, the authors line of argumentation, deployed throughout the Chapters entirety, cannot be thought of as such that represent an undisputed truth-value. One of the reasons for this is that, while promoting the idea that Globalization should result in empowering these countries, the author positioned himself as the adherent of neo-Liberalism  the economic theory that claims that the functioning of the market-based economy should be thoroughly deregulated: Good regulation often means zero regulation (p. 392).

However, it never occurred to Friedman that, due to being essentially material (they are made of physically embodied individuals), human societies can be well discussed in terms of an open thermodynamic system. Consequently, this implies that the dynamics within a particular society are not being solely defined by what happened to be the quality of this societys integral elements  quite contrary to what neo-Liberals belief happened to be the case (Rosenzvaig & Munck 1997, p. 57).

In other words, even though the principle of profit does determine the essence of the interrelationship between citizens on a personal level, there is no good reason to believe that this also happened to be the case, within the context of what accounts for the overall purpose of the societys existence, as a systemic entity.

This, of course, suggests the conceptual erroneousness of Friedmans idea that there can be no other but strictly economic incentives for the development of a market-based economy in the Third World countries to take one turn or another. Consequently, this prevents us from being able to refer to many of the Chapters suggestions, as conceptually sound, which in turn undermines the overall legitimacy of Friedmans line of reasoning, in regards to what should be done, in order for developing countries to be able to benefit from Globalization.

The Chapters yet another weakness has to do with the fact that, even though Friedman did succeed in outlining strategies that can be deployed by the governments in developing countries, on the way of increasing the measure of these countries adaptability to Globalization, the author did not bother to outline the associated risks. The main of these risks has to do with the fact that Globalization endorses the division of labor, which in turn results in increasing the measure of the world economys specialization (Bassiry & Jones 1993, p. 623).

Yet, even though this indeed adds to the economys effectiveness, there is a negative aspect to this process, as well  the more Globalization-friendly the economy of a developing country happened to be, the higher would be the degree of its vulnerability to financial crises, such as that of 2008. The fact that the author does not mention this even briefly, suggests that while working on his book, he never ceased being politically opinionated  something that undermines the books value rather considerably.

The validity of this statement can be further illustrated, in regards to the authors tendency to use euphemist terms, when referring to the non-appealing aspects of Globalization, such as the fact that this process establishes the objective preconditions for the rate of unemployment in the Third world countries to continue growing ever higher. For example, as it was mentioned earlier, throughout the Chapters entirety, Friedman calls for the introduction of flexible labor law.

While doing it, however, the author deliberately refrained from specifying that the implementation of this type of law will result in increasing the rate of unemployment rather drastically  something that can be hardly considered correlative with the interests of ordinary citizens. Thus, it will be fully appropriate, on my part, to conclude this paper by reinstating once again that, despite being critically acclaimed, Friedmans book, in general, and Chapter 3, in particular, contain a number of misleading ideas, as to the essence of Globalization.

References

Bassiry, G & Jones, M 1993, Adam Smith and the ethics of contemporary Capitalism, Journal of Business Ethics, vol. 12, no. 8, pp. 621-627.

Friedman, T 2005, The world is flat: a brief history of the twenty-first century, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, New York.

Giroux, H 2005, The terror of Neoliberalism: rethinking the significance of cultural politics, College Literature, vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 1-19.

Kaplinsky, R 2001, Is Globalization all it is cracked up to be?, Review of International Political Economy, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 45-65.

Rosenzvaig, E & Munck, R 1997, Neoliberalism: economic philosophy of postmodern demolition, Latin American Perspectives, vol. 24, no. 6, pp. 56-62.

Weber, H 2004, The new economy and social risk: banking on the poor? Review of International Political Economy, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 356-386.

Whether talking about his Golden Arches/McDonalds Theory or Dell Theory or that the world is flat, Thomas Friedman offers a provocative argument about where we now are internationally, how we got there, and where we are going. Explain and assess his views, including their economic and security implications, touching as well on his critics.

Thomas Friedman observes that forces of globalization exist to check inconsistencies between two States that resolute to put on the golden straitjacket. Abridging the theory to the fast-food heights of generalization, he postulates that no State with McDonalds has ever battled a combat with another State (Freidman, 2005). Specifically, if companies have key delivery series procedures in States other than the companys home State, those States will never participate in armed warfare. This is owing to the financial interdependence between States that emerges from a huge conglomerate.

For instance, Toshiba having delivery chain operations in manifold worldwide localities and the unwillingness of emerging economies, in which delivery series operations frequently go on has enabled the countries to maintain peace. Technology has altered the form of the earth. Economical and plentiful infrastructure and broadband bondage have made it simple for information vocation to be completed from anywhere in the globe. This has formed a flat worldwide opinionated, financial and artistic playing turf. When each of these belongings unexpectedly emerged, it became possible to distribute academic assets from anywhere. It could be disaggregated, distributed, dispersed, created and assembled again. In addition, this conveyed completely innovative extent of liberty to the way things are made, particularly things that call for intelligence and not physical contact.

Tom Friedman maintains that the convergence of these progresses is as radical as Gutenberg and the publish press in the 15^th century and the way it acts out will be the essential worldwide comedy of the untimely 21^st century (Freidman, 2005). The economical accessibility of software and broadband internet has equalized the setting. It has formed a recently flat universally opinionated, financial, and artistic playing turf that permits States formerly detached from the hubs of authority to partake in the hunt for affluence as long as they have the dexterities and communication that is represented by broadband acquaintances and the force to undertake it. Friedman clarifies what the level earth implies to States, corporations, the public and persons as the way regimes and the public can and have to adjust. Upcoming years will not be similar to the precedent ones. Outsourcing is unavoidable and criticisms or contentment would not determine anything. To do well in upcoming years, persons and corporations have to enlarge policies that fit worldwide authenticities.

Although flat earth is an outstanding and influential manuscript in many ways it is not ideal as Friedman states in a handful quarters of the manuscript. For example, Friedman is extremely systematic and presents a large amount of substantiation when he talks about the tribulations that relic reliance on petroleum to generate emergency power and worldwide environmental adjustment. However, he goes astray by applying facts/systematic study to sustain his suggestion for an explanation (Pankaj, 2007). He came up with a grand case for what the answer ought to be applicable universally.

However, the clarification is not completely found on skill or sustained with sufficient data. On the other hand, he may perhaps scrutinize the present projected explanation in superior profundity and assess the expertise that has the most possibility of resolving our power catastrophe and stopping prospective environmental alteration. In its place, he hastily discharges different power inventiveness as not having adequate capability actually to be worth spending the time and endeavors. He emphasizes that we ought to insist on manufacturing vehicles that are all-electric and uncover a mode to building the flaming of petroleum hygienically.

Based on the readings in the course text, Producing Security: Multinational Corporations, Globalization, and the Changing Nature of Conflict, assess the security implication of the global weapons production system. As part of your response, be sure to explain Brooks views and critique the proposition that globalization has forever affected the way all states procure and produce weapons.

Inside the writing that observes how the global economy can manipulate security, researchers summarize an extensive diversity of opinions. In practice, these incongruent opinions can be tracked down to three universal systems that are the worldwide financial system that can manipulate safety by altering competences, motivation and the character of the players. This manuscript illustrates that the globalization of manufacturing has restructured the international security atmosphere through each of these three universal instruments.

Concerning potentials, the main enigma is whether globalization of manufacturing has altered the factors of armament manufacturing. All through old times, majority of States usually have favored to be independent in weaponry making. The rationale behind this is the reduced demand that is facing it. Defense manufacturing enables Sates to be protected against susceptibility, provide intermissions and to make certain that tactical contestants do not have effortless access to identical crucial martial expertise. Countries persist relying on their own resources for weapon production making the key issue as how competent they are in trailing this policy. Market analysts concur that facing it alone has turned out to be rigid in arms making in topical days. On the contrary, until recently, we are short of comprehending of how tricky it has befallen. The investigation in this manuscript discloses that the scales have positively reallocated against a plan of autarkic-related manufacturing. No country, as well as the grand authorities can nowadays successfully stay on the acerbic periphery in martial expertise if it does not follow major internationalization in the manufacture of artillery.

Pertaining inducements, the major unreciprocated problem is whether the geographic diffusion of MNC fabrication has altered the financial reimbursement of subjugation. Financial achievements have traditionally been an important inspiring force for disagreement. Conflicts of subjugation regrettably still take place as is confirmed by Iraqs 1991 incursion of Kuwait and the taking over of Western Congo by Burundi, Uganda and Rwanda as of 1998 to 2002. Irrespective of the impetus for conflict, the scenario for constancy that is, serenity will decline if antagonists are capable of taking out major financial possessions from recently occupied regions. The recent standard study of the financial remuneration of invasion concludes that subjugators are still incapable of successfully extorting profitable wealth from defeated affluent states (Brooks, 2011).

The power of globalization of fabrication on defense is apparent and most momentous with reverence to grand influence relations. A huge quantity of writing within global relationships is dedicated to investigating the most hazardous latent result in the structure. Immense authorities that try to disturb the protective class positions and are flourishing in doing so, since the achievements of armed invasion are collective. The likelihood of this result has spread an extensive shadow over investigators operating within each special approach and technique in the turf. This spotlight is not astonishing. Even though enormous influence conflict is not a daily episode, one grasps huge threat. In Second World War, above 40 million people were executed and the likelihood that the alliance authorities could alter the character of the structure was secluded (Moises, 2009).

Many diverse aspects manipulate the projection for grand control constancy. What is critical is to spot the features that are vital and whether they are expected to have encouraging or harmful effects. The conclusions of this manuscript jointly point out that the globalization of manufacturing currently acts as vigor for constancy among the grand authorities. Placed most specifically, the findings of this investigation are that the improved geographic diffusion of MNC will enhance manufacturing among States, therefore strengthening their relations.

Is globalization a positive or negative factor in the world? Respond using concrete examples, data and theoretical perspectives provided by our readings and videos. In your response, comment both on the economic impact on persons and countries and on the way security in the international system is affected. If you determine globalization is a generally positive phenomenon, can domestic political support for it be built/maintained in countries and what factors are relevant to this effort? If you determine globalization is a generally negative phenomenon, what is to be done? Is it possible to move away from globalization? What would be the security implication of either deepening globalization or dialing it back?

Globalization has had important and diverse consequences on the entire financial systems of the earth. It shapes the manufacturing of merchandise and services. It also influences the employment of industry and other contributions into the manufacturing procedures. Besides, it shapes investment in physical structures and in human resources. It influences expertise and leads to the dispersal of knowledge from instigating states to other countries. It moreover has key outcomes on competence, production and competitiveness (Vandana, 2005).

Numerous effects of globalization on public markets warrant certain mention. One is the development of overseas direct venture at an exceptional speed that is specifically much superior to the escalation of world trading. Such ventures occupy a major position in expertise shift, engineering reformation and in the configuration of international ventures, every one of which have main effects at the public level. The next is the effect of globalization on scientific modernization. Innovative expertise, as previously distinguished, has been an issue in globalization. However, globalization and the prompt of antagonism have as well inspired further progress in knowledge and accelerated its dispersal within states through overseas direct venture.

Another positive effect of globalization pertains to the intensification of businesses in services, as well as monetary, formal, executive and data services provision. In addition, indescribable forms of firms that are the foundations of global business are also products of globalization. In 1970, direct venture quarter was allied to the export of goods, although nowadays that has increased to half and it is anticipated to climb even more while making logical investment the most significant product on world marketplace. Because of the development of services both countrywide and globally, a few have identified this as the age of aptitude that underscores the significance of permanent learning and schooling and the venture in human resources in each public financial system (Brooks, 2011).

Globalization has piloted to rising antagonism on a worldwide base. Although several countries fear opposition, numerous favorable outcomes of antagonism that can augment manufacturing or competence exist. Antagonism and the broadening of bazaars can direct to specialism and the dissection of work, as argued by Adam Smith and other classical economists scripting on the payback of a market structure. Specialization and the dissection of work with their repercussions of augmentation in fabrication, currently subsist not just in a state but also on a universal foundation. Other positive outcomes comprise the economies of scale and capacity that can probably direct to decrease in expenses and costs and are favorable to ongoing financial developments. Other paybacks from globalization consist of the achievements from businesses in which both associates achieve in a reciprocally useful exchange, where the associates can be persons, companies and other institutions, states, business alliances, continents or other bodies. Globalization can as well lead to amplified efficiency because of the validation of manufacturing on a universal scale and the multiplicity of expertise and aggressive anxieties for recurrent originality on a universal origin (Brooks, 2011).

Globalization engrosses not just paybacks, but also has overheads or possible tribulations that several reviewers distinguish as huge risks. These overheads could pilot to inconsistencies of different categories whether at the local, nationwide or global level. One such outlay or dilemma is that of who benefits from its possible paybacks. There can be considerable justice concerns in the sharing of the benefits from globalization among persons, associations and States. In reality, many of the benefits have been moving to the wealthy States or persons generating superior unfairness and leading to possible inconsistencies countrywide and globally. A few have recommended the likelihood of unifying profits internationally founded on the examination that the unfortunate States are moving up at a quicker rate than the wealthy States.

The authenticity, conversely, is that a diminutive faction of States, the tiger markets of East Asia, has been developing at fast rates, whereas the less urbanized states of Africa, Asia and South and Central America have been emerging at a sluggish speed than the wealthy states. These unfortunate States are therefore turning out to be more and more subjugated. The outcome has been not unification, but instead a deviation or schism of profits worldwide with the fast-developing financial system unifying the wealthy states and the unfortunate States falling even more behind. This mounting inequality directs to estrangement, perhaps even global inconsistencies as states try to find a way to unite with society of wealthy States. This problem of allocation is a chief challenge in the practice of global economy (Klein, 1999).

A final category of predicament branching from globalization is that a few as States perhaps changing from monarch administration to other units, as well as the most influential state, transnational or worldwide firms and global institutions, identify the power of nationwide financial systems. The product is that a few recognize countrywide control as being destabilized by the tenets of globalization. Therefore, globalization might direct to an idea among nationwide leaders that they may be powerlessly in the grasp of international forces and an approach of estrangement among the voters. The outcome might be tremendous patriotism and racism, beside with demands for protectionism and the augmentation of radical political actions, eventually leading to possible inconsistencies (Vandana, 2005).

References

Brooks, S. (2011). Producing security: Multinational corporations, globalization, and the changing nature of conflict. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Freidman, T. (2005). Wake up and face the flat earth, Yale global. Web.

Klein, N. (1999). Rebels in search of rules, New York Times. Web.

Moises, N. (2009). Globalization. Foreign Policy, 1(171), 28-34.

Pankaj, G. (2007). Why the world isnt flat. Foreign Policy, 1(159), 54-69.

Vandana, S. (2005). The polarized world of globalization. Web.

Introduction

Globalization can be defined as a process of redesigning the earth in terms of integrating the economic, political and cultural systems at a global level. It may also be described as an intensification of the knowledge of how the world is through increased consciences. With globalization, integration of economies, cultures and societies have been achieved through diverse means such as communication, trade and transportation (Steger, 2010).

Various factors i.e. technological, political, biological, social, economic and cultural in consolidation make globalization a reality (Dierks, 2001).

Globalization deduces the present events globally in terms of economic, social, political and cultural developments (Reyes, 2001). Some of the trends that indicate globalization include vigorous communication systems, economic growth in terms of global financial reach, and trade at an international level.

Effects of Globalization

Globalization has led to many nations relying on international forms of trade, communication and finance. Today, the world has become more integrated in the way they carry out their transactions. Globalization has enabled the world become like a village in that reaching any part of it has become more cheap, easy, deep and fast through the amalgamation of technologies, markets and governments.

These trends have not been witnessed in the past and are things of the twentieth century up to date. It is with globalization that the social and cultural constraints across geographical boundaries have drawn back and all human activities have been coined to the globe as the focus.

Various theories exist such as the Marxist, realist and liberalist all of which attempt to explain the concept of globalization. Two of the above-mentioned theories are discussed below in order to bring out the meaning of the term explicitly.

Marxist Theory

This is a theory that was first formulated in 1848 by a socialist theorist Karl Marx. He expressed how territories have been integrated and his explanation was a great fascination to his colleagues. To him, capitalism is crucial as it enabled bourgeoisie flexibility in the sense that they settled, established connections and located all over the globe (Scheuerman, 2002).

Capitalists are ever in the race of gaining competitive advantage over each other by a means of accelerating gains while lowering costs. This possibility is made real by the expansion of markets through liberated flow of goods and services.

Marx incorporated the idea of historical materialism in which history is a chronological event whereby, economies of higher production eradicate those of low production through a natural process (Chatterjee, 2001). Marx heavily focused on capitalism, which is the system with high production whose detection was by use of an economic lens. According to this theory, capitalism has two classes, that is, the capitalists and the proletariat.

Capitalists are those who own production means and the proletariats are those who survive by offering labor for pay. Because of this division, capitalism is seen as contradicting in that understanding the two groups by determining the position and role of each of them play in the society led to class struggle theory (Rupert and Smith, 2002).

According to this theory, the two classes are not in terms whereby the proletariat takes up the role of production from the capitalists eventually leading to communism.

The Marxists see globalization as a realization of predictions by Karl Marx. Marxs predictions have become true because history goes through stages whereby the current advanced production processes replaces the old ones.

In his theory, Marx elaborates an advanced capitalist society in the sense that the bourgeois continuously improve their production with an aim of getting a cheaper, quicker and proficient means of raising their capital. In order to reach a wider market for their products, the bourgeois have to stretch all over the globe.

Capitalism has to be in a continuous change whereby the competition between the capitalists is expected to create products, advance the old ones and thus improve on the consumers intake (Callinicos, 2009).

Capitalism is an international concept in that, firms compete with both the foreign and the local ones and a chance for selecting which products to buy and who to buy from is available; this is very common in the industrialized world. With increased production advancement, no country in the third world can be left without a chance to advance its economy (Robinson, 2008).

With capitalism, there remains a choice for the countries to either join or be left out in the struggle for the advancement of their economy.

All are seen as consumers irrespective of their ethnicity though this does not imply that they have to transact with the international market but it has a bearing that these countries are capable of making payment of which they do. This conversion of their ability into money makes them consumers (Ervin & Smith, 2004).

Nationality and ethnical backgrounds are not to hinder transactions in what so ever. In capitalism, it doesnt matter whom or which country based on such differences such as religion, culture or language a transaction is carried out with, provided it is carried out well and the goods and services required are obtained (Callinicos, 2009). Classes with common interests merge and this leads to healthy competition in the markets.

According to Marx theory, all must pass through capitalism, which in itself is a dictatorship over the proletariat (Callinicos, 2009). Unlike the other theorists, Marx saw capitalism as a costly and destructive system but he more concentrated on the creativeness this destruction causes.

Capitalism is the final stage in the society which gave a basis for socialism in two major ways; firstly by introducing the technology that could be used to ensure maximum production and secondly, by creation of human beings responsible for supervising this technology.

Marx explains capitalism as a crucial stage that human beings must pass through it. This is because destruction deals with the abolishment of the old in order to attain the new systems of production (Steger, 2011).

In his theory, Marx states that todays globalization is a form of capitalist imperialism through which the globe continues to experience both economic and social crisis because of the continuous exploitation of the natural resources I order to maximize on the profits (Ervin & Smith, 2004). Globalized capitalism is not sustainable, as it cannot meet the environmental and human needs in sustainably.

Capitalism is anchored on gluttony and profit and therefore, there is need for another societal system that will cater for the environmental and economic factors ensuring sustainability and equity (Robinson, 2008). From a Marxist point of view, Global capitalism is because of dictation from the IMF and World Bank through integration of the financial structure.

Realist theory

Realist theory became entrenched and well understood after the Second World War; where most states embraced formal discipline (Booth, 2011). As the countries strived to pull resources together, it was vital to enhance unity and peace.

Unlike other globalization theories, realist theory endeavor to focus on addressing national security over ideology. This school of thought perceives globalization as power politics.

According to this perception, there is no single actor above the state and therefore the state should always focus mainly on issues that promote national understanding and cohesion. By extension, the two stimulates factors operating within the country and beyond.

The realist theory is founded on six main principles, which are that first human nature is self-seeking, and power inclined (Booth, 2011). Secondly, it is based on an autonomous sphere action, which is purely engraved on politics and its demands. The third principle is differing country interest that stems controversy and other misunderstandings (Booth, 2011).

Fourth principle is conflict that emanates from private morality and political ethics, escalation of the public morality stir misunderstanding and potential unrest. The fifth principle is the political realism that states that no single state has the jurisdiction to govern the entire world.

In addition, no single state has the discretion to transcend its geographical boundary and impose rule upon another. Finally, the six principle is the statecraft; the state of being sober where individuals acts within the stipulated limitations (Chatterjee, 2004).

According to (Chatterjee, 2004) realist theory is built on prevailing peace on the global arena. Despite the importance of peace, it is worth understanding that peace is not the panacea for all problems.

On the same note, globalization does facilitate mobility of factors of production and resources but does not generate solution to all problems. Besides helping in mobilizing generation of wealth, globalization has also been blamed for causing huge economic and social disparities among nations.

According to Niccolo Machiavelli as discussed by Chatterjee (2004), rulers should strive to rule with an iron rod. He further argued that since the world was anarchic in nature only ruthless leadership world bring the world together.

On their side classical realist suggested that the world operated in the state of lawlessness. However, the situation was somehow different with domestic politics where the rule of law as practiced. In larger perspective, political instability has really inhibited globalization due to constant wrangles and differences.

Erwin and Smith (2004) suggested that the problem of hard power is responsible for the recurrence of war and tension in the international arena. They further assert that hard power is used by countries to achieve national interests as well as projecting them to cover international world.

Conflicting interests held by each country cause most of these conflicts. At some times, lack of irreconcilable and differing interests has caused worst political nightmares. For instance, the conflict between the Ancient Greek and Athens was characterized by such disagreements, which could not be dealt with.

According to liberal realists, norms and interest have lead to development of peace and stability in many countries. Their perception reveals that despite emergence of major political unrest, the international society will persist. With this approach the international society that is founded on peace will always strives to focus on existence of such understanding (Booth, 2011).

Conclusion

In conclusion, globalization is a concept that brings integrates political, economic and cultural aspects in order to make more and more profits. In it, the globe has become accessible at a very easy, cheap, deep and efficient means.

This is seen through the intensification of transport and communication systems whereby information is passed across through in seconds without much stress. Trade and finance have been made international and all the activities of a country are carried at a global perspective.

References list

Booth, K. (Ed) (2011). Realism and World Politics. London: Taylor & Francis.

Callinicos, A. (2009). Imperialism and Global Political Economy. London: Polity.

Chatterjee, A. (2004). International Relations Today. New Delhi: Pearson education.

Dierks, R. G. (2001). Introduction to Globalization: Political and Economic Perspectives for the New Century. Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield.

Ervin, J. & Smith, Z. A. (2004). Globalization: A Reference Handbook. Linworth: ABC- CIO.

Reyes, G. E. (2001). Theory of Globalization: Fundamental Basis. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh.

Robinson, A. (2008). A Marxist- Leninist Theory of Globalization. Perihelion. Web.

Rupert, M. & Smith, H. (2002). Historical Materialism and Globalization. London: Routledge.

Scheuerman, W. (2010). Globalization. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (summer 2010 Edition). Edward N. Zalta (ed). Web.

Steger, M. (2010). Globalization; a Brief Insight. Illinois: Sterling Publishing Company.

Introduction

The book focuses on the globalization trends and the competing interests of nationalism and internationalism. The author of this book gives a chronological account of the globalization trend, from West Europe to East Europe, North America, India, and then China. The author presents his argument in historical approach other than from an economic perspective. The book talks about the role of Imperial leadership in England and France in promoting international trade.

To them, this was one way of spreading political powers to the untapped parts of the world such as India, China, parts of North America, and finally to Africa. The author notes that through companies such as The Age of Charted Trading Companies, King Charles II was able to spread his sphere of influence to India and China.

These companies and the leadership in England and France had mutual benefit in their agreements. The companies benefited economically while the two countries managed to spread their territorial borders in the international community. In this paper, the researcher will conduct a critical review of this book.

Importance of the Book

This book is very important in explaining the chronological events of globalization, from the ancient times to the current day where technology plays a very important role in international relations. Globalization is now a reality, thanks to the emerging technologies. This book may help in explaining some of the events that are currently witnessed in various parts of the world.

Russia recently annexed Crimea from Ukraine at a time the international society believed that this region was poised to have a relatively stable political environment. This is the same thing that happened a few centuries ago when world powers such as Great Britain and France scrambled for Africa and Asia to spread their sphere of influence.

Reading this book, one is able to understand why Russia considers such a small region so important that it risks its political and economic relationships with the international community. Currently, China has a very dangerous territorial dispute with Japan, Philippines, Taiwan, and many other nations around this region over the South China Sea (Stone, 2015). Interestingly, the United States has been drawn into this conflict as it supports regional allies against what they consider as an aggression from China.

This is one of the aspects of paradox that the author of this book is talking about. This book explains the greed that individual countries had when they were struggling to control the world. History now seems to repeat itself if the events in East Europe and South East Asia are anything to go by. The interest then and now is still the same, the need to gain political millage.

According to Rodrik (2007), some scholars argue that dictatorship is the greatest threat to globalization. These scholars believe that countries which had authoritarian rulers such as Russia, Libya, Iran, Iraq, and North Korea posed a big threat to globalization. However, some of these countries such as Russia, Libya, and Iraq have now embraced democracy. However, this has not changed the relationship they had with the West.

A country such as Russia has embraced democracy. However, the relationship with the West is still as bad as it was during the Cold War. In fact, President Vladimir Putin is making some decisions that are detrimental to the globalization spirit to gain political mileage, such as annexing Crimea from Ukraine (Ravenhill, 2015).

Since the annexation, President Putin has become very popular in Russia. In this case, Democracy is becoming a tool that rulers use to harm the weaker nations. This book explores similar issues that took place during the era of King Charles II. Understanding the events presented in this book, explaining the current events in East Europe, and South East Asia becomes simple. That is why the researcher considered it very critical and informative for this course.

Summary of the Book

This book has twelve chapters, with each focusing on various aspects of globalization and how democracy and economic factors affect it. Chapter 1 of this book focuses on the history of globalization, from as early as 17^th C. According to the author, it all started when King Charles II gave English and Dutch companies complete monopolistic rights to trade in foreign countries. Rodrik (2011) says, English East India Companys monopoly covered trade with Indian subcontinent and China (p. 8).

They expanded to parts of India and parts of China. Their government gave them the mandate to rule over these countries as a way of enabling them to trade properly. They relied on the raw materials and forced labor in these foreign markets. This was the first step towards globalization. The royal rulers in Europe had the unilateral rights to determine the sphere of influence for each company. These governments licensed these companies and kept monitoring their operations overseas.

When necessary, the colonial rulers had to send military personnel to support these companies in the foreign lands. The author notes that these companies followed the policies of their parent countries to guide their operations. Rodrik (2011) says, On November 17, 1671, the regulators at Garraways coffee house, a popular handout for London ship owners& were greeted with an unusual announcement (p. 3).

These announcements about changes in policy issues were common at this time and the companies had to follow them at all times. Some of the policies were a reflection of bilateral or multilateral agreements among the major powers on how to govern the newly found territories.

Chapter 2 focuses on the emergence and decline of what the author refers to as first generation globalization in the 19^th century. During this period, capital became more liquidated, labor more mobile, and the costs of transaction decreased.

The ease of conducting trade internationally ushered a new era of globalization. According to the author, three major factors contributed to the emergence of this era. Technological advancements that aided transport, reduction of international trade barriers, and the gold standard all played a major role in introducing this new era.

Chapter 3 focuses on the issue of free trade between countries. The author argues that some nations have focused on narrowed interests and embraced obscurantism as they seek selfish interests. Issues such as political failure and protectionism have been seen to hinder free trade among nations. Whereas technological inventions in the fields of transport and communication have made international trade simpler, lack of political goodwill is still affecting globalization negatively.

Chapter 4 looks at how the global politics affect global trade. Bodies such as GATT and WTO were meant to promote global trade and help advance economic growth of the developing countries. However, major world powers such as the United States are now using these global economic bodies as political tools to achieve personal interests. WTO has largely promoted the interest of the West at the expense of the developing nations.

Chapter 9 focuses on political trilemma where countries all over the world struggle to balance democracy, economic globalization, and national interests.

The author notes that these three forces are sometimes in contradiction. It is not easy to achieve global interests in an area where nationalism is very strong. In the final chapter, the author emphasizes on the need for sanity as we try to embrace globalization. He notes that cases where economic crisis in countries such as the United States affects the global society should be reduced.

Systematic, Analytical, and Critical Discussion of Selected Points

This book is unique in the way it presents the information about globalization paradox. The topic of the book gives the impression that it is suitable for political science students who may be interested in understanding the dynamics of globalization. However, the synopsis given at the back of the book changes this perception, and it brings in the idea that the book is meant for business and economics students. As one starts to read the book, then everything is changed.

The manner in which the author presents the information is entirely unique. Rodrik (2011) says, I hear the people inland love dried fish (p. 282). From both political and economic perspectives, this is not how an author should present an academic work. Bringing in personal thoughts and beliefs without the support of scientific research is appropriate only when writing fiction. What is unique in this case is that this is a social science research work that is meant to inform the policy makers and academicians.

Rodrik (2011) says, The council of elders thought it was fair and they asked the fishermen to increase their monthly contributions (p. 282). The quality of this content may be good in describing the historical past, but presentation as a work of research is poor (Stone, 2015). This statement describes an event that took place, but the manner in which it is told makes it appear to be a fiction work. These are major areas of weaknesses that this author failed to address.

In a democratic world, people will always champion for issues that have direct impacts on the quality of their lives. In such circumstances, a country may find itself in a challenging situation that Rodrik (2011) calls trilemma. Countries are struggling to balance democracy, economic globalization, and national interests (Weinstein, 2010). It is at such points that democracy is seen to go against the interest of globalization.

The book also focuses on the overreliance of the emerging economies on the developed economies. In 2008/2009 economic recession, countries all over the world suffered because of the economic turmoil in the United States. The author insists that as we move to a global society, individual nations should reduce their reliance on the developed economies. Generally, the content of the book is great, but the manner of presentation makes it to appear more of fiction that a work of research.

Conclusion

A critical analysis of this book from political and economic perspectives shows that the author did a great job in analyzing the emerging trends in democracy, globalization, and the conflict of interests that comes with them. His advice to the global society is simple. Whenever a global interest is in conflict with national interest, then it may be better to let the national interest to prevail.

References

Ravenhill, J. (2015). Global political economy. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons Publishers.

Rodrik, D. (2007). One economics, many recipes: Globalization, institutions, and economic growth. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Rodrik, D. (2011). The globalization paradox: Democracy and the future of the world economy. New York: W. W. Norton & Co.

Stone, D. A. (2015). Policy paradox: The art of political decision making. New York: W.W. Norton & Co.

Weinstein, M. M. (2010). Globalization: Whats new? New York: Columbia Univ. Press.