Peter Singer has written an essay, which has influenced a number of ethicists, psychology scholars, and philosophers. In his work, Singer (1972) discusses the relationship between morality, wealth, and humanitarian aid, all of which he ties together to present a simple, yet effective argument. The main point of the essay is to demonstrate how the inaction of those with power and money in the face of human suffering is purely immoral.
Even if a rich person is in New York City and the one who needs resources or financial aid to survive lives in Africa, it does not reduce the wealthy man’s moral obligation to help. One of the author’s primary arguments is “if it is in our power to prevent something bad from happening, without thereby sacrificing anything of comparable moral importance, we ought, morally, to do it” (Singer 1972, 231). Extremely rich individuals have an enormous surplus of wealth that can be distributed to help others and save countless lives without taking much away from their own comfort or existing lifestyle. Thus, the main thesis of Singer’s essay is that society should not accept or try to justify affluent people’s disregard for human suffering, which inevitably leads to a lack of efforts to reduce it.
There are various counterarguments that may stand in opposition to Singer’s points made in the essay. However, the most compelling and realistic counterargument is that the money the rich will distribute to poor parts of the world and even bad neighborhoods in developed countries will not necessarily save lives or even help. If one chooses to examine morality under the prism of consequentialism, then the only ethically correct thing the wealthy can do is ensure that their actions lead to the most positive outcome. In the majority of cases of donations, the money gets stolen, misplaced, or wasted due to corruption, mismanagement, or a lack of infrastructure in a certain part of the world. Poverty is a result of issues that span generations and cannot be resolved by throwing money at them. Therefore, it can be argued that Singer’s argument is essentially an oversimplification of possible solutions to global issues.
Drawing upon the cases we’ve looked at in class, provide a discussion of the critical tools helpful in understanding religion cross-culturally
Nowadays, people understand that cultural diversity plays a significant role in the modern globalized world. At present, people do not try to stick to their national (cultural, religious) group but ready to share experiences with other nations and groups. Such an approach helps the entire humanity develop and improve living standards. However, sometimes it can be difficult to understand traditions (and especially religion) of other nations, which may (and does) result in various conflicts.
Thus, it is essential to have effective critical tools to consider religion in cross-cultural perspectives. According to King and Beattie, the best critical tool while thinking about other religions is empathy (22). People should, first of all, know the basic principles of the religion they are considering. Secondly, while thinking about it, they cannot conclude “projecting from one’s values,” but should take their time to “reflect on the practice” (King & Beattie 22).
When thinking about some other religion, a person needs to concentrate on the values promulgated and should avoid judging. People should try to understand that different cultures were developing in different socio-cultural environments, which influenced their beliefs. For example, two religions have two different approaches to sexuality: Christianity and Japanese Shinto. Japanese Shinto claims that the entire world was created during the sexual act, whereas Christianity insists on the innocent birth of Jesus, praising Virgin Mary, and condemning Eve, who is regarded as a temptress.
However, it is possible to understand these religions one, only should focus on the idea of life and birth. So, there is no need to condemn the Japanese and say that they are all sinners only because they explicitly reveal the idea of sexuality since Japanese Shinto, just like any other religion, strives for kindness and harmony in the world. Thus, can be, also helpful to look for similarities in religions and trying to understand what could cause differences.
For instance, rituals are one of the most disputable issues, and people often condemn or loathe some rituals. One such ambiguous rituals are African spirit-possession, which is hardly understandable for people who do not pertain to the religion where it is practiced. Of course, it is difficult to understand what you have never felt or never really seen. However, it is possible to compare this ritual by praying in Christianity since both of them bring joy, revelation, and relief. So, using these tools can be beneficial for understanding other religions.
Provide a discussion of some of the limitations that Western conceptions of art might have for our understanding of artistic productions (such as music, visual arts, etc.) cross-culturally
Admittedly, people about Western cultures have always thought that they are superior to other cultures due to the sophistication of Western culture. This perception is manifested by Western discourses, which are self-oriented, so-to-speak. Western conceptions of art have developed certain standards that have been strictly defended throughout centuries. Artists were moving in the same direction, which excluded the possibility to understand and assess other examples of the art of other nations. It can be explained historically by the Western expansionist policy. Thus, warriors and politicians tried to penetrate new worlds and make them accept their rules.
At the same time, Western people tried to justify that their culture is also superior. Perhaps, such successful expansion was one of the factors which prevented Western people from evaluating other nations’ works of art and created several limitations for our understanding of artistic productions. However, nowadays, people understand the significance of cultural diversity and try to regard art from cross-cultural perspectives. Of course, there are certain limitations that Western conceptions create. The post-colonial society worked out beliefs that Western cultures are sophisticated, and other cultures are primitive.
For instance, even now, many people judge artifacts of African, Asian cultures from this perspective. One of the most famous artists of Western art, Picasso, “valued non-western artifacts as a primitive source for the regeneration of European forms” (Hatt and Klonk 19). This viewpoint is still shared by many people. Western people judge visual arts basing on the previous examples of Western art. Listening to Asian and African western people may find it exotic and fascinating, but, still there can remain an idea of primitivism. Apart from this, it is important to note that Western art was too a great extent, influenced by religion, which promulgated certain values.
Thus, even nowadays many images or ideas revealed in the pieces of art of different cultures may seem not only primitive, but even lecherous, sinful, and incomprehensively vulgar. Western people judge the pieces of art basing on their values and fail to concentrate on the beauty of non-Western art. Of course, it is important to get rid of such erroneous perception and come to an understanding that every nation and culture has its peculiar art, which is sophisticated in its specific manner. Cross-cultural perception should focus on the ideas expressed by the works of art and the sophistication of techniques used to create this or that piece.
Drawing upon several examples that we’ve to look at in class, provide a discussion of how the concept of discourse is central to an anthropological approach to health and disease
According to Mills, the discourse may have many meanings, but the most general, which can be used for many stances is as follows: “all utterances or texts which have meaning and which have some effects in the real world” (6). In other words, discourse is the whole scope of ideas on a particular subject. To my mind, the concept of discourse is important for many areas of contemporary life, especially when it deals with health and disease.
The discourse, or sharing ideas and experience helps to find the truth and effective solutions, which in case of health are vital. Thus, in medicine there appear numerous ideas on how to treat diseases, and, unfortunately, emerge new illnesses. Of course, every utterance provokes reactions. For example, doctors find out that gay men have certain symptoms, and the disease was called Gay-Related Immune Deficiency Syndrome. Nevertheless, these findings evoked a discourse, and in some time people already knew that not only gay men were vulnerable to it, but many other cases led to the change of the name of the disease to AIDS.
Of course, the discussion did not make scientist just change the name, but they could find an effective treatment which now saves many lives (men, women, children). Thus, it is obvious that the concept of discourse is particularly important for the anthropological approach to health and disease. Another example can illustrate this statement. It was believed that black people are characterized by hypertension.
Of course, there was a specific discourse. It was believed that this peculiarity is determined by the past of the nations (slavery) and genes certain modification. However, recent research proves that the problem has a much larger context. The anthropological approach enabled scientists to see that the reason for hypertension among black people is not only genes but a way of life and other conditions. Understanding the reasons for diseases will enable people to find a cure.
Admittedly, this understanding can be found only in terms of discourse. Every person has his/her specific point of view, which can be erroneous (like in the initial assumption that AIDS is a disease of gay men), and only during the discussion can people find the truth. Moreover, the anthropological approach to health and medicine presupposes that cultural, ethnic, etc. peculiarities of people are taken into account. So, only the concept of discourse helps people to see all the possible details, which will become an effective solution. I believe it is important to start and take part in various discourses (of course, if one has something to say) so that the entire humanity can benefit.
Drawing on our class discussions, assess the usefulness of anthropology for solving global social problems
Anthropology, being a science about humanity, can be one of the most useful tools in solving global social problems. First of all, this science can define the exact problems. Admittedly, if you know what a problem is, it is much easier to find the right solution. On the other hand, anthropology can help to define the reasons for the problem. This science studies peculiarities of people, their behavior, and physical traits, so it is obvious that any social problem can be explained with the help of this discipline.
Of course, after having found the reason for a problem it can be possible to find the necessary solution. Furthermore, Anthropologists have accumulated many examples from the history of humanity, which can be useful for solving various problems. Sometimes it is enough to have a deeper insight. Many of the problems which appear on the global scale emerged in some particular places wherein the majority of cases (or at least in some cases) solutions were found.
It is possible to use the experience of a particular group of people to try to solve the problem of millions. Finally, it is possible to look for solutions to global social problems within anthropology. Social problems appear due to the peculiarities of people’s behavior or physical, mental traits, and anthropologists know how people act in this or those situations and what can cause this or that effect on them. So, after having found the solution anthropology can provide people with specific ways how to implement those solutions. For example, there is still certain tension between various nations.
Nevertheless, there are many examples that people of different cultures can live in the same country, in the same district. Many countries are characterized by cultural diversity, and, at the same time, there is no tension. So, it is possible to analyze what can lead to such results, find the necessary solution, and try to implement it on a global scale. Anthropologists can try to define what conditions should be created, what human traits are used to succeed.
It is possible to consider any social problem and solve it with the help of anthropology. Another example of a burning problem is believed gender issue. Irrespective of numerous changes in society millions of women are still suppressed in different countries. It is possible to look for the answer in anthropological study. It is necessary to research the most successful examples of women’s emancipation and again use them worldwide. Fortunately, anthropology can provide many solutions taking into account peculiarities of this pr that nation, ethnicity, or culture. Thus, anthropology can be regarded as one of the keys to solving global social problems.
Works Cited
King, Ursula and Tina Beattie. Gender, Religion and Diversity: Cross-Cultural Perspectives. New York: Continuum International Publishing Group, 2005.
Hatt, Michael and Charlotte Klonk. Art History: A Critical Introduction to its Methods. New York: Manchester University Press, 2006.
Mills, Sara. Discourse. New York: Routledge, 2004.
The evolvement of new emerging military-focused countries, including China, North Korea, Russia, on the international relations stage unfolded discussions about what kind of world order will be installed in the future. Researchers and policymakers stated that after the Cold War, the United States took leadership and created a unipolar world with a single superpower. This paper will discuss courses of action that the U.S. can choose to maintain its global military and economic power status, advantages, disadvantages, and costs.
Considering the first course of action that the United States can undertake, namely retracting its powers from the forefront of the military scene, several essential issues should be discussed. From my point of view, the state cannot back off from world military supremacy entirely. However, it is suggested that hybrid warfare that other countries, for instance, Russia, started utilizing, requires the U.S. to change its strategy and develop a modern military defense (Chivvis, 2017). Therefore, the U.S. can retract from specific local conflicts, such as protests in Eastern Europe, that do not influence the state’s dominance.
The strategy of withdrawing military dominance from the world military scene has both benefits and drawbacks. The benefits include avoiding supporting other countries or sending troops to fight against other states that involve capital and human investments necessary for operations (The U.S. Department of Defense, 2018). While drawbacks are the possibility of losing power that other states can use to influence the United States and the lack of protection from emerging military organizations and countries, such as China and Iran, that create new bases and weapons (The U.S. Department of Defense, 2018). The retraction course of action involves changes in costs, including the increase of financial costs to switch to other forms of warfare, a decrease of human capital, and possible political expenses.
Talking about the second course of action when the U.S. continues to do whatever is necessary to maintain its military superpower status, several considerations can be mentioned. I believe that the U.S. should not do anything to achieve the military superpower; instead, I think that it is crucial to restrain other countries and organizations, so they cannot achieve the same level of power. Some researchers state that despite significant military landscape changes, the U.S. will hold supreme power (McNeil, 2019).
The strategy to continue putting all efforts to support the military superpower has unique advantages, disadvantages, and substantial costs. The main advantage is preserving the U.S. army superpower that brings assurance that American resources and people will be protected, and political opinion will be valued. Analysts point out that the drawbacks of maintaining superpower status include the necessity to focus more on international relations (Congressional Research Service, 2020). The costs of pursuing the supremacy strategy are also high (Payne, 2016). The state must put its national sovereignty in the first place that requires invasive operations costs, human and resource capital, and moral considerations (Congressional Research Service, 2020).
Overall, it can be stated that it is preferable to retract military power and be more analytical regarding operations that should be conducted. The theory of global politics and ideology that can be close to my perspective is realism that highlights that international systems are characterized by conflict, and foreign affairs are dominated by military rivalries (D’Anieri, 2019). Therefore, I would not state that the U.S. should completely back off from the military forefront because countries can present a threat, but to develop new ways of conducting warfare to ensure that the U.S. holds power and balances its resources.
D’Anieri, Paul. “Magical Realism: Assumptions, Evidence and Prescriptions in the Ukraine Conflict.” Eurasian Geography and Economics, 60(1), 2019, 97-117, Web.
The Doha Round was a developmental agenda that was launched in Doha, Qatar, in 2001. The declaration provided a platform for negotiations on important subjects such as services and agriculture, particularly those that affected developing countries. Therefore, its launch provided developing countries with an opportunity to inject developmental elements into the multilateral systems of trading.
The agreement emphasized its intended outcome of meeting most of the growing needs of emergent countries with priority given to rural advancement and food security. These outcomes were to be achieved over certain predetermined timeframes. Nevertheless, they were all missed. Since its inception in Doha, the negotiations have faced the challenge of enormous differences among its stakeholders.
The US, the EU, and developing countries have had to face each other on issues that revolve around tariffs, agriculture, trade creation, and industrial duties. The paper reveals The Doha Round’s failure to facilitate progress among developed and emerging nations through the injection of multilateral trading systems. The paper confirms that it has not been effective in its goal of solving global issues since it has been marred by persistent positional differences among the US, the EU, and developing nations.
Launching the Doha Round
On 9 November 2001, ministers of trade from member countries of the WTO met in Doha, Qatar for their fourth WTO Ministerial Conference. During the meeting, the attendees agreed on undertaking a new round of negotiations regarding multilateral trading systems. Before the Doha Conference, negotiations were already taking place on the subject of trade and agriculture. In addition, some member countries such as the US wanted to expand their services and agriculture talks to promote tradeoffs in the quest of achieving trade liberalization.
Another speculated reason for the push for negotiation was to revive the global economy that had been struck by recession and cases of terrorism. One argument held by supporters of trade liberalization policies such as exemption of tariffs is that they would bring with them the benefit of opening up the markets, thus making it easier for member countries to trade. However, such regional agreements were inconsistent with the WTO’s non-discriminatory principles. This situation could deny benefits to the majority of the poor countries who were often not participating in such arrangements.
The Doha Ministerial Conference set the pace for other negotiations that would be conducted in the facilitation of the agenda. Except for the Dispute Settlement Understanding actions, the attendees of the conference agreed that the outcome of all negotiations was to be done as a single undertaking. This move implied that all members had to agree on a single collective agreement through a balance of concessions. Table 1 below shows the expected outcomes if the Doha Round was to be successful in its implementation of the raised agenda items as McKibbin and Stoeckel demonstrate.1
The Main Agendas
Agriculture was a very contentious issue during the Doha Round. Addressing the issue led to the delay of the Uruguay Ministerial Conference that was held between 1980 and 1990. The contention followed the material interest of some of the members who wanted it to be sidelined in the trade negotiations. They argued that the agenda had already been featured under other preferential trade agreements and on the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT).
However, members from the developing states saw this stance as a major disservice due to the heavy reliance of their economies on communal agriculture. Among the priorities for these developing countries was to further push for their accessibility of the rich markets of developed countries through the negotiations. However, the general assertion was that developing countries failed to get a favorable deal because they were required to make costly but counterproductive commitments, which included the Sanitary and Phytosanitary Agreement and the TRIPS Agreement. Using the concept of strategic trade theory, Anderson and Martin assert that the two declarations were aimed at only expanding the markets of the developed markets, rather than improving the economies of scale of developing countries.2
Secondly, the trade services agenda was to be implemented through the General Agreement on Trade in Services through which these services would be supplied. This clause greatly affected service providers who had initially considered themselves monopolies such as the energy and telecommunications sectors since the creation for the possibility of trade of services across borders and increase in privatization began to take shape.
According to Zedillo Ponce de León, Messerli, and Nielson, this growth was underpinned by the liberalization of direct foreign investment that was already spreading on a global scale.3 However, a backdrop was evident regarding a contrast of service negotiation with agriculture, which was also part of the GATTS. For instance, negotiations for agriculture were viewed as crucial for driving reform while services only played a complementary role. This situation posed a challenge on markets that were being opened on a unilateral basis through independent intergovernmental bargaining.4
Non-Agricultural Market Access (NAMA)
The big push under NAMA involves the reduction in tariffs and other specified charges on both imports and exports with particular regards to the agreed objectives and varying needs of individual states. The mandate of this agenda was to provide flexibilities concerning the developmental, strategic, and fiscal needs of the parties bound under a contract and specifically to consider the special needs of the developing countries. Notably, before the Uruguay Ministerial Conference, the reduction in tariffs only applied to industrialized nations. Therefore, according to Kallummal, the developing countries stood to gain a lot from the implementation of this agenda.5
However, there have been concerns that several industrialized countries have devised ways of overcoming the rules set under NAMA. Through alternative trade policies, these developed countries have managed to protect themselves against tariff policy agreements, therefore providing insight for a great need to look beyond the use of tariffs as the only instrument of regulating trade policies.6
Issues on Development
Three major developmental issues have been contentious in the Doha Round: access to patented medicines, special and differential treatment of developing nations, and problems faced by developing countries in implementing the current obligatory trade commitments.
Accessibility to Patented Medicines
TRIPS Agreement
The TRIPS Treaty was the major topic that involved a balance of special interests by dominant export-oriented multinational pharmaceutical companies in developed countries that owned patents on public health needs and medicinal products. The TRIPS Agreement declaration considered member states from developing countries that lacked sufficient capabilities to manufacture cheaper medicinal products.
This situation caused the problem of accessibility. One of the outcomes of this agreement was to allow developed countries to issue compulsory licenses for the importation of these medicines. Nevertheless, despite the achievement of TRIPS in regards to public health in developing nations, the Doha Round failed to solve the global outstanding issue of protecting intellectual property over public health. According to Hoen, the failure to resolve this issue was a portrayal that the premature optimism of the TRIPS agreement.7
Special and Differential Treatment
The Doha Ministerial Declaration reaffirmed the clause on Special and Differential Treatment for the developing countries. It was agreed that there should be a review of the provisions of special and differential treatment to make them stronger, more effective, precise, and operational. One of the key issues that were included in the agenda was bilateral trade between a developing country and a developed country. According to McKibbin and Stoeckel, the US and Japan had their share of losses from the failed Doha Round as revealed in their GDP as shown in the graph below.8
It was argued that the bilateral trade between two such countries would render the developing country non-compliant with the trade policy due to their inability to show commitment. This problem was compounded by investors in the import sector lobbying for protection from their government against competitors. According to Conconi and Perroni, the problem was fuelled by the delayed the Doha Round’s implementation of commitment by the developing countries to liberalized trade policies in line with WTO provisions.9
A concern was raised over the Doha Round’s difficulty in implementing the agreements that had been reached during the ministerial conference in Uruguay Round. This issue was linked to the lack of technical assistance and limited capacity. Another affirmation was that the expected benefits from the conference such as increased access to developed markets were not adequately realized. Nevertheless, according to Fergusson, these issues remain outstanding, particularly in sensitive areas such as investment measures, accessibility to markets, subsidies, and safeguards, among others.10
A review of the WTO dispute settlement was called for following the need for a fresh review within four years due to claims of lack of effectiveness. Nevertheless, the deadline was passed with no review being made. The core reason for the big push for review emanated from the increased lack of confidence due to indifferences by contracting countries in terms of considering the Panel’s findings. This matter led to a deadlock in solving most of the high trading disputes. Good cases in point include the trade disputes that existed between the US and the EU that remained unresolved. The disputes escalated as an illustration of the failure of the existing WTO dispute settlement.
Conclusion
The Doha Round was aimed at solving issues that were pertinent to development such as agriculture, tariffs, trade creation, trade diversion, and better terms of service in special regards to developing nations. Positive results have been derived from the implementation of various agendas raised by trade ministers of member countries with great focus directed to developing nations that have been sidelined in terms of global trade benefits. However, special interests among various groups have continuously hindered the effective implementation of policy agreements to the extent of resulting in a failed attempt in solving important global issues such as food security, public health, and economic development of the least developed countries.
Bibliography
Anderson, Kym, and Will Martin. Agricultural Trade Reform and the Doha Development Agenda. Washington, DC: Palgrave Macmillan/World Bank, 2006.
Conconi, Paola, and Carlo Perroni. “Special and Differential Treatment Of Developing Countries In The WTO”. World Trade Review 14, no. 1 (2015): 67-86.
Fergusson, Ian. “World Trade Organization Negotiations: The Doha Development Agenda”. Congressional Research Service Report 1, no. 1 (2011): 1-24.
Hoen, Ellen. “TRIPS , Pharmaceutical Patents And Access To Essential Medicines: Seattle, Doha And Beyond”. Economics of AIDS and access to HIV/AIDS care 11, no. 8 (2003): 11-68.
Kallummal, Murali. “NAMA Negotiations under the WTO: Real Concerns?” Social Scientist 2, no. 3, (2006): 34-47.
McKibbin, Warwick, and Andrew Stoeckel. “What’s at Stake from the Success or Failure of the Doha Round.” The Economic Scenarios. Web.
Zedillo Ponce de León, Ernesto, Patrick Messerlin, and Julia Nielson. Trade for Development. London: Earthscan, 2005.
Footnotes
Warwick McKibbin, and Andrew Stoeckel, “What’s at Stake from the Success or Failure of the Doha Round,” The Economic Scenarios. Web.
Kym Anderson, and Will Martin, Agricultural Trade Reform and The Doha Development Agenda (Washington, DC: Palgrave Macmillan/World Bank, 2006), 3.
Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de León, Patrick Messerlin, and Julia Nielson, Trade for Development (London: Earthscan, 2005), 83.
Ibid, 84.
Murali Kallummal, “NAMA Negotiations under the WTO: Real Concerns?” Social Scientist 2, no. 3, (2006): 34.
Kallummal, “NAMA Negotiations…”, 34.
Ellen Hoen, “TRIPS , Pharmaceutical Patents And Access To Essential Medicines: Seattle, Doha And Beyond”, Economics of AIDS and access to HIV/AIDS care 11, no. 8 (2003): 34.
McKibbin and Stoeckel, “What’s at Stake…”, 4.
Paola Conconi, and Carlo Perroni, “Special and Differential Treatment Of Developing Countries In The WTO”, World Trade Review 14, no. 1 (2015): 67.
Ian Fergusson, “World Trade Organization Negotiations: The Doha Development Agenda”, Congressional Research Service Report 1, no. 1 (2011): 19.
This study by Maher et al. focuses on the benefits of an integrative approach between different stakeholders to create sustainable designs. It uses researchers, practitioners, and design thinking from different backgrounds to undertake multiple cycles framing problems, solution development, testing, and reflection. This research aims to use MetaMAP created using multidisciplinary teams in understanding social-ecological systems and create well-integrated solutions. The authors of this study collected the data by involving over 150 people from diverse backgrounds to undertake multiple cycles of framing a problem, developing solutions, testing, and then reflecting. This article is important for this study because it emphasizes how a multidisciplinary approach creates more diverse and sustainable solutions. When people from different fields are exposed to a problem or complex situation, they understand it from diverse perspectives, which helps generate new responses that are more sustainable (Shapira, Ketchie, & Nehe, 2017). There is a pressing need to integrate design approaches with the sustainability of science and other research tools that will help designers and other professionals to develop sustainable responses. When sustainability science is integrated with design to transform the socio-ecological systems, they hold much value in achieving sustainable goals (Tantiyaswasdikul, 2020). Some of the challenges that may be experienced when working with multidisciplinary teams include; research elements that cannot be predetermined and a shortage of studies on design approaches for sustainability research. However, to make a multidisciplinary approach in sustainable designs, these challenges can be overcome by collaboration between experts in creative design methods, diversifying opportunities for publishing creative explorations and sharing results and progress of Sustainable Development Goals. The main limitation of this study is that it only tested one design; therefore, the lack of comparative analysis with other previously used methods makes its data not generalizable. This article will be useful in my research because it shows how multidisciplinary teams effectively address sustainable development goals by developing a new graphic tool that will improve the predictability of collaborative efforts.
Winchip, S. M. (2011). Sustainable Design for Interior Environments. London: Bloomsbury Publishing.
This book by Winchip discusses structured collaborative processes by integrating the community and environment in designing projects as one of the unique features of achieving sustainability. The author aims to demonstrate how to use programming activities in creating, managing, and successfully completing a project with multidisciplinary teams (Winchip, 2011). This study has used secondary data gained from journals, peer reviews, and articles to develop the report. This book is relevant to this study because it highlights the main essence of sustainable development: to involve different stakeholders and comprehensive programming that enables the creation and design of sustainable buildings. The integration of technology into the design will enable the world to achieve sustainability goals faster. This is because technology has been at the forefront of stimulating global development. In a multidisciplinary team, it is important to promptly get feedback from different stakeholders and the people impacted by the building processes in a design building to ensure that sustainable designs are created within the framed period. This can be achieved using programming by coming up with programs that each stakeholder can contribute, and the data is quickly processed by the program to develop sustainable designs. To ensure that there has been good programming, the programing plan should include the information to be collected from the stakeholders, how the data will be collected, and a clear timeline (Rashdan & Ashour, 2017). This information helps determine the budget, required resources, feasibility of the project, and schematic designs to develop sustainable designs. Therefore, this shows the importance of integrating technology with other multidisciplinary teams to achieve quick and sustainable designs that can help in solving the urgent global issue. This book’s main limitation is that it has used secondary data sources, which may be subject to bias; thus, the author states a need for an actual study to be conducted to validate the information provided. It can be concluded that a multidisciplinary approach integrated with technology can save time by providing timely results on and sustainable designs (Yan et al., 2021). This study will be used to provide a theoretical analysis of the impact of multidisciplinary responses in achieving sustainable designs.
Kammen, D. M. (2017). Sustainable Design of Communities Dramatically Reduces Waste. Web.
In the magazine article, Kammen has emphasized the importance of multidisciplinary relations to develop better infrastructure. The author aimed to join blocks of building into a single sustainable unit and explore its impact on sustainable designs. The study has used Oakland EcoBlock Project, which involves multidisciplinary teams, including engineers, urban designers, policy experts, social scientists, the federal government, private industries, and academia. The research wants to determine the effectiveness of multidisciplinary teams in making sustainable designs. The project uses multidisciplinary teams, which help design a neighborhood that can save over 70% of the currently used energy (Kammen, 2017). This shows that multidisciplinary teams can also enhance the efficiency of building designs to save on resources. Since one of the goals of sustainable designs is to save resources, this project proves that multidisciplinary teams can help save resources, allowing quick expansion of sustainable buildings because the resources saved can be used elsewhere. Multidisciplinary interaction enables sharing of resources; it is also cost-effective and even provides an opportunity to share the latest technology with people who otherwise would lack such opportunities (Akadiri, Chinyio, & Olomolaiye, 2012). Some of the ways multidisciplinary teams help save resources are using shared solar grids, having shared electric car charging places, and so on. The main limitation of this article is that it has only relied on one project, and therefore its results are not generalizable. However, it has shown that multidisciplinary teams help pool funds and resources and use them more efficiently to provide better results in planning and designs. This article will provide a practical example of how multidisciplinary teams have been involved in a project and how effective and sustainable the project has been.
This study by Gerber et al. shows how multidisciplinary design and integrations with simulations can improve the overall performance of buildings. The research provides a new simulation method that can be used for trade-off analysis and rapid iteration by integrating a prototype tool that combines multi-objective optimization and parametric modeling on energy use intensity. The study uses a simulation method by carrying out experiments on qualitative and quantitative data collected through analyzing speed, the quantity of designs produced, and the designs’ sustainability. Although the study is more focused on simulation integration, it provides clear information on the importance of integrating technology and multidisciplinary teams in design planning. It has proposed an application based on Genetic Algorithms, which emphasizes optimizing multiple performance criteria (Gerber & Lin, 2013). The application helps in solving challenges and creating sustainable solutions. According to the study results, Genetic Algorithms effectively brought economic optimization by minimizing energy consumption, which shows that the integration of multidisciplinary teams with technology helps solve the urgent sustainability challenge (Neuman, Perrone, & Mossa, 2021). This shows that multidisciplinary teams integrated with technology lead to better decision-making and predictions that help sustainable design infrastructure. The main limitation of this study is that it has relied heavily on the simulation rather than finding the direct impact of multidisciplinary response; hence will not be used in the main study.
Winchip, S. M. (2011). Sustainable Design for Interior Environments. London: Bloomsbury Publishing.
Yan, J., Broesicke, O. A., Tong, X., Wang, D., Li, D., & Crittenden, J. C. (2021). Multidisciplinary design optimization of distributed energy generation systems: The trade-offs between life cycle environmental and economic impacts. Applied Energy, 284, 116197. Web.
World Wildlife Fund (WWF), along with students and researchers, has always supported the establishment of integrated bio-refineries since it has proved to be a very promising concept for all. There are also a number of NGOs that worry about the biodiversity and are ecologically driven, the biggest being World Wildlife Fund (WWF), who constantly help these bio-refineries so that it can upgrade their processes thus, protecting the environment. NGO’s and private communities provide most of the funds, along with the government, for the development of these integrated bio-refineries. Bio-refineries are technically sophisticated and thus, economically viable even for its shareholders and insurers. It has an increased production efficiency making them appealing to both new and old customers. The products come with an improved quality and are more efficient.
For the government bio-refineries make perfect economic sense since the fuels, heat, electricity and chemicals, like ethanol, produced by them can be utilized for energy, transportation, and household purposes and also by the chemical and agricultural industries. The federal and state policies regarding the implementation of more and more integrated bio-refineries are changing very fast, everyday, since it offer us with an interesting market. Government funds are extremely helpful for the establishment of these integrated bio-refineries since most industry adopters fear the risk they will have to face, if they invest into bio-refineries, due to rapid technological developments. Already the government has invested billions of dollars into bio-refineries since they require the constant support of the government for their continual development. Although bio-refineries have certain economic sustainability issues they are helping the government to strengthen the regional economy. The NGOs and the government have understood that in order to satisfy the growing demand for various agricultural products it is utterly necessary that biomass and bio-feedstock be used as efficiently as possible. And this can only be done through an integrated system of bio-refineries.
The employees, suppliers, consumers or customers and local communities of integrated bio-refineries also form their important stakeholder since without them a bio-refinery would not be possible. Integrated bio-refineries come with the promise of a better lifestyle and enhanced working conditions for its employees. Even the consumers can get better environmental performance from these improved bio-refineries which conforms to the technical standards and present regulations applied. However they face certain social and economical sustainability issues since bio-refineries emit harmful gases and effluents into the air and water and even cause soil erosion. They also hugely affect global warming since use of bio-refineries cause a reduction in greenhouse gases which leads to increase in the global temperature.
But the most alarming impact of the bio-refineries is that it affects the health of its employees and the communities around it. They have numerous environmental impacts and have also been found to cause adverse respiratory effects among its employees. So, even though bio-refineries promise its employees a better lifestyle, the refineries have to sustain certain health impacts if the authorities want to enjoy its advantages. With such drastic climatic changes there is a need to look for alternative options so that bio-refineries not only satisfy the diesel and gasoline needs but the entire oil use. Keeping the sustainability issues aside stakeholders have realized that well-organized strategies of these bio-refineries can efficiently provide power for the transportation and heat the houses without the use of any fossil fuels in the near future.
Throughout history, there has been instances of natural disasters that have led to wide spread effects across the globe. Most of them have caused a significant shift in the social life of specific or multiple population groups. This paper seeks to identify a global social issue; determine the affected population groups; determine how the social issue/natural disaster has affected global social change; explain if there is any resistance to change; offer details of how various affected social groups have dealt with the issue; and finally identify the sociological theory of social change that best applies to the social issue for future research, and offer an explanation why the theory is appropriate.
Hurricane Katrina and its effects
Hurricane Katrina belonged to the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season (Jamie, 2006). The hurricane has been identified as one of the most expensive natural disasters, causing loss of 1836 lives and damage to property worth about $81 billion as of 2005 (Jamie, 2005).
The Hurricane mainly affected populations in some cities and states located on the South of the United States. The states that were mostly affected include Alabama, Florida, Ohio, Mississippi, Georgia, Louisiana and Kentucky. The most devastating effects of the Hurricane were witnessed in Louisiana and particularly in New Orleans. Several other States, parts of Canada, Mexico and Cuba experienced some effects associated with the Hurricane(Jamie, 2006).
The hurricane led to a global response to try and offer relief assistance to the affected populations, particularly in Louisiana. Hundreds of thousands of people were displaced and therefore could not access basic needs. Severe damage to infrastructure was witnessed in the severely affected areas leading to complete loss of transport and communication(Jamie, 2006).
Most of the affected people were relocated to other areas but there was some resistance with some of the people preferring to stay back and wait for the effects to subside.
The hurricane led to a major shift in the social arrangement of the populations in the worst affected areas. Several measures have been undertaken to try and mitigate effects of future hurricanes. Such measures include: Redesigning of the existing levees, identification of locations for the construction of new levees and creation of inundaction zones(Jamie, 2006). Most of the reconstruction work in the severely affected areas was undertaken by the Corps of Engineers.
Several other disaster preparedness measures have been undertaken by other countries and states to try and avoid the effects should they be faced with a similar situation.
Economic effects were widespread especially in regard to infrastructure damage. This led to a significant loss of jobs in the affected areas.
Functionalism and how it applies to Hurricane Katrina
Functionalism is a sociological theory of change that stipulates the measures required to maintain the stability of a system, either by adaption or restoring a previous state (Turner, 1995). As in the case of Hurricane Katrina, functionalism applies in the quest to restore or mitigate the effects of the Hurricane. In regard to the maintenance of the stability of the system, functionalism can be used to conduct future research on how the effects of such an occurrence will be prevented or reduced to the minimum in the affected areas or elsewhere (Turner, 1995).
Conclusion
This paper sought to identify a social issue (Hurricane Katrina) and its effects on the populations and identify a sociological theory of change that can best apply to that situation. It has been seen that hurricane Katrina caused devastating effects on social life of the people mainly in the southern part of United States. The sociological theory that applies to the situation is functionalism as it explains how system stability and maintenance has been achieved following the hurricane.
References
Jamie, R. (2006). Tropical Cyclone Report: Hurricane Katrina: 23 -30 August 2005. Miami: National Hurricane Center (NHC). Web.
Turner, J. (1995). Macrodynamics: Toward a Theory of the Organization of Human Populations. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. Web.
Illiteracy is defined as the inability to read and write, and it is a common phenomenon in all countries across the world. There is no society that has 100% literate members, which is quite worrying because it implies that all educational systems across the world are yet to achieve the ultimate level of efficiency in facilitating reading and writing skills (Whitfield, 2016). Illiteracy is a major problem because it hinders development in nations. In a world where communication is a primary requirement for economic development, having illiterate citizens in a nation implies that they are not actively involved in the national labor force. This is because employment and innovation are functions of literacy.
Discussion
The lack of sufficient education is caused by the lack of infrastructure at the national level to facilitate education to every member of society. This is the main reason that the highest levels of illiteracy are seen in developing nations. In such nations, large numbers of citizens cannot access schools. Additionally, the cost of education in such countries is relatively high, which implies that only financially stable citizens have access to quality education. The cost and access to opportunities to gain an education is also a major cause of illiteracy in the developed economies, where members of the lower class are subjected to high costs of living; thus, they cannot afford education.
Illiteracy is also a function of having uneducated parents in societies where it is relatively easy to access education. Parents with insufficient education are not likely to emphasize the need for their children to get an education. On the contrary, they are likely to advocate for their children to stay at home and engage in activities that enhance their survival without engaging in the search for formal jobs (Pavlova, 2014). The reverse is seen to be true in contemporary society, whereby highly literate parents are likely to put emphasis on their children to pursue higher levels of education.
Illiteracy is also caused by the presence of a high level of unemployment in a nation, especially with reference to the educated (Ziesemer, 2016). If the majority of the educated are not getting job placement, members of the society are likely to refrain from getting any formal education. This is because the opportunity cost of attaining formal education outweighs the benefits of education. Society would be inclined toward finding other ways of earning a living, and they would not spend money on tuition fees and other costs associated with formal education.
Social restrictions are also major contributors to illiteracy in society. People with different cultural backgrounds are likely to observe traditions that might affect the ability of the members of society to attain an education. For instance, in some communities, educating females is prohibited because they are not allowed to have formal jobs. Girls’ education has been one of the controversial issues across developing nations (Hanley, 2015). Women have struggled across the world for centuries to gain the right to attain education and compete with their male counterparts in formal employment areas (Younis, 2013). However, while women in the developed nations have triumphed in the quest for literacy, women in other parts of the world, including Africa and Arab nations are still struggling to eliminate illiteracy because of the patriarchal nature of the societies, and the emphasis on women staying at home.
Illiteracy influences slow economic growth and challenges in social development. Formal jobs are associated with propelling the growth of an economy, and they are required for people to identify and create opportunities that generate more revenue for the nation. Formal education is also associated with the development of professionalism in various economic activities, including the activities adopted by illiterate individuals (Philip, 2017). Most illiterate people engage in manual labor in their farms and in the industrial sector, where they learn through apprenticeship. However, with a good formal educational background, their creativity increases and they are able to harness opportunities that facilitated financial liberation, while actively taking part in the increment of the national gross domestic product (GDP). Countries with high levels of illiteracy have low GDP, which translates to slow economic growth.
Conclusion
Illiteracy is a global issue because every country has some illiterate members. Illiteracy is the primary cause of a difficult lifestyle because it is tied to the ability of individuals to engage in formal jobs and innovative activities such as business ventures that liberate them financially. The various causes of illiteracy must be eliminated to ensure that every individual in the society has a chance to attain self-actualization. Formal education is not the only avenue through which individuals can enhance their economic wellness, but it plays a major role in facilitating financial and social growth. For instance, an illiterate person is likely to spend their money on irrelevant activities. Similarly, illiterate individuals might have difficulties relating to other people because their perceptions in life could be based on elementary reasoning. Moreover, illiteracy implies that there would be major communication barriers between individuals and their literate counterparts. Illiteracy is, indeed, one of the issues that must be addressed through efforts pioneered by governmental agencies. Everyone should have access to formal education.
References
Hanley, D. C. (2015). ADC holds forum on women’s empowerment. Washington Report On Middle East Affairs, 34(4), 48-49.
Pavlova, L. (2014). “Down with illiteracy” society and its role in the eradication of illiteracy in the Orenburg region in the 1920-1930-S. Society: Philosophy, History, Culture, (1), 1-6.
Philip, N. (2017, May 12). Join me, fellow King Canutes, in pushing against the tide of illiteracy. United, we can make a difference. Daily Mail, p. 16.
Whitfield, J. (2016). Thresholds of illiteracy: Theory, Latin America, and the crisis of resistance. Modern Language Review, 111(3), 893-895.
Younis, A. (2013). Gender justice. Harvard International Review, 35(1), 50-55.
Ziesemer, T. (2016). The impact of development aid on education and health: Survey and new evidence for low-income countries from dynamic models. Journal of International Development, 28(8), 1358-1380.