Category: Genetics

Human genome refers to the information contained in human genes. The information is stored in DNA sequences within cell nuclei and mitochondria (Michal & Schomburg 2013; Veltman & Brunner 2012). Human diploid genomes are found in body cells that are not involved in sexual reproduction while human haploid genomes are contained in sex cells that are essential in human reproduction. It has been found that human beings differ genetically by about 0.1% due to the information coded in the DNA. However, there is a higher level of variation between man and other primates such as chimpanzees. The Human Genome Project (HGP) focused on understanding genomic information stored in the human DNA.

The project produced sets of sequences of genetic information. It was successful due the application of DNA sequencing, a molecular biology technique that helps to visualise the order of nucleotides within a gene sequence (Michal & Schomburg 2013). The human genome is characterised by a perfect molecular architecture that ensures that genetic information is processed and utilised by cells. It is composed of 23 pairs of chromosomes, which are unique in males and males.Twenty two pairs of chromosomes are found in body cells while one pair is found in sex cells. MiRNA and Micro-RNA are essential in processing products of gene transcription. Thus they are critical in gene expression. Ribosomal RNA molecules are contained in ribosomes, and they participate in protein synthesis. Small nuclear RNA processes pre-mRNA and regulates the activities of transcription factors. Small nucleolar RNA guides the molecular pathways that modify chemicals within cells (Michal & Schmoburg 2013).

The coding and noncoding DNA sequences are integral components of the human genome. Coding DNA sequences can be processed to form mRNA that is later turned into human proteins. On the other hand, noncoding DNA sequences are not utilised to form proteins in human cells, but they make up about 98% of the human genome. Recent literature shows that some DNA sequences that do not have instructions for producing proteins have been shown to house genes that are involved in regulating RNA molecules, for example, rRNA and tRNA (Veltman & Brunner 2012).

The protein-coding component of the genome has been widely studied due to its roles in producing proteins for various biological functions within human cells. Interestingly, DNA mechanism can lead to the production of more proteins than the amount of genes that code for protein macromolecules (Michal & Schomburg 2013).

The molecular apparutus for coding proteins is contained within the exome of human beings. The sequences within this component are encoded by exons, which are used to produce proteins. The exome is marked by a network of molecular pathways that control activities of other other cellular components. In fact, the exome was the first feature of the human genome to be characterised by the HGP. Pseudogenes resemble protein-coding genes. They are produced through gene duplication. Initially, pseudogenes retain their protein coding functions, but they lose this function when mutations accumulate in DNA sequences (Michal & Schomburg 2013). Therefore, a gene that has many pseudogenes could be rendered inactive gene, which cannot code for any funcational protein. When a gene is transcribed, it yields messenger RNA molecules that are marked by long sections of introns, and short sections of exons. Introns do not contain the molecular codes for directing the sysnthesis of proteins, unlike the exons. However, during procesing of the transcript, the introns are cleaved off to retain the functionally important exons that are changed to amino acids (Michal & Schomburg 2013).

A single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) is a change in the sequences of one of the four nucleotide bases that make a DNA molecule i.e. A,T,C and G (Michal & Schomburg 2013). In other words, an SNP is a variation of one of the purines or pyrimidines. DNA mutations can be utilised to screen for diseases of many aetiologies. In fact, many diseases have been shown to have molecular foundations, which are then manifested to affect physiological features of the body (phenotype). Variations in the DNA sequences can have neutral, positive or negative impacts on an individual (Veltman & Brunner 2012; Michal & Schomburg 2013). Genetic screening has important applications in the health care industry because it helps to identify the genes that have mutated. Understanding the genes with variations could go a long way in promoting the design of pharmacological molecules for therapeutic purposes (Veltman & Brunner 2012).

Disease progression takes a long time before a disease is manifested. However, the application of genetic screening can significantly increase the chances of diagnosing diseases at early stages.For example,cancer arises due to variations in specific genes.An early diagnosis of cancer,among other health conditions,improves the chances of treating the conditions

Inheritance of mutated genes from parents by a foetus predisposes it to genetic disorders that could lead to health complications. Advancements in the field of genetic screening have resulted in early detection approaches that allow prospective parents to identify whether or not foetuses in the womb could be carrying harmful genetic disorders that could manifest at childhood or adulthood (Michal & Schomburg 2013).

SNPs can also be used in genetic screening to support personalised medications for people across the world.This would be based on the premises that different individuals have varied patterns of ingesting and metabolising medications as a result of the uniqueness in their genomes.Thus, it would be important to design and treat human beings with drugs that would target their genetic pathways to cure disease conditions.Therefore,screening for genetic variations has important applications in disease prevention and treatment.

Support on behalf of 23 and Me

23andMe has been at the forefront of promoting the adoption of genetic technologies in detecting disease conditions.The company developed and sold a personal genome service (PGS) that could be utilised to assess the chances of developing illnesses like cancer and diabetes mellitus,among others (Allyse 2013). Customers of the product put saliva on a PGS device that analyses SNPs to determine the probability of an individual to develop a disease (Allyse 2013). In order to clear the application, it would require a series of scientific-based studies that would aim to assess the clinical advantages and disadvantages of the service. The studies would take a long period of time. However, the application should be used to help people know their genetic predispostion to various diseases while the studies are conducted. The service has the potential to reduce mortality rates associated with diabetes and heart problems,among others. Also,if the genetic service is continued,it would significantly reduce morbidity caused by various diseases that could be detected through SNP analysis utilised by the personal genome package. The service should also be allowed to continue and be applied in genetic counseling.For example, a couple preparing to marry would need to use the PGS to assess their SNPs so that both the male and female partners can know the disease risk they would give their children. In conclusion,the PGS has advantages that outweigh the limitations.Thus,it should be continued to be used.

Support on behalf of the FDA

23andMe has violated the regulations of the FDA by marketing the PGS package that intended to be used for the diagnosis of diseases,among other applications in the health care sector (Taylor 2012; Dickenson 2014).It is unethical for the company to sell the PGS without undergoing clearance. Some applications of the service are quite alarming. The company purports that the PGS could assess the risks associated with BRACA gene mutations in the development of breast cancer. It has been shown that false positive or false negative results of such a health condition could impact an individual negatively (Dickenson 2014). For example,if PGS shows that an individual has risks for breast cancer (false positive results),then he or she could undergo unnecessary prophylactic surgery or other morbidity-inducing actions.

On the other hand, false negative genetic assessment results could make a person not take steps towards mitigating effects of actual genetic risks (Wilcken 2011;Taylor 2012). Currently,the PGS does not have clinical and analytical validation,yet it is being used to produce results that could be used to harm the body irreversibly (Wilcken 2011;Taylor 2012).

In conclusion, the service should be discontinued indefinitely until a time when an adequate amount of research findings will support the benefits and safety of the application.In conclusion,biomedical researchers should be involved in studies to assess the benefits of the PGS.

References

Allyse, M 2013, 23 and Me, We, and You: direct-to-consumer genetics, intellectual property, and informed consent, Trends in biotechnology, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 68-69.

Dickenson, D 2014, Testing times for the consumer genetics revolution, Web.

Michal, G, & Schomburg, D 2013, Biochemical pathways: an atlas of biochemistry and molecular biology, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ.

Taylor, A, 2012, Commentary: 23andme& and you?, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education, vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 63-64.

Veltman, JA, & Brunner, HG 2012, De novo mutations in human genetic disease, Nature Reviews Genetics, vol. 13, no. 8, pp. 565-575.

Wilcken, B 2011, Ethical issues in genetics, Journal of paediatrics and child health, vol. 47, no. 9, pp. 668-671.

The growth and development of an organism result in the activation and deactivation of different parts due to chemical reactions at strategic periods and locations. The genetic changes associated with the aging of an organism give rise to the concept of epigenetics. The concept of epigenetics deals with the heritable changes depicted in gene expressions that do not reflect the alterations of the DNA sequence. Epigenetics is a normal and natural event, but it can occur due to aspects of age, the state of diseases, and environmental factors. Research in the area of epigenetics explores the multidimensional aspects of the theory. This paper will evaluate a study carried out on epigenetics based on the results and applicability of the findings to human beings.

A study carried out to identify the relationship between epigenetic variations and DNA methylation between monozygotic twins provides an in-depth view of the genetic aspects of the theory concerning environmental factors. The article, Epigenetic Variation in Monozygotic Twins: A Genome-Wide Analysis of DNA Methylation in Buccal Cells, presents a study that investigated genetic variations of ten pairs of monozygotic twins. The pairs were between the ages of 8-18 years thereby facilitating the investigation of the methylation levels of the subjects situated in different environments. The study is valuable since it unmasks the factors responsible for DNA methylation variations associated with buccal cells with respect to genome-wide attributes of children and adolescents. Therefore, the field of epigenetics is enhanced by this study. This assertion holds because the functional genome regions of varying pairs of twins are considered to deduce the explanation of the biological and environmental factors associated with epigenetics.

The study involved ten pairs of twins whereby the buccal cells were collected from the inside of the subjects cheeks. The Infinium HumanMethylation450 BeadChip Kit was used to generate the epigenome-wide methylation data. The results showed that individual stochastic and environmental factors handle increased DNA methylation variations, especially in CpG-poor regions (van Dongen et al., 2014, p. 348). The study established that it was essential to investigate inheritable and shared environmental factors accountable for the methylation of buccal DNA.

The research study is vital for understanding the epigenetics theory regarding health and aging aspects. The results of the study on the MZ twins indicated an average correlation of 0.54 portraying the low heritability in the genome-wide CpGs (van Dongen et al., 2014). However, the average correlation of methylation of the individual twins was low in all the genome-wide measurements. Concerning epigenetics, health issues about the methylation of cells tend to vary depending on genetic and environmental factors. Therefore, the twin may portray similar or different variations in their aspects of aging depending on the shared and independent factors.

On the aspect of aging, the MZ twins were derived from two age brackets that facilitated the collection of data from different age groups. The examination of the MZ twins allowed the analysis of the variations in the methylation of DNA between the various age groups to derive the epigenetics aspect of age. The pairs were between the ages of 8-10 and 18-19 thereby indicating that the younger pairs showed smaller variations in methylation as compared to the young adults (van Dongen et al., 2014). The findings portray that epigenetic differences develop throughout the life of monozygotic twins concerning their genetic and environmental aspects.

The selection of monozygotic twins as human subjects in the study ensured that the results reflect other individuals in society. Since the results indicate that environmental and stochastic occurrences account for the variations of methylation, using human subjects in the study enhanced the validity and reliability of the findings. The environmental aspects relate to the structure of social settings coupled with how the activities that an individual engages in affect his/her epigenetics. Stochastic events also refer to random occurrences that affect an individuals emotional and physical growth. For instance, crises affecting one twin may result in varied methylation of his/her DNA as opposed to the other twin. Therefore, the human subjects were essential for enhancing the comprehensiveness of the study.

References

Angel, L., & Angel, J. (2006). Minority group status and healthful aging: social structure still matters. American Journal of Public Health, 96(7), 11521159.

Valliant, G. (2002). Aging Well. Boston, MA: Little Brown and Company.

van Dongen, J., Ehli, A., Slieker, C., Bartels, M., Weber, M., Davies, E.,&Boomsma, D. I. (2014). Epigenetic Variation in Monozygotic Twins: A Genome-Wide Analysis of DNA Methylation in Buccal Cells. Genes, 5(2), 347-365.

The study of sequences of genetic material in any organism is important in helping scientists analyze the whole of the organisms genome. This way, causes of genetic disorders can be easily identified and therefore addressed. One of the most commonly used method in studying DNA sequences is Nucleic acid hybridization due to its efficiency (Lee et al., 1991). It does not only help in identifying gene sequence and function, but also helps in identifying regulatory measures of such genes (B.Noonberg, 1995). This experiment is aimed at understanding the real mechanism involved in genetic material sequencing through the nucleic acid hybridization.

The basis of this technique is the ability to join two strands together. It entails the use of a probe which, with the help of its fragments of DNA or RNA, detects complementary strands from a mixture as the plasmid used gets digested by a restriction enzyme. The obtained fragments are used in agarose gel electrophoresis where they get separated into single strands which are then transferred to membranes that are capable of binding DNA. A single stranded probe is then added onto which the desired sequence binds and later labeled using markers such as radioactive molecules or molecular markers (Hennig, 1979, Tsao et al., 1983).

In this case, two plasmids were used pMAQ105 and pACYC184 with the aim of identifying the aadB gene. A 37 kb cloning vector, pACYC184 was used which consisted of two plasmids, R388 and pMAQ28. The required aadB gene is 59 bp long and is contained in the pMAQ28 plasmid. The pACYC184 plasmid acts as the probe since it consists of the aadB which binds to the homologous plasmid. pMAQ105 plasmid consists of the aadB gene as well as other genes and restriction sites (Holmes et al., 2003).

The pMAQ105 probe is labeled using the fluorescent technique which involves attaching a fluorophore onto to the probe. The labeled probe can then later be detected by addition of an alkaline antigen conjugate whose phosphate enzymes reacts with the fluorescent. CPD is then added to detect the phosphates in the labeled molecule containing the desired DNA sequence.

The experiment was started by adding the restriction enzymes obtained from set 2 above onto three samples to prepare the fragment of DNA from the pACYC184 plasmid. The samples were then incubated and later added on agarose gel during which they resulted into DNA fragments of different sizes.

The gel containing the DNA fragments was used for southern blotting where the gel was added HCl. The solution was then stricken lightly and the gel was cleansed through addition of distilled water. The gel was soaked in 0.4m of NaOH after which a nylon membrane, a zeta probe, was placed on top of the gel then a whatman paper followed. A paper towel that had been prepared previously alongside the nylon membrane and the whatman paper was then placed after the whatman paper together with a glass plate weighing 500g.

Since the pMAQ105 plasmid contains the EcoRI restriction site, the EcoRI digestive enzyme was added to the pMAq105 plasmid after which the solution was incubated for about two hours. The nylon paper which was used as a zeta probe in the southern blotting technique was later obtained and was then soaked in a SSC buffer. The nylon membrane was then placed in a hybridization bag where a DNA carrier alongside a pre-hybridization buffer was also added. The hybridization bag was then tightly closed to prevent the formation of air bubbles and was then incubated for a period of two hours.

The hybridization buffer and the carrier DNA were added to a labeled probe which was provided. The probe was then boiled to denature it and then added on ice. After denaturing, the probe was then added to the hybridization buffer after it had been equilibrated at 60°C. The bag that had been closed containing the DNA membrane was the opened and the previously added pre-hybridization buffer discarded and the probe DNA mix added to replace it. The sample was then hybridized for 12 hours at temperatures of 60⁰C.

The membrane was later obtained from the bag and placed in a weighing tray where the SSC buffer was added together with SDS and the sample solution incubated for a few minutes. The solution from the sample was discarded and the process repeated. The membrane that was obtained was covered using buffer 1 after which it was recovered again and covered with buffer 2. The membrane was then added onto an antibody conjugate and incubated with regular gentle agitations. It was then washed using the previous buffer 1 followed by buffer 3.

After this, the membrane was placed on another weigh tray where CDP-star was added and the solution incubated for about five minutes. Tissue blotting paper was used to get rid of the excess solution. A plastic wrap was used to wrap the membrane which was then photographed and compared with another from the auto radio graph. The region of the pACYC184 plasmid that was homologous to pMAQ105 was determined.

Introduction

The process which describes the likelihood of the transfer of characteristics, or traits, which enables the survival and reproduction of an organism in generations to come; to be obtained easily in a population is referred to as natural selection. The difference in the genetic content of organisms is indicative that certain group of organisms will stay alive, and effectively reproduce than other organisms residing in the same environment. Natural selection operates base on the characteristics of organism that are very obvious. Genes are the source of the comparative advantage enjoyed by some of the organisms prevalent in a given population. Natural selection is thus an important procedure through which evolution is accomplished in a given population of organisms. The term natural selection was first used by Darwin in one of his books on the foundation of organisms. Natural selection is one of the most important topics on which modern biology is hinged (Rafael, 2010). It is also important to note that this topic was earlier researched without the present day theories of heredity.

Examination of Genetic Variations

The change in the genetic content of an organism can be due to environmental factors. For instance, when an organism is exposed in an environment that is saturated with mutagen, his deoxyribonucleic acid is likely to be altered; this method is currently being utilized by a lot of researchers in caring out experiments. For example, they expose bacterias to mutagens and then offer them a selection opportunity by introducing harmful drugs in the same environment. The results gotten from this experiment are indicative that some of the bacterias exposed in the mutagen saturated environment survive, and others will die as a result of their inability to compete effectively. What is left for the scientist is to find out the alteration that occurred in the DNA, and how it came about. It is important to note that, this form of experiments produce results more often for small and rapid reproducing organisms. Other genetic mutations occur as a result of the malfunctioning of the enzyme that is responsible for the duplication of the deoxyribonucleic acid. Sometimes when the malfunctioning of the polymerase is critical, the entire cell is destroyed. Again altering a single amino acid can result to a complete alteration in the utility of the protein, often times this alteration is beneficial and at other instances it is detrimental. Competition among organisms somehow determines whether an organism will survive or not. A critical review of literature indicates that evolution and natural selection are the major ways through which man came in to existence (Judson, 1996, pg. 67).

Conclusion

A lot of theories have been propounded about the creation and the survival of organisms, these theories before now succeeded in explaining certain things about the origin of human nature. But this area of research has remained one of the most controversial of all times. The topic has been made more confusing today, as a result of better understanding of biblical doctrines concerning the creation and survival of organisms. One basic truth is that the type and nature of the gene transferred from a parent to an offspring determines to a great extent how that organism will be able to compete effectively with others in the environment.

Reference List

Judson, H. (1996). The Eighth Day of Creation. Plainview, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Press.

Rafael, B. (2010). The Structure and Function of DNA as the Molecule of Inheritance. Web.

Abstract

Several common plants and animals have shared chromosomes and are identified as diploid. Mendels principle of segregation states that in a heterozygote, one characteristic will hide the presence of another trait for the same feature. Rather than both alleles contributing to a phenotype, the dominant allele will be conveyed entirely. In plants, chlorophyll is a dominant allele that plays a significant role in the coloration of plants and helping them make their food. However, when the plants are exposed to darkness for a significant period, the chlorophyll tends to denature, thus the plants lose their color, and the leaves change from green to yellow, whereas the stem changes from green to purple. This lab report will examine the importance of chlorophyll in plants using fast plants leaves and stems. The study subjects are divided into two groups where a section of them are exposed to darkness, whereas the others are placed under normal conditions. The outcome is then used to determine the importance of the chlorophyll to plants by rating them on a scale of 0% to 100%.

Introduction

Gregor Mendel integrated pure breeding forms of garden peas, pisum sativum, to establish the distinct types in the crossbreeds. When to uncontaminated breeding disparities of quality were crossed, only a singular type of the trait was manifested in the F1 progeny. Mendel regarded the quality as a principal trait. The other variation that was hidden was referred to as the recessive gene. However, when F1 progeny were self-fertilized, the outcome F2 progeny always appeared in a ratio of 13, representing dominant to recessive phenotypes (Price et al., 2018). From the outcome and additional crossing, the scientist hypothesized that the aspects which define the disparity in the features segregate from each other in similar measures into gametes. Furthermore, Mendel concluded that each gamete inhibits only singular traits of the factors. These aspects are currently known as genes and distinct forms of the features were identified as alleles. Mendels hypothesis was approved and has since become popular as Mendels Law of Equal Segregation. In this lab report, we tested Mendels Law of Equal Segregation by crossing pure breeding strains of fast plants that varied in colors.

Materials and Method

The principal cross investigation of Mendels Law of Equal Segregation: 5 green leaves fast plants were acquired by eliminating all the selected green leaves from the green stemmed plants and then harvesting all the gametes that enclosed for the next eight hours. The enclosed leaves and stem were hidden from light, analyzed, and the yellow leaves and purple stems were retrieved. Furthermore, four yellow leaves were collected, examined, and placed with the green leaves in a fresh procedure while considering the standard procedure of the experiment. The cross was identified as YyAa*YyAa, where Y represented green leaves, y denoted green leaves, A for purple stem, and a for green stem. The experiment jars were incubated at room temperature with standard experimental conditions. The experiment was left for ten days after which the yellow leaves were discarded after the cross between a set of green and yellow leaves, and green and purple stem was realized. Finally, the F1 progeny was later investigated for the changes in color and structure 21 days after the cross was established.

F1 Cross for Analysis of Mendels Principle of Equal Segregation

A cross of the F1 leaves and stems from the above experiment was developed as follows: 5 F1 green leaves and 5 F1 stems were put in a fresh jar and closed. The experiment jar enclosed at room temperature and standard conditions. The F1 green leaves and purple stems were discarded seven days after the cross was established and the F2 gamete that was created were scored for change in color 21 days after the set-up.

Results

To analyze Mendels Principle of Equal Segregation, we investigated the change in color by comparing placing green leaves and stems with a distinct color of leaves and stems, yellow and purple respectively. It was determined that the green chlorophyll is dominant in plants since it gives the plants their green color. The change from green to yellow for the leaves and green to purple for the stem denoted the dominance of chlorophyll and its roles in plants. The phenotypes of the gametes are as illustrated in the table 1 below.

Table 1: Phenotypes of the F1 Gametes

To further study whether there was a change in the color of leaves and stems according to Mendels laws, we further integrated the F1 progeny and analyzed the gametes of the resulting F2 progeny. The outcome showed the probability of the existence of four distinct phenotypes; 1=3, where in every four leaves and stems, one changed to yellow and purple respectively.

Table 2: Probability per Value

From the table 2, probability= 0.85=85%, which is an insignificant variation between experimental and observes. Therefore, to support the hypothesis, the table below shows the importance of each outcome to the study subject.

Table 3: Significance of the Outcome

Discussion

The outcomes of the experiment demonstrates that chlorophyll plays a significant role in plants since its gives them their green color. The absence of the latter would mean that the plants will not be able to manufacture their own food thus resulting to the change in the stem color. On the contrary, the change in the stem color is instigated by the lack of supply of plant food and oxygen to the lower sections of the plants due to the exposure of the test subjects into the darkness (Khosravy et al., 2020). The importance of the chlorophyll is further illustrated in the ratio of plants that change color when exposed to the experiment which represented 1 plant in every four plants exposed to the test.

Additionally, calculations from the second data table shows that the probability of green leaves and stems depends on the possibility of the latters tolerance to the experimental conditions and the ratio which is 1:3. Despite the ratio being close to the projected ratio 3.5.1 for a green leaf and stem, the test was conducted to determine whether the experimental data varied significantly from the ration 3:5:1 ratio expected for a simple plant. The outcomes of the analysis test propose that chlorophyll is an essential part of the plants existence and that the statistical data do not vary from the expected 1:3 ration. Particularly, there is between 0%-10% probabilities that the variation observed are owed to the absence of chlorophyll.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the chlorophyll is a significant part of the plant since it necessitates the various aspects that drive the plants to existence. The phenotype F1 progeny confirmed that the gamete for chlorophyll is dominant to all plants. The ration of the yellow to green leaves and stems is identified in the F2 is significantly near that of the projected 1:3 ration for a green leaf and stem and the analysis denotes that it is within the experiment limits. Consequently, the outcome of this lab report confirms the Mendels principle of Equal Segregation.

References

Khosravy, M., Gupta, N., Patel, N., Mahela, O. P., & Varshney, G. (2020). Tracing the points in search space in plant biology genetics algorithm optimization. In Frontier Applications of Nature Inspired Computation (pp. 180195). Springer.

Price, C. G., Knee, E. M., Miller, J. A., Shin, D., Mann, J., Crist, D. K., Grotewold, E., & Brkljacic, J. (2018). Following phenotypes: An exploration of Mendelian Genetics using Arabidopsis plants. The American Biology Teacher, 80(4), 291300. Web.

Introduction

Epigenetics is the study of how gene expression takes place without changing the sequence of DNA. The epigenetics video is mind-opening about how our behavior can influence our health. The video sheds light on the possible differences in people with similar genetic makeup due to epigenetics. It helps individuals understand how their lifestyles affect their health and that of their generations. It shows how much people can utilize the environment to improve or worsen their health. Additionally, it indicates how treatment interventions can be changed now that there is additional knowledge about genetics and disease development.

The research article Paternal Tobacco Smoke Correlated to Offspring Asthma and Prenatal Epigenetic Programming by Chih-Chiang et al. (2019) seeks to address epigenetics in relation to asthma. The papers focus is to investigate the connection between tobacco smoking by male parents and the development of asthma in their child and its association with methylation of immune genes related to tobacco. The studys rationale is based on the lack of sufficient knowledge about the impact of paternal tobacco smoking on their childs asthma and its epigenetic programming before birth. The article reports that it is already established that maternal tobacco smoking is linked to the development of asthma in the offspring through epigenetic programming. However, paternal factors are not widely researched, which creates a gap in evidence-based research.

The researchers assert that asthma is a condition worth investigating because of its increased prevalence in the world. Despite research demonstrating that it is a condition influenced by genetics, the high prevalence rate indicates the influence of other factors. The article describes asthma as a disease that is modifiable through environmental factors, especially in the early years. During prenatal stages, exposure o harsh environmental factors such as poor nutrition are correlated to poor outcomes such as low birth weight. Similarly, the risk of childhood asthma is connected to exposure to air pollutions such as maternal tobacco use. DNA methylation is found to be caused by several environmental factors associated with asthma development. In the conducted study, the researchers found that prenatal exposure to tobacco smoke through the father were at a higher risk of developing asthma than those who were not exposed. The study observed that prenatal paternal smoke exposure was linked with asthma from the age of 6 years.

Concept of epigenesis

The concept of epigenesis is not very new in the field of genetics; however, its current use is employed to denote the impact of the environment on the modification of genetic programming. Epigenesis demonstrates that gene expression undergoes modifiable changes that do not alter the sequence of DNA nucleotides (Lind and Spagopoulou, F2018). Particularly, the impact of the environment on gene modification is emphasized in epigenesis. The genetic makeup of an individual may therefore not impact the development of a condition when external factors act on genetic programming. As the article by Chih-Chiang et al. (2019) explains, prenatal environmental factors can affect development after birth. The impact of maternal tobacco smoking on asthma development is established by literature. However, tobacco smoke is an environmental factor, meaning that the impact on asthma-related genes is not due to genetic inheritance.

Based on my family history, asthma is the most prevalent health condition. It is expected that the condition is genetically inherited from one generation to the other. However, with the evidence tabled by epigenesis about the impact of environmental factors on gene modification, it is also likely that environmental factors have played a role in its prevalence. Lifestyle factors may have led to an increased rate of asthma in the family history. Exploring environmental factors that trigger the development of asthma in the family can shed light on the exact cause of the high disease rate. Although genetics cannot be ruled out, it is expected that environmental factors have exacerbated the prevalence rate.

Questionnaire findings

The questionnaire findings indicated a life expectancy of 83 years. However, the results show that life expectancy can be improved through a lot of changes in personal, lifestyle, nutrition and medical factors. Important factors that are found to improve life expectancy significantly include stress management and working ours. The ability to effectively manage stress is found to increase life expectancy. Working for long hours is also detrimental to longevity, and for a longer lifespan, it is recommended that one works for not more than 40 hours a week. Social life, which may not seem relevant to longevity, is also crucial. Living close to caring family members and friends can add up to one year of life.

Lifestyle factors are supposed to be modified in accordance with family history. To reduce the risk of a heart attack or stroke, taking aspirin before bed is recommended. However, this should be done after consulting the doctor. Other lifestyle factors include using a seat belt always when traveling in a car to reduce the impact of an accident if it happens. Regarding nutrition, the findings recommend maintaining a healthy weight and taking calcium supplements to reduce the risk of osteoporosis. The results also suggest going for relevant medical tests and screening. Particularly cancer screening and diabetes testing is recommended. Also, blood pressure needs to be checked because of the risk of heart disease.

The findings on the questionnaire indicate that health outcomes and quality of life are significantly influenced by lifestyle, social, environmental and medical factors. Preventing disease and illness requires someone to address all these life areas to achieve long life.

How to improve health and longevity

Based on questionnaire findings, one of the strategies for improving health includes having close family members act as a social support system, especially when undergoing stressful situations. I can also improve health and longevity by using a sunscreen every time I am outside in the sun. Sunscreen reduces the risk of skin cancer by preventing harmful ultra-violet rays from reaching and damaging the skin. Weight is another important factor in health management. Being overweight is a risk factor for developing diabetes, heart disease, and respiratory problems (Fruh, 2017). Therefore, I will ensure that I maintain a healthy weight through proper nutrition. For healthy life in old age, I will start taking calcium supplements to reduce the risk of osteoporosis, which increases with age.

Conclusion

The interplay of numerous factors determines health. It is important to understand how each life factor influences the other to create a health outcome. Genetics play a huge role in influencing diseases, especially genetically inherited diseases. However, new developments indicate that environmental factors may affect gene expression leading to a change in phenotype. Although the change is reversible, the modification can be transferred to the next generation. Epigenetics demonstrates this concept by showing how organisms with similar DNA can develop varied conditions due to gene methylation.

References

Fruh, S. M. (2017). Obesity: Risk factors, complications, and strategies for sustainable longterm weight management. Journal of the American Association of Nurse Practitioners, 29(S1), S3-S14.

Lind, M.I., & Spagopoulou, F. (2018). Evolutionary consequences of epigenetic inheritance. Heredity 121, 205209.

Wu, C. C., Hsu, T. Y., Chang, J. C., Ou, C. Y., Kuo, H. C., Liu, C. A.,& & Yang, K. D. (2019). Paternal tobacco smoke correlated to offspring asthma and prenatal epigenetic programming. Frontiers in genetics, 10, 471.

Genetic control in human

The branch of biology that deals with variation, heredity, and their transmission in both animals and the plant is called genetics. Just about every week, news about genetic disorders, such as breast cancer, alcoholism, obesity and manic depression, are at the for-front.

Such news make us understand that life depends on genes, thus we consider that we can spot the causes of personality, criminology and other human traits. Schnittker (3) stated that quite a large number of people fate by depend on people genes.

The question whether genes determines behavior, cognitive and emotional character is still debatable nowadays. However, there are a lot of researches on the roles of genes in determining behavior. In the past few decades, there have been reports which try to find out localizing genes for schizophrenia (Turner & Stets 26), alcoholism, manic-depression (Takuya et al. 324) and homosexuality (Hamer et al. 321-327).

Popular response to genetic claims can be influenced by politics. Many people believe that the discovery of a gene that is responsible for gay personality may lead to social approval because it explains that its issue does not deal with personal chooses. In many cases, people are encouraged by the researches that give them hope to find answers to frightening problems such as breast cancer, However, sometimes, community fails to accept these studies.

The correlation linking a gene and human conduct is unusual though disruption of a single gene can lead to dramatic effect on individual behavior. On the other hand, it is difficult to tell the involvement of genes in the process of behavior control (Horgan 1).

On the contrary, each gene is a single player linking non-addictive interaction of genes, food, hormones, protein, and life experiences. Interactions of these factors lead to effect on the behavior and cognitive functions. In other words, people behavior, thoughts and emotion have biological mechanisms, but these do not mean that we can split and quantify the genetic contribution to these processes.

Linkage trait is an example that can be used to demonstrate the human behavior and observation that certain human behavior run in a family. It should be noted that either environment or genes, and the combination of these two factors might cause the personality. Studies involving identical twins IQ, which try to quantify genetic contribution to their behavior, have been done (Eiseman 7).

Manipulation of DNA has been also done in the attempt to locate individual genes that seem to determine the behavior of an individual. In linked genes, traceable pieces of DNA called genetic markers used to find out the location of a gene.

Marker of individual that portrays behavior or some traits of character are missed in other people, then, it is an expectation that there is a gene in proximity to the marker which can be associated to the behavior. However, the association of a trait and marker does not necessarily mean relevant gene been discovered, but a relevant locale found.

This research has helped in locating genes that are responsible for diseases such as Huntingtons that is a complex disease causing behavioral disorder, and a single gene is responsible for it. Unlike other types of linked diseases that are dependent on a pair of genes, Huntingtons disease requires a single gene for it to be transmitted from generation to generation.

Psychological forces influence how we view mental illnesses like schizophrenia and depression, personality problems like obesity and bulimia and social issues like criminology. Effort to combat them proves that it is difficult and has little success.

Gene for mental illness that causes schizophrenia and manic-depression discovered in the late 1980s was disproven. In the 1987, a study linking family members proved that genetic material suspects segment on the chromosomes of families with quite a high incidence of disease.

Active area of DNA (genetic marker) seems to coincide with the disease in many cases. Marker appearing only in ailing family member shows that the evidence of a genetic link is retrieved.

It is vital to note understanding genes and behavior that genes function by instructing the developing organism to make sequences of biochemical compounds. However, at a cellular level, environment affects the activity of genes. The most influential and active genetic material does not code for a trait; it regulates the speed and direction of the expression of the related genes.

Genetics affects differences in a group of people, which experiences some strains or hardship. Therefore, there is a question whether genes as well as experiences pass to children and whether these two notions are connected. Still parents who get drunk and quarrel in front of their children provide disruptive family environment.

In such circumstances, it is essential to consider the behavior of children to be worsen in these families and investigate the dependence of the behavior to come from the genes or the environment (Cacioppo 4).

Twin studies are to prove that those genes play a key role in shaping usual mental characteristics, such as individuality type and general intelligence. A single gene does not normally transmit the inheritances of these characteristics (Cacioppo 6).

These studies establish the net effect of the genes on a character that is heritable. Heritability involving twins is studied by a number of scientist that have showed that inheritance influence the behavior apart at a large extent when the twins get separated.

It was announced that genes of obesity on mice and humans was discovered by Rockefeller University that found a genetic mutation in obese mice.

These researchers believed that there is a gene in both humans and animals that are responsible to decide how fat or full an organism is. Those that have this mutation do not sense when they have sufficient fatty tissues, thus, they cannot stop eating. The same gene that was found in mice was detected in humans (Schnittker 229).

Point at which we cease to be human

Cultural issues should be dealt with before attempting to settle genetic issues. This can be done through social and cultural integration. The need for a consistent moral system is crucial in the dynamic mixture of personal behavior system that the world has. Acceptance of a certain behavior in a culture maybe viewed as loathing by another, and it may be difficult to move from one sub-culture to another (Blum et al. 397).

The freedom of individuals development returns us to the subject of whether the nature and nurture can be separated. The issue of traits of being either environmentally or genetically caused makes it difficult to understand human development. To find out what amount of personality is genetic and what depends on environment is like analysis of what level of a blizzard is caused by cold temperature rather than humidity.

In conclusion, determination of to what proportion behavior is genetic and environmentally affected will always elude us. People individuality and destinies do not entail an uncomplicated approach. Claim that genes cause peoples dilemma, individuality and misconduct reflects peoples cultural attitude.

Works cited

Takuya, Saito, et al. Analysis of GNAZ Gene Polymorphism in Bipolar Affective Disorder. American Journal of Medical Genetics (Neuropsychiatric Genetics) 88:324328 (1999). Web.

Blum, Kenneth, et al. The D2 dopamine receptor gene as a determinant of reward deficiency syndrome. Journal of the Royal Society Of Medicine Volume 89 July 1 996: 396-399. Web.

Eiseman, Anne. Cloning Human Beings: Views of Scientific Societies and Professional Associations on Human Nuclear Transfer Cloning Research. Paper Commissioned By the National Bioethics Advisory Commission, 2000: 6-29.

Horgan, John. How Much Do Genes Influence Behaviour?. Chronicle of Higher Education.

Hamer, Dean, et al. A Linkage Between DNA Markers on the X- Chromosome and Male Sexual Orientation. New York: Routledge, 1993.

Cacioppo, John. The Structure and Spread of Loneliness in a Large Social Network. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, in press, nd.

Schnittker, Lerner. Happiness and Success: Genes, Families, and the Psychological Effects of Socioeconomic Position and Social Support. American Journal of Sociology, 2008. 1-27.

Schnittker, Jason. Gene-Environment Correlations in the Stress-Depression Relationship, Journal of Health and Social Behaviour 2010 51: 229. Web.

Turner, John & Stets, Eliud. Sociological Theories of Human Emotions. Annual Review of Sociology, 32, 2006.

Topic Selection: Rationale and Terminology

Although genetics is a comparatively recent branch of sciences, it has already warranted the title of one of the most controversial areas of study. Because of the opportunities at altering the genetic makeup of certain species, possibly including humans, it is often branded as an attempt at tampering with nature and, ultimately, implying that certain races and ethnicities are superior (Ormond et al., 2017).

Essential terms:

• Genetics: a branch of biology exploring genes
• Eugenics: a practice involving the use of selection and the relevant tools for improving the qualities of human species.

Introduction: Eugenics and Human Genetics in the 21^st Century

Ethical concerns about genetics, in general, and human genetics, in particular, have been in existence for a while. The specified phenomenon can partially be explained by a rather one-sided representation of the issue in media. The interpretation of genetics as a means of modifying genes is persistent in modern society, thus, contributing to the social concern (Thomsen & Gloy, 2017). Furthermore, the lack of clarity concerning where the relevant ethical boundaries are creates numerous opportunities for overstepping them (Biller-Andorno & Capron, 2016). Consequently, public debates regarding the threat of human genetics are still heated (Ormond et al., 2017).

Public Policy Debates: Description

Ethical issues associated with human genetics and eugenics have been recently brought to public attention, resulting in the creation of peculiar public policy. On the one hand, the significance of using genetics as a means of addressing a range of health issues is acknowledged (Thomsen & Gloy, 2017). On the other hand, the threat of using genetics as the means of labeling certain races and ethnicities as either superior or inferior is voiced (Biller-Andorno & Capron, 2016). Because of the lack of agreement on the subject matter, there is a necessity to prove that stereotypes will not define or guide genetic studies.

Arguments: What Participants of the Debate Have to Say

The statements made by the people that are against human genetics are understandable. According to the specified arguments, imply that human research will lead to determining the genes that are deemed as better and more desirable (Biller-Andorno & Capron, 2016). Therefore, the foundation for the aggravation of racial or ethnic discrimination may be built (Ormond et al., 2017). The specified concern needs to be addressed accordingly (Thomsen & Gloy, 2017).

Arguments: The Ethics of Eugenics and Human Genetics

The claims of the people that support genetic research are nonetheless sensible. By exploring the human gene, one will be able to identify the means of curing a range of diseases that are currently considered incurable, e.g., diabetes (Thomsen & Gloy, 2017). The idea of improving the quality of peoples lives, as well as preventing the development of diseases and disorders, seems rather alluring. Therefore, a significant number of people view human genetics as an opportunity (Biller-Andorno & Capron, 2016).

Arguments: Threats and Opportunities of Human Genetics

The idea of eugenics is rather controversial (Thomsen & Gloy, 2017). The very concept implies that certain characteristics should be regarded as superior. The fact that eugenics was used to promote ideas of racism and intolerance earlier in human history does not make the idea of human genetics and eugenics look attractive, either (Ormond et al., 2017). However, by locating the middle ground and focusing on public health enhancement rather than on promoting stereotypes, one will be able to make human genetics helpful (Biller-Andorno & Capron, 2016).

Opinion and Conclusion: Human Genetics and Ethical Dilemmas

The issue of eugenics and human genetics remains convoluted and controversial. Some assume that it will help address health issues. Others believe that it will lead to stereotyping and discrimination. Therefore, further analysis of the problem is required.

Statement of Opinion: Health Opportunities as the Primary Focus

It seems that eugenics and health genetics cannot be considered as either positive or negative. Instead, it should be regarded as a tool for achieving a particular goal. When setting successful management of public health concerns as the primary objective, one will be able to avoid racial and ethnic controversies.

References

Biller-Andorno, N., & Capron, A. M. (2016). Ethical issues in governing biobanks: Global perspectives. New York, NY: Routledge.

Ormond, K. E., Mortlock, D. P., Scholes, D. T., Bombard, Y., Brody, L. C., Faucett, W. A.,& Musunuru, K. (2017). Human germline genome editing. The American Journal of Human Genetics, 101(2), 167-176. Web.

Thomsen, S. K., & Gloy, A. L. (2017). Human genetics as a model for target validation: Finding new therapies for diabetes. Diabetologia, 60(6), 960970. Web.

Epigenetics and Family History

Epigenetics is a quickly developing field of science that has proven to be practical in medicine. It focuses on changes in gene activity that are not a result of DNA sequence mutations. Epigenetics studies the volatility of DNA methylation, chromatin, and distinct RNA which can alter gene expression. Consequently, the human phenotype is affected by physical traits and diseases. Several complex traits have been proven to be linked to epigenetics. Since they are hereditary, the process is known as transgenerational epigenetic inheritance. Some patterns of heritable traits are uncontrollable, but others are activated by environmental conditions, such as nutritional intake (Trerotola, Relli, Simeone, & Alberti, 2015).

Common physiological disorders are linked to hereditary epigenetics. A customary practice for medical professionals is to inquire about the family medical history to determine elevated risks for any conditions, which can be addressed before further treatment. Examining personal family history gave me a chance to explore the possible health concerns that may afflict me in the future. One widespread condition affecting my family history is hypertension, with some cases being pulmonary hypertension and others leading to cardiovascular issues. There are also cases of type-2 acquired diabetes. Both conditions have been common in the family for generations and are complemented by environmental factors; it is possible these traits are inherited genetically.

Environmental factors such as malnutrition, constriction of blood vessels due to stress, alcohol, and smoking prevalent in the family history in the past generations have all been linked to the development of hypertension in offspring. The hyper-methylation of the Methyl CpG binding protein 2 transporter gene (MECP-2) leads to an extensive autonomic responsiveness. Also, the high concentrations of cortisol (released during stress), which controls kidney sodium absorption, causes raised levels of arterial pressure.

My family history suggests high-stress levels due to socio-economic circumstances. Hypertension is linked to histone alteration, which can be seen during a process of disruption of telomeric silencing. The nutritional impact is evident in a diet with elevated sodium and salt levels, causing a deficiency of lysine-specific demethlase-1 (LSD-1). LSD-1 serves as a catalyst in de-methylation of histone H3. Hypermethylation of H3 resulting from an LSD-1 deficiency is correlated to hypertension. The cultural background and lifestyle of my family include a particularly high-sodium diet (Raftopoulos et al., 2015).

The onset of type-2 diabetes is tremendously impacted by environmental factors, usually affecting a whole family group and therefore thought to induce hereditary epigenetic alterations. The environmental factors cause epigenetic changes in the progeny by reprogramming insulin sensitivity and beta-cell function. However, due to the compound and multifactored nature of diabetes, genetic predisposition often must be complemented by external factors such as lifestyle. Research has shown that epigenetic complications can be reversed to some extent if healthy habits are adopted (Raciti et al., 2015). The described epigenetics processes are just a part of many possible factors that can affect genetic, physiological conditions in my family medical history and possibly passed on to me.

Life Expectancy

The Blue Zone questionnaire was completed to create a model for possible life expectancy. The results were significantly lower than expected, especially with the consideration of the rising average life expectancy with medical developments. This model is an approximation based solely on lifestyle, without consideration of any hereditary epigenetics. However, in consideration of my family history, environmental factors and lifestyle have an influence on my health. Diseases such as type-2 diabetes and hypertension are more susceptible to development and complications under certain conditions, a lot of which are unfortunately exhibited in my lifestyle.

Ironically, my most derogatory behaviors revolve around diet and emotional health (stress) which are a common factor in family medical history, in turn aiding in the emergence of type-2 diabetes and hypertension respectively. Due to my age and status in life, my diet often consists of processed food that is full of refined sugars and sodium. Fast food and junk food are a health hazard, affecting cardiovascular and metabolic systems. An abundance of meat, particularly frozen or processed is considered carcinogenic and is shown to lower life expectancy. Lack of whole grains, fresh vegetables, and fruit in my diet creates a deficit of vitamins and minerals needed for a healthy body function. Stress is also common in my life, as I often become anxious about trivial things. In addition to pressure to succeed and financial difficulties, it causes physiological hardships such as headaches, chest pains, and fatigue. Combined with poor diet, such lifestyle leads to hypertension. Recent research shows the importance of diet in health sustainability and prevention of cardiovascular and metabolic disorders.

Health Improvement

Continuous research on epigenetics has many benefits to clinical practice, and the knowledge can be applied to medical technologies as well as promotions to personal and public health. It gives more tools for diagnosis and treatment to practicing health professionals who have embraced the reductionist theory of genetic determinism (Goodson, 2015). Meanwhile, personal behaviors must be altered to help improve health and prevent the onset of diseases despite my hereditary epigenetic predisposition.

It is recommended of those who are at risk due to family history to monitor for diabetes and high blood pressure. The onset of type-2 diabetes can be avoided through a low fat and sodium diet. Also, regular physical exercise to maintain healthy weight improves insulin and glucose related functions in the organism. Considering the epigenetic processes focusing on insulin resistance related to hereditary type-2 diabetes, this is a necessary habit to adopt. Combining dietary and physical factors reduces the risk of diabetes onset by 58% (National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, n.d.).

Many similar principles apply in hypertension prevention as diet and exercise directly affect the cardiovascular system. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention states that avoiding derogatory behaviors such as smoking and alcohol abuse along with healthy active lifestyle directly correlates to lower risk of complications related to hypertension such as stroke and heart disease. Continuous monitoring of blood pressure, which is affected by uncontrollable factors like weather, is recommended to address any arising issues (CDC, 2017).

References

CDC: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2017). Preventing high blood pressure: Healthy living habits.

Goodson, P. (2015). Researching genes, behavior, and society to improve population health: A primer in complex adaptive systems as an integrative approach. advances in medical sociology genetics, health and society, 127-156. doi:10.1108/s1057-629020150000016005

NIH: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (n.d.). Diabetes Prevention Program (DPP).

Raciti, G. A., Longo, M., Parrillo, L., Ciccarelli, M., Mirra, P., Ungaro, P.,& Béguinot, F. (2015). Understanding type 2 diabetes: from genetics to epigenetics. Acta Diabetologica, 52(5), 821-827. doi:10.1007/s00592-015-0741-0

Raftopoulos, L., Katsi, V., Makris, T., Tousoulis, D., Stefanadis, C., & Kallikazaros, I. (2015). Epigenetics, the missing link in hypertension. Life Sciences, 129, 22-26. doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2014.08.003

Trerotola, M., Relli, V., Simeone, P., & Alberti, S. (2015). Epigenetic inheritance and the missing heritability. Human Genomics, 9(1). doi:10.1186/s40246-015-0041-3

Nowadays, people strive to improve the quality of life, focus on higher accomplishments, and try to find new ways to overcome such social problems as diseases and hunger. In this context, genetic engineering seems to be the potential to improve the quality of life because of creating new and improved organisms.

The term genetic engineering is usually used to describe the process of altering the cells in terms of their genes to develop specific traits typical for different organisms and combine these traits in one organism in order to improve certain features (Kempken & Jung, 2010, p. 12).

In this context, new cells and organisms receive the unique combination of traits that could not be achieved naturally. Thus, researchers state that genetic engineering is a new step in the development of humans knowledge about nature that has a lot of advantages for people in spite of its controversial character (Lawlor, 2013, p. 84).

From this point, genetic engineering can be discussed as having such potential benefits for the mankind as improvement of agricultural processes, environmental protection, resolution of the food problem, provision of the alternative treatment and new medicines, and effective transplantation of organs.

Benefits for the Field of Agriculture

Genetic engineering is often discussed in the scientific fields as the successor of animal and plant breeding in agriculture. People were always focused on improving the number of animals and the quality of crops and plants.

However, if the traditional selective or cross-breeding is based on the use of natural principles when organisms can combine their genes through natural contacts, genetic engineering is an artificial and more promising process (Kempken & Jung, 2010, p. 24).

For example, the mule is a result of cross-breeding that involved a donkey and a horse. Nevertheless, specialists in selective and cross-breeding are limited in terms of reproductive abilities and in the number of combinations.

On the contrary, a bio-technician has no such limits because he mostly works with cells and can directly modify the genome. This exceptional ability to mix genes implies that a bio-technician can create unique combinations of genes that are not presented in nature (Lawlor, 2013, p. 84).

From this perspective, the potential benefits of genetic engineering in this field are the creation of the great amount of crops while using limited territories, the growth of the elite livestock, the improved qualities of plants, their resistance to drought and pests, and the decrease in the use of fertilizers important for improving the environmental protection.

Genetic Engineering as the Approach to Resolve the Food Problem

Modern researchers focus on findings ways to grow more crops, animals, and plants because it is often the only way to address the problem of hunger on the planet. Furthermore, while modifying plants and animals, scientists can take significant steps to create healthier food because combining genes and making necessary alternations, specialists can remove allergens and improve the nutritional value of products (OBrien & Kranz, 2009, p. 112).

While having access to healthy food that is not harmed with chemicals, people can also become healthier (Miller & Spoolman, 2006, p. 84). In this context, genetic engineering is a new stage in making the life of people living all over the world better.

Genetic Engineering in Medicine

The reference to genetic engineering in the clinical environment is often discussed as an issue for debates because of ethical concerns. Still, the most promising benefit of utilizing genetic engineering and biotechnology is their use in treatment with the focus on a gene therapy to overcome genetic diseases, on transplantation of organs, and on the improvement of the human DNA.

Thus, genetic engineering can guarantee that necessary genes can be used to fight a certain disease and that damaged genes can be effectively replaced and repaired. Today, people have a chance to find an effective treatment for many genetic diseases, cancer, heart, and autoimmune diseases.

Pharmaceuticals that are results of genetic engineering are much superior in comparison to their antecedents (Stryjewska, Kiepura, Librowski, & LochyDski, 2013, p. 1076). Thus, the bio-engineered insulin extracted from cows or sheep and the human being growth hormone is important to address the problem of diabetes in the world.

Genetic engineering and biotechnology are also important to improve the process of pregnancy planning because many genetic diseases can be diagnosed earlier or even prevented. In addition, researchers are constantly developing approaches to improving such processes as the in-vitro fertilization in order to guarantee better results for future parents.

Researchers are also continuing the work with genes of embryos to make future babies look like their parents want (Miller & Spoolman, 2006, p. 129). The other important benefit of genetic engineering is the opportunity to use grown organs for transplantation instead of using donors organs. This approach is important to guarantee that all patients in need can receive the necessary organ easily.

In this context, the next stage is human cloning. Thus, cloning of mammals has been successful, and human cloning can become the result of a range of researches in the area of biotechnology and understanding of human DNA (OBrien & Kranz, 2009, p. 34). Human cloning can answer a lot of questions for researchers while providing more benefits for health care, reproductive technology, and pharmacology.

Genetic Engineering as a Controversial Issue

In spite of the focus on the obvious advantages of genetic engineering, many researchers state that biotechnology may pose a great threat to the environment and human health. Genetic engineering has a significant potential to increase the humans understanding of natural processes and use the knowledge in the sphere of medicine, but the active utilization of biotechnology resources can violate many ethical norms and religious beliefs.

In this context, the genetic experimentation can be discussed as a threat to the society (OBrien & Kranz, 2009, p. 204).

However, in spite of the views of critics, it is important to note that genetic engineering provides a variety of opportunities for people to improve the quality of their life and reach the new stage of civilizations development (Miller & Spoolman, 2006). The only important condition is the assessment and evaluation of all the pros and cons to predict unexpected effects.

Conclusion

In spite of being associated with a lot of prejudice, genetic engineering can be discussed as having many potential benefits for people to cope with numerous diseases and to address the key social problems. Nevertheless, although the field of genetic engineering and biotechnology promises many advantages and gains for researchers and for humanity, it is necessary to understand the limit while initiating new studies and experiments.

References

Kempken, F., & Jung, C. (2010). Genetic modification of plants: Agriculture, horticulture and forestry. New York, NY: Springer.

Lawlor, D. (2013). Genetic engineering to improve plant performance under drought: physiological evaluation of achievements, limitations, and possibilities. Journal of Experimental Botany, 64(1), 83-108.

Miller, G. T., & Spoolman, S. (2006). Sustaining the earth: An integrated approach. Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole.

OBrien, R., & Kranz, R. (2009). The unhealthy truth: How our food is making us sick  and what we can do about it. New York, NY: Potter/TenSpeed/Harmony.

Stryjewska, A., Kiepura, K., Librowski, T., & LochyDski, S. (2013). Biotechnology and genetic engineering in the new drug development. Part I. DNA technology and recombinant proteins. Pharmacological Reports, 65(5), 1075-1085.