Category: Gene

CRISPR: A Powerful New Way to Edit DNA

What exactly is CRISPR?

CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats) is an exclusive molecular system, which aims to change the structure of genes and exclude potentially dangerous cells that can adversely affect a particular organism. By adding to a DNA chain, this system can edit some sectors and remove from them those genes that are harmful. Similarly, CRISPR fights against bacteria and viruses that enter the human body.

In what ways could humans apply this new technology for practical purposes?

According to scientists, the effect of this molecular system on the example of a man has not yet been investigated to the end. However, there are already some positive results: many dairy producers note the effectiveness of CRISPR in combating bacterial cultures that are contained in yogurts and cheese against harmful viruses (Pollack par.15). Moreover, scientists managed to conduct successful experiments on monkeys by changing their genes (Pollack par. 6)

How is CRISPR different from other gene-editing technologies?

Unlike some other technologies that change the structure of DNA, CRISPR completely disables a particular gene and does not just partially edit it (Pollack par. 32). The potential of this system is quite significant because it may help to change the chain of information embedded in a body even at the stage of development. CRISPR allows completely getting rid of a particular gene and convert it as required.

Summary of the Article

The article A Powerful New Way to Edit DNA by Andrew Pollack tells about a new innovative molecular system called CRISPR, its capabilities, and its applications. Scientists working on its creation conducted a series of experiments on living organisms and got a rather unexpected and certainly significant result. CRISPR proved that it could fight with various pathogenic viruses and completely change the chains of DNA, thereby preventing harmful and mutational changes. So far, no experiments on humans have been conducted. Nevertheless, scientists suppose that they will be able to prove the effectiveness of this system in treating various mutations and genetic changes at the embryo stage shortly enough (Pollack par. 7).

As for the pros, there are several positive aspects that the introduction of CRISPR can bring into medicine. First, as Pollack notes, it is a rather practical step from a commercial point of view (par. 12). Various food producers, as well as farmers, are ready to use this technology to preserve the quality of their products and prevent premature spoilage. Perhaps, such use of CRISPR will not be available to everyone but only to the most advanced companies since this system is unlikely to be cheap. Secondly, this method of genetic change substantially accelerates the process of work on rearranging a DNA chain. If earlier scientists needed a lot of time, now, according to Pollack, this procedure can be done in one step (par. 28). Probably, this feature of the system is one of the most evident and undeniable advantages.

However, the system has its cons. For example, CRISPR raises ethical issues (Pollack par. 10). Despite the success of experiments on animals, the introduction of the system into a human body can cause unforeseen consequences. Furthermore, a change in what is inherent to nature is perhaps too bold a step. Also, according to the author, a possible problem is the delivery of a necessary structure for those cells that need to be changed (Pollack 39). In case of failure, the outcome of such an experiment will be unforeseen. Thus, CRISPR is a rather controversial technology regarding the need for its use, but the fact of an innovative discovery that can change the world and nature of a person is significant and undeniable. The wealthiest people will likely be able to experience the impact of this system since its cost will certainly be high. Judging by the results, the humanity will gain access to CRISPR soon enough, and the whole world is watching how this program is being developed and when its visible results will appear.

Work Cited

Pollack, Andrew. A Powerful New Way to Edit DNA.The New York Times, 2014, Web.

Introduction

When it comes to identifying a pathogen, whole-genome sequencing (WGS) can provide much useful information. This tool sequences the whole genome and compares it to the stored data of other sequenced genomes to find the specific pathogen among the identified matches. One of the most useful applications of the given approach is to determine the original source of an outbreak, and that is why WGS is actively used in epidemiology studies. Joensen et al. (2018) use WGS to analyse outbreaks of Campylobacter jejuni in the modern world by studying pathogen isolates. The scientists support clonal linkage between isolates and highlight that outbreaks potentially occur more frequently than previously assumed (Joensen et al., 2018, para. 14). It means that researchers should draw more attention to preventing and managing epidemics.

Simultaneously, Yang et al. (2017) use WGS to analyse the outbreak of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Shanghai, China. The researchers stipulate that WGS can be used to identify putative source cases, super-spreaders and transmission directions in the absence of, or complementary to, extensive epidemiological data (Yang et al., 2017, p. 275). Even though these two examples demonstrate that WGS addresses human beings, the tool can also be used to investigate poultry pathogens.

Concerning chickens, spotty liver disease (SLD) is a severe problem. According to Van et al. (2017, p. 226), this condition leads to egg production losses and mortality in birds. That is why numerous studies have been conducted to identify the bacteria that is responsible for the given disease. Van et al. (2017, p. 226) mention that Campylobacter hepaticus is the cause of SLD in chicken, which is an initial hypothesis of the practical. However, additional research is needed to obtain more data on the SLD bacteria and their pathogenesis. Consequently, the aim of the paper is to isolate the unknown pathogens DNA from chicken with an SLD and use WGS to identify this specific pathogen. Thus, the Rapid Annotation using Subsystem Technology (RAST) will annotate bacterial genomes, and the Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) will identify similarities between sequences.

Material and Methods

This work deals with an unknown bacterial sample that was obtained from chickens with SLD. As for methods, the given practical relies on Practical manual: whole-genome sequencing for identification and gene function prediction of bacterial genomes (2020). This document highlights all the steps required to decode a pathogen, including three separate practicals. Thus, Practical 1 explains tagmentation of genomic DNA, Practical 2 comments on library qualification and Practical 3 discusses bioinformatics issues. Consumables and equipment are mentioned at pages 6, 8 and 13 of the Practical manual (2020). Thus, it is possible to conclude that the given practical follows specific manual regulations.

Results

As has been mentioned above, the sequenced genome is submitted to the RAST for annotation and to the BLAST for identification. The given section is going to present the results of these procedures. Figure 1, a BLAST screenshot, demonstrates that the search has concluded that Campylobacter hapaticus strain HV10 is an SLD pathogen, while Campylobacter jejuni is the closest related species. The average nucleotide identity (ANI) value of the result is more than 99%.

Figure 2 represents the Seed Viewer data for the annotated genome. This information is useful to define the number of coding sequences and RNAs of the given isolate. Thus, Figure 2 shows that the isolate has 1,580 coding sequences and 45 RNAs. It means that the sample under analysis implies many genes and RNAs that can be matched against the given database. This fact should increase the reliability of the obtained results.

At the same time, Figure 2 indicates that the isolate has 191 subsystems, and Figure 3 below presents their analysis. The latter shows that the genome under investigation does not have any phages, prophages, transposable elements or plasmids. However, Figure 3 indicates 16 virulence, disease and defence genes. This subsystem is essential because it can include antibiotic resistance elements that, in turn, determine disease treatment options.

Discussion

WGS has demonstrated that Campylobacter hepaticus is an unknown pathogen that is isolated from chickens with an SLD. It is the same species as the bacteria that usually cause the disease. Thus, the practical results have supported the initial hypothesis and proved that Campylobacter hepaticus is a typical cause of an SLD among chickens. This finding is useful because it can help prevent SLD outbreaks and treat ill birds more successfully.

Since the identified isolate is one of Campylobacter species, it is necessary to comment on the genomics and proteomics features of the group. Thus, Van et al. (2019, p. 6) indicate that a typical structure of a Campylobacter genome includes many genes encoding chemotaxis (11 genes), motility (47 genes) and adherence/surface protein (59 genes). In addition to that, this genome acquires carbohydrates and metals with the help of appropriate metabolism loci (Van et al., 2019, p. 6). These are the features that are typical for any of the Campylobacter species.

However, Campylobacter hepaticus is a separate genome that implies unique coding sequences. Firstly, the given isolate has genes with predicted roles in chemotaxis, capsule and lipooligosaccharide synthesis and metabolism (Van et al., 2019, p. 6). It results in the fact that the pathogen tends to move from the gastrointestinal tract to the liver. Secondly, the lipooligosaccharide locus (LOS), a region that experience rearrangements, is unique to Campylobacter hepaticus because of 2 kb of the inserted sequence (Van et al., 2019, p. 7). It means that the genome has a significant part that is unique compared to other Campylobacter species. Thirdly, it is reasonable to comment on antibiotic resistance of the isolate because this phenomenon determines treatment options. In general, the risk of antibiotic-resistant plasmids is present in bacteria isolated from poultry sources. However, the subsystem statistics above has indicated that the isolate does not have any plasmids but contains 16 virulence, disease and defence genes. These elements can be a source of antibiotic resistance, meaning that they deserve additional attention.

Conclusion

Whole-genome sequencing is a useful tool to analyse genomes and identify their specific pathogens. This approach is used in epidemiology because it helps to determine a virus or bacterium that has caused an outbreak. That is why this method is utilised to investigate chickens with spotty liver disease. The initial hypothesis stipulated that Campylobacter hepaticus causes this disease, but additional research was necessary to prove it. Thus, whole-genome sequencing has demonstrated that Campylobacter hepaticus is responsible for spotty liver disease outbreaks among poultry. Furthermore, the practical has shown that Campylobacter hepaticus has genes that lead to niche adaptation, colonisation and virulence. This information means that further research is needed to minimise the risk of Campylobacter hepaticus outbreaks.

References

Joensen, K. G. et al. (2018) Whole-genome sequencing of Campbylobacter jejuni isolated from Danish routine stool samples reveals surprising degree of clustering, Clinical Microbiology and Infection, 24(2), pp. 201.e5-201.e8.

Practical manual: whole genome sequencing for identification and gene function prediction of bacterial genomes (2020).

Van, T. T. H. et al. (2017) Campylobacter hepaticus, the cause of spotty liver disease in chickens, is present throughout the small intestine and caeca of infected birds, Veterinary Microbiology, 207, pp. 226-230.

Van, T. T. H. et al. (2019) Survival mechanisms of Campylobacter hepaticus identified by genomic analysis and comparative transcriptomic analysis of in vivo and in vitro derived bacteria, Frontiers in Microbiology, 10, pp. 1-19.

Yang, C. et al. (2017) Transmission of multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Shanghai, China: a retrospective observational study using whole-genome sequencing and epidemiological investigation, The Lancet Infectious Diseases, 17(3), pp. 275-284.

Genes and the environment mutually influence one another. One way to investigate these bidirectional interactions between genes and environment is to examine monozygotic twins. One of the studies dedicated to the issue of the gene-environment interaction of fragile x syndrome in twins was performed by Willemsen et al. (2000). The authors analyzed monozygotic twin sisters case, one of whom is affected by a full mutation in the FMR1 gene and is mentally handicapped. The production of an FMRP protein, which is presented in the brain and develops connections between synapses, depends on this FMR1 gene. Another sister is not affected by the mutation and has normal mental development. Willemsen et al. (2000) analyzed the blood cells of the twins. This analysis showed that the normal sisters X chromosome is active in all blood cells, whereas her sisters X chromosome inactive in approximately 50% of her blood cells (Willemsen et al., 2000, p. 603). The work concludes that inactivation of the X chromosome when the embryos of the twins became separated.

It is essential to study gene-environment interactions because it could improve population health. The investigation of these interactions is possible through the examination of monozygotic twins reared apart. This method was used by Bergeman et al. (1988) to test how different environments affect identical genotypes. Bergeman et al. (1988) analyze 99 pairs of such twins to see the differences in personalities between tweens who were parented separately.

Another method to explore interactions between genes and environment is multivariate modeling. This method could be illustrated by the research conducted by Gillespie et al. (2004). The scholars analyzed the Junior Eysenck Personality Questionnaire scores taken by more than 540 twin pairs via genetic simplex modeling. Gillespie et al. (2004) discovered that genetic variations in twins at the age of 14  16 years could be explained by genetic variations present in them at the age of 12.

References

Bergeman, C. S., Plomin, R., McClearn, G. E., Pedersen, N. L., & Friberg, L. T. (1988). Genotype Environment interaction in personality development: Indentical twins reared apart. Psychology and aging, 3(4), 399406.

Gillespie, N. A., Evans, D. E., Wright, M. M., & Martin, N. G. (2004). Genetic simplex modeling of Eysencks dimensions of personality in a sample of young Australian twins. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 7(6), 637-648.

Willemsen, R., Olmer, R., Otero, Y. D. D., & Oostra, B. A. (2000). Twin sisters, monozygotic with the fragile X mutation, but with a different phenotype. Journal of medical genetics, 37(8), 603-604.

Introduction

Traditionally epidemiologists use descriptive, analytic, and experimental research methods to investigate public health issues. Once the descriptive epidemiology of a disease is known, specific analytic or experimental methods are utilized to study the issue further. As research continues and new questions are asked, it is not uncommon for new methods to be introduced. Often, these cutting-edge methods let researchers investigate public health issues in new ways. For example, consider meta-analysis, a relatively new method in biostatistics. To apply this method, no new data are collected. Instead, results from previous studies are combined and analyzed in new, complex ways. In recent years, meta-analysis has gained popularity among epidemiologists. Nevertheless, this approach has limitations and is not appropriate for all epidemiological research (Williams, 2005). Another method used in epidemiology research is gene-environment interactions. It is applied for the investigation of many complex diseases which are influenced by both genetic and environmental factors.

Article Summary and Method Description

Gene-environment interplay was used by Bookman et al. (2011) to develop an integrative model to deal with common complex diseases. The researchers state that complex diseases and disorders, such as cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, or psychiatric disorders, are the major concern of society since they have a high prevalence (Bookman et al., 2011). Thousands of genetic variants were screened to reveal the associations with the diseases. However, genetics is not the only factor conditioning these diseases. The role of various environments in the modification of novel genes should also be considered. Thus, gene-environment interaction should be discovered. It will give a better understanding of complex diseases etiology and contribute to the prevention strategies. The environments in their broad sense include airborne chemical and biological agents, dietary intake, physical activity, addictive substances, and psychosocial stress (Bookman et al., 2011, p.220).

Anno (2016) mentions that gene-environment interactions have an impact on the development of complex diseases. The results of these interactions can be applied in different spheres. The investigation of gene-environment interactions includes the understanding of skin color variations as adaptation, the application of information theoretic methods for their analysis, the practice of regional epidemiological study, etc. (Anno, 2016). On the whole, gene-environment interaction is the method that allows modeling the reaction of different genotypes to environmental changes based on the previous investigations of their interactions. It makes possible the prediction of influences that a certain environment has on the development of common complex diseases.

Advantages of the Method

The advantage of the method of gene-environment interaction is that it allows assessing both environmental and genetic influences with certain accuracy. Since the method gives the possibility to model the etiology of disorders conditioned by both environmental and genetic influences, it also helps to identify  individuals most susceptible to risk exposures or most amenable to preventive and therapeutic interventions (Manuck & McCafferym, 2014, p.41). The method has a broad implementation in the research of various diseases. For example, Nickels et al. (2013) provide the evidence of gene-environment interactions between breast cancer susceptibility and environmental risk factors. In this case, it was the best method since there were many common genetic susceptibility loci for breast cancer but their connection with environmental or lifestyle risk factors was not traced. Another example of successful implementation of gene-environment interactions is the study of obesity origins (Bouret, Levin, & Ozanne, 2015). The authors concentrate on the interactions of genetic and environmental variables which influence the predisposition of people to obesity which is often accompanied with diabetes. The knowledge of those interactions can help in the development of prevention strategies.

Conclusions

It is considered that both genetic and non-genetic factors influence the development of common complex diseases. The genetic factors cannot be easily changed while non-genetic or environmental can be altered. The method of gene-environment interactions allows tracing the dependence of both factors. Consequently, the information on the interactions can be used to provide the work on prevention of complex diseases through the chance of environment. It can result in the increase of the preventive strategies efficiency and the improvement of general health of population.

References

Anno, S. (Ed.). (2016). Gene-environment interaction analysis: Methods in bioinformatics and computational biology. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Bookman, E. B., McAllister, K., Gillanders, E., Wanke, K., Balshaw, D., Rutter, J., & Birnbaum, L. S. (2011). Gene-environment interplay in common complex diseases: Forging an integrative model  Recommendations from an NIH workshop. Genetic Epidemiology, 35(4), 217-225.

Bouret, S., Levin, B.E., & Ozanne, S.E. (2015). Gene-environment interactions controlling energy and glucose homeostasis and the developmental origins of obesity. Psychological Reviews, 95(1), 47-82. Web.

Manuk, S.B., & McCaffery, J.M. (2014). Gene-environment interaction. Annual Review of Psychology, 65, 41-70.

Nickels, S., Truong, T., Hein, R., Stevens, K., Buck, K., Behrens, S., & Chang-Claude, J. (2013). Evidence of gene-environment interactions between common breast cancer susceptibility loci and established environmental risk factors. PLOS Genetics, 9(3), 1-14. Web.

Gene therapy is a promising vector in modern medicine that has been actively researched for a few decades. This field of scientific knowledge has the potential to cure many acquired and inherited diseases. Although studying gene therapy has faced many challenges over the years, scientists worldwide put much effort into uncovering its full potential, which is why this medical treatment is rapidly developing.

The interest in gene therapy can be explained by its intended purpose: achieving a significant clinical benefit with a single treatment. The first steps in studying this field were taken almost fifty years ago when an American researcher Theodore Friedmann evaluated the potential and challenges related to the usage of gene therapy (as cited in Dunbar et al., 2018, p. 2). It can be highly effective in curing neurodegenerative and immune disorders, hemophilia, different forms of cancer, and other illnesses. However, this form of medicine also has many disadvantages, which is why it is not approved in many countries. The first trials of gene therapy exposed serious therapy-related toxicities, including inflammatory responses to the vectors and malignancies caused by vector-mediated insertional activation of protooncogenes (Dunbar et al., 2018, p. 1). In order to deal with the associated issues, additional research is conducted in cell biology, immunology, and virology (Dunbar et al., 2018). Scientists continue to explore gene therapy and seek new ways to make it as efficient and safe as possible.

However, the therapy under discussion is associated with a significant problem related to informed consent. The disadvantages of gene therapy may affect the patient and their entire bloodline due to possible germline mutations (Dunbar et al., 2018). Genotoxicity is a serious issue, and many patients may fear it and reject therapy even though it can liquidate their most severe diseases. Therefore, informed consent will remain a crucial problem until the methods to stabilize the germline and prevent negative consequences of gene therapy appear.

There is also a problem of implanted genes being passed on to the next generations. Nowadays, heritable germline editing is a realistic possibility due to the technological advancements in this area, yet many people do not find it an advantage (Dunbar et al., 2018). An international group of scientists and other professionals published a report in 2017 revealing a possible pathway to correct germline mutations (as cited in Dunbar et al., 2018). It would mean that the negative consequences of implanting genes could be reversed. However, the federal governments of different countries have put many restrictions on gene therapy as there is currently no guaranteed method to prevent implanted genes from being passed on to the next generations.

I think gene therapy is ethical since it aims to cure severe illnesses. Having cancer or a neurodegenerative disorder is worse than having an edited genome. Furthermore, heritable germline editing can decrease future generations chances of inheriting a chronic disease from people who have undergone gene therapy. Still, I do not think that people will design their babies in the future, as it is not the initial purpose of gene therapy. It is a medical instrument intended to cure diseases and help people who suffer from them. While that is true, I do not see an ethical issue in gene therapy, but using it for designing babies seems unethical at all points.

Reference

Dunbar, C. E., High, K. A., Joung, J. K., Kohn, D. B., Ozawa, K., & Sadelain, M. (2018). Gene therapy comes of age. Science, 359(6372), 1-11. Web.

Introduction

Biotechnology is the use of organisms or their derivatives that are modified to suit human needs. This field is gaining popularity in different fields like medicine, agriculture, and food science where different products are produced in large amounts overcoming obstacles that have rocked these fields. For instance, it is easy now to produce insulin in large amounts from bacteria and this helps doctors to deal with the issue of diabetes efficiently. This paper looks into gene therapy.

Gene Therapy

Gene therapy is used widely in the treatment of diseases like cancer, Severe Combined Immunodeficiency, (SCID), and AIDS among other diseases. Normal genes or cells, manufactured in laboratories are used to supplement defective genes or cells in the body of a human (Health Canada, 2005). In gene therapy, there are two modes of delivering desired results. The first one is in vitro gene therapy. In this case, experts obtain the defective cells from the bone marrow and grow them in the laboratory. After growing these cells, the defect is corrected by replacing the defective genes with functional ones. This correction occurs by the use of viruses that act as vectors to introduce the desired genes in these cells in the laboratory (Health Canada, 2005). After the cells undergo correction in the laboratory, they are injected back into the patients body where they grow and start producing the desired genes.

The other form is in vivo gene therapy whereby, vectors like viruses are injected into the body of the patient without necessarily obtaining cells from the patient. Viruses are the most preferred vectors because they have a simple genetic makeup that can be knocked off and replaced with the desired genetic material. The purpose of a vector is to offer a transfer mechanism that offers a favorable environment for the genes that are being transferred. The viruses attack the target cells releasing the desirable genetic materials into these cells, which then incorporate them into their DNA.

This application is a form of biotechnology because there is the use of living organisms to meet human needs. Viruses, acting as vectors transfer genetic material into the patient and this qualifies this process as a biotechnology process.

The benefits of this application are innumerable for diseases that posed great challenges to treatment are now treatable. Some of the diseases that have been treated using gene therapy include SCID and diabetes type one. In SCID patients, the T or B immune cells either are compromised or absent. By use of gene therapy, doctors have successfully replaced these defective immune cells thus correcting the defect. In diabetes type one; gene therapy has been to replace the non-functional pancreatic cells with functional ones that can produce insulin

Conclusion

Gene therapy is a form of biotechnology for it uses viruses, which are living organisms, to deliver desired genes into the body of a patient. However, there are concerns about this or any other form of biotechnology. Ethically, it is expensive and only available to the rich hence discriminating against the poor. Religiously, biotechnology amounts to genetic manipulation; something against the beliefs of many people for this is tantamount to challenging works of creation. Scientifically, biotechnology or gene therapy per se is not foolproof. There is the probability that insertion of genetic material into the human body may fail or occur wrongly hence complicating the whole process of treatment (Kolehmainen, 2009).

References

Health Canada. (2005). Gene Therapy. Science and Research. Web. 

Kolehmainen, S. (2009). The Dangerous Promise of Gene Therapy. Web.

Abstract

Microbial resistance to antimicrobial agents is a growing challenge for the development of chemotherapeutic agents. E. coli is a Gram-negative bacteria that contain pathogenic strains that lead to various illnesses including infections of the respiratory system, urinary tract and gastrointestinal system. Previous studies have reported that small molecules are being developed as chemotherapeutic agents in Staphylococcus aureus by targeting heme metabolism and iron. Since iron is also vital in the physiological reactions of E. coli and that changes in its concentrations affect the bacteria, it is hypothesized that altering the regulation of iron in E. coli by interfering with the structure of the Fur gene will affect the metabolism of E. coli hence lead to the death of bacteria. Such a move will enable the identification of drug targets in E. coli as well as the development of potential therapeutic agents that will help fight microbial resistance to antibiotics. This idea fits the definition of chemical biology because the experiment focuses on understanding the chemical processes of mutations on the functions of the Fur gene in controlling iron uptake and utilization.

Background

Escherichia coli is a species of Gram-negative bacteria found naturally in the environment, food, and gastrointestinal tract of animals and humans. Most strains of E. coli are harmless. However, certain strains are linked with the occurrence of infections of the respiratory tract such as pneumonia, gastrointestinal infections and urinary tract ailments.

E. coli has shown an extraordinary tendency for acquiring resistance to antimicrobial agents (Hasan et al. 689). Therefore, drug-resistant strains are continually becoming a danger to public health. Most microbial agents lead to the death of bacterial cells by interfering with normal physiological processes of bacteria hence lowering their pathogenicity. Some of the target areas include bacterial cell walls and enzymes. Therefore, studies that look at small molecules on bacterial cells and are valuable tools for understanding the fundamental biology and pathogenesis of these bactreia and may provide leads in the discovery and development of novel therapeutic agents. The advancement of virulence and drug resistance in community settings emphasize the need for developing new antimicrobial compounds and target pathways.

Iron is vital to most living organisms due to its importance in various metabolic processes. For instance, it is a component of all heme enzymes including cytochromes and hydroperoxidase. Iron is also necessary in as a cofactor for enzymes that facilitate reproduction, metabolism, and defense against reactive oxygen species. Nevertheless, iron is not found readily and bacterial cells have to use a number of iron uptake systems to obtain it. Despite the usefulness of iron, its concentration in bacterial cells needs to be kept within certain levels. Exceeding these levels leads to toxic effects within the cells, for example, the generation of reactive oxygen species that lead to the peroxidation of lipids within the cell membrane, damage to proteins and DNA (Andrews, Robinson and Rodriguez-Quinones 226). A study by Sorokina et al. (439) demonstrates that optimal growth was observed in E. coli at iron concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 2 mg per liter. Conversely, iron concentrations of 29 mg per liter lead to the complete inhibition of the growth of E. coli. Iron cannot be used directly as an antimicrobial agent because altering the concentrations in a human host will also have deleterious effects on the host. Previous studies have successfully demonstrated the use of heme homologs in disrupting heme metabolism in Staphylococcus aureus through interfering with heme sensor system (HssRS) that overcomes heme toxicity (Dutter et al. A).

It is known that ferric-uptake regulator protein (Fur) controls the amounts of free iron in the intracellular space by regulating iron acquirement and iron usage, for instance, iron storage. Fur is a homodimer made up of 17-kDa subunits (Perard et al. B).

It functions as a positive repressor because it interacts with iron ions leading to the repression of transcription. Conversely, in the absence of iron ions, it brings about de-repression of transcription. It binds one ferrous ion for each subunit as well as other chemically-related ions such as cobalt and manganese. The attachment of a metal ion raises the affinity of the protein for its DNA-binding site by approximately 1000 times. In the absence of Fur, iron intake and utilization become imbalanced leading to excessive amounts of free iron.

Experimental Plan

Interfering with the Fur gene is the most suitable way of interfering with iron metabolism in E. coli.

Isolation of the Fur Gene

The Fur gene will be isolated from E. coli K-12 cells using synthetic primers that will be synthesized using known gene sequences of the Fur gene that will be obtained from the NCBI database.

Site-Directed Mutagenesis of the Fur Gene

Mutations will be introduced to the Fur gene at three different points which are upstream, downstream and the middle region of the gene using polymerase chain reaction. Different primers with mutations will be designed to incorporate the desired changes, which will be insertions, deletions and substitution. The three different mutations will then be applied to each region of the Fur gene. The mutant genes will be ligated into the lac Z operon of a plasmid.

Transfection of E. coli Cells and Selection of Transformed Cells

The plasmids will be incubated with E. coli cells. The transformed cells will be selected by growing the incubated cells in culture medium containing lactose due to the presence of the lac Z operon in the plasmids.

Confirming the Efficacy of the Mutation

The transformed E. coli cells will then be grown in medium containing various concentrations of iron to determine the activity of the mutant Fur genes in regulating iron uptake and usage in unaltered E. coli as the negative control.

Significance and Summary

Carrying out this project will provide knowledge regarding the effect of introducing mutations into the Fur gene on iron uptake regulation and its effect on the growth of E. coli cells. Other E. coli genes such as acnA, bfr, ftnA, fumA, fumB,

sdhCDAB, and sodB are also activated by iron in a Fur-reliant fashion. Carrying out site-directed mutagenesis at three different points will provide data that will facilitate the identification of mutation sites that lead to the complete inhibition of the Fur gene hence hampering iron metabolism. Mutants that will produce the largest inhibition effect will then be developed into therapeutic agents that will target iron metabolism in pathogenic E. coli. The effect of the Fur protein on the other genes will possibly produce a synergistic effect in preventing microbial growth.

Iron is an important element in the metabolism of bacteria and should be provided for a microbe to thrive and effect pathogenesis. However, the levels of iron concentrations should be maintained at given levels to prevent harmful effects of excessive iron. In pathogenic E. coli, interfering with the Fur gene, which is responsible for the regulation of uptake and utilization of iron, is a potential method of developing chemotherapeutic agents to combat microbial drug resistance.

Works Cited

Andrews, Simon C., Andrea K. Robinson, and Francisco Rodriguez-Quinones. Bacterial Iron Homeostasis. FEMS Microbiology Reviews. 27.2003 (2003): 215-237.

Dutter, Brendan F., Laura A. Mike, Paul R. Reid, Katherine M. Chong, Susan J. Ramos-Hunter, Eric P. Skaar, and Gary A. Sulikowski 2016, Decoupling Activation of Heme Biosynthesis from Anaerobic Toxicity in a Molecule Active in Staphylococcus aureus. ACS Chemical Biology.

Hasan, Badrul, Rayhan Faruque, Mirva Drobni, Jonas Waldenström, Abdus Sadique, Kabir Uddin Ahmed, Zahirul Islam, M. B. Hossain Parvez, Björn Olsen and Munirul Alam. High Prevalence of Antibiotic Resistance in Pathogenic Escherichia coli from Large- and Small-Scale Poultry Farms in Bangladesh. Avian Diseases. 55.4 (2011): 689-692.

Perard, Julien, Jacques Cove, Mathieu Castellan, Charles Solard, Myriam Savard, Roger Miras, Sandra Galop, Luca Signor, Serge Crouzy, Isabelle Michaud-Soret, and Eve de Rosny 2016, Quaternary Structure of Fur Proteins, a New Subfamily of Tetrameric Proteins. Biochemistry.

Sorokina, E. V., Yudina, T. P., Bubnov, I. A., and Danilov, V. S. Assessment of Iron Toxicity Using a Luminescent Bacterial Test with an Escherichia coli Recombinant Strain. Microbiology. 82.4(2013): 439-444.

Figure References

Andrews, Simon C., Andrea K. Robinson, and Francisco Rodriguez-Quinones. Bacterial Iron Homeostasis. FEMS Microbiology Reviews. 27.2003 (2003): 215-237.

Kitatsuji, Chihiro Kozue Izumi, Shusuke Nambu, Masaki Kurogochi, Takeshi Uchida, Shin-Ichiro Nishimura, Kazuhiro Iwai, Mark R. OBrian, Masao Ikeda-Saito and Koichiro Ishimori. Protein Oxidation Mediated by Heme-Induced Active Site Conversion Specific for Heme-Regulated Transcription Factor, Iron Response Regulator. Scientific Reports 6.18703 (2016).

Wood, Marcia 2011. Lesser Known Escherichia coli Types Targeted in Food Safety Research. 

Stem cell research is a subject that has generally been absent from the current public and political debates recently. The issue has been pushed aside by more immediate issues such as the economy, war on two fronts and healthcare.

However, it wasnt long ago that headlines were concerned with the ethical issues of using embryonic stem cells for scientific research. Advocates as well as opponents made very verbal emotional appeals in support of their position with neither side seeming to gain much momentum.

The issue is sure to again be in the spotlight with Obamas recent approval of limited research in this area. Much of the controversy is bound up in the use of embryos to further science. If the majority of politicians determine that this use of abandoned embryos is ethical, the question remains where should the limit of this type of research be drawn?

Will the findings of research truly be able to combat the effects of spinal cord injuries or Parkinsons disease? Or will it instead be akin to opening Pandoras Box, releasing new terror on the world that can never again be contained? Are designer babies on the near horizon for the wealthy or super-humans about to be born as a result of Frankenstein-like scientific pursuits? Will science become able to make spare human parts that are superior to the original, reducing the natural human to a level of subspecies? Where will this new technology lead? These and other unforeseen future scenarios present daunting questions that do not have clear answers and are likely not answerable.

What does seem clear is that the benefits of gene therapy to those already living seem too numerous to simply throw away in the debate. The purpose of the present study is to discover just what benefits gene therapy might have to offer present and future generations.

Hypothesis

It is hypothesized that the current state of gene therapy technology is already capable of producing astounding results in a number of ailments and illnesses that were previously untreatable. Should this prove to be the case, it is also hypothesized that further research will prove significant in reducing or eradicating human genetic disease.

Methodology

There are two broad groups of research methods available for this type of study: qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative research, according to Dawson (2007), refers to research which explores attitudes, behaviors and experiences of physical material.

It can employ evaluation of available studies, field work observations and case studies among other things. On the other hand, quantitative research refers to the use of statistical tools to conduct research, usually on a large scale. It employs hard experimental data and statistical knowledge to prove or disprove the postulated hypothesis originally set to derive the outcome of the research objectives.

Qualitative studies are focused on the examination of paradigms and perspectives of the research project. It is based on the positivism, constructivism or participatory paradigm framework. The framework is based on certain assumptions and practices which are then applied in the disciplined inquiry (Denzin and Lincoln 2005).

The complexity in the choice of research is inherent in the type of topic of research and the theory that is used for inquiry. Quantitative research methods are often adopted based on the empirical methods of structured action research with emphasis on empirical findings.

Information is defined specific to the hypothesis. On the other hand, in qualitative research, background primary and secondary research are required. It involves first hand observation as well as investigation and evaluation.

Theory employed

The process used for the current research is a combination of these methods. While hard evidence is looked to as a means of proving the relative merits of gene therapy in humanitys attempts to eradicate genetic disease and defection, the potential of genetic research must also be viewed from a qualitative viewpoint as no hard data truly exists for future potential. As a result, this study will largely depend upon literature review to prove its argument that gene therapy contains too much potential for benefit to be ignored.

Context

Throughout history, the benefits to society by the introduction of new medical technologies have been considerable. A primary example in the past few centuries has been the introduction of vaccines and antibiotics as a result of greater microscopic understanding of disease.

These advancements have significantly improved the well-being of people all over the globe. The science of stem cell treatments has the potential to become as significant or perhaps even more significant for human welfare than these earlier achievements in microbiology.

This field of research is on the edge of a new stage of exploration and growth that could be the forerunner of unprecedented cures and therapies in the same way that cowpox exposure was once the forerunner of todays advanced vaccination programs.

The present enthusiasm over prospective stem cell produced remedies radiates from these new innovations in genetic biology fueled by increased understanding of the possibilities of stem cells. Though one cannot forecast exact results from basic research, there is already enough information available to suggest that a good deal of this enthusiasm is justified.

Literature review

Stem cells are basically the building block cells of a human being. They are the blueprint cells which have the potential to develop into one of 210 different types of tissue. Stem cells have traditionally been defined as not fully differentiated yet to be any particular type of cell or tissue (Irving, 1999).

Although adult stem cells can be found in very small numbers within most human tissues, the majority of stem cells used for research and development can be obtained from the umbilical cord. A more precise term for these types of cells is somatic stem cells (Sullivan, 2004).

There are numerous potential sources for somatic stem cells. Embryonic stem cells originate from the inner cells of an early stage embryo. Embryonic germ cells can be collected from fetal tissue at a later stage of development. Adult stem cells can be obtained from mature tissues. Even after complete maturation of an organism, cells need to be replaced.

A good example (of adult stem cells) is blood, but this is true for muscle and other connective tissue as well, and may be true for at least some nervous system cells (Chapman et al, 1999).

Although there are numerous potential sources for these types of cells, the controversy surrounding stem cell research seems to focus on the use of unused embryos, such as those lost during miscarriage or those not used during infertility treatment, to harvest cells as they exist in the embryo in much greater quantities.

Dr. John Gearhart, professor of gynecology and obstetrics at Johns Hopkins University said of these cells, Its sort of like, the mother of all stem cells (Human Embryonic, 1997). While the practice of organ transplant surgery from a dying patient to one who might be saved is hailed as heroic and beneficial to society, the same practice applied on the embryo level has achieved little more than criticism and contention.

There are three main objectives given for pursuing stem cell research. These include obtaining vital scientific information about embryonic development; curing incapacitating ailments such as Parkinsons and Alzheimers disease and testing the effects of new drugs instead of testing on animals (Irving, 1999).

A greater understanding of embryonic development may aid in preventing birth defects and disease prior to it becoming a problem while the baby is still within the womb. It may also help settle the great abortion question in discovering just when a developing group of cells in the womb makes the transition into a human being.

Stem cell research in the area of disease prevention and treatment is also expected to aid victims of stroke, spinal cord injuries, bone diseases and diabetes (Irving, 1999). The scientific techniques for obtaining stem cells could lead to unparalleled advances and even cures for these and other ailments.

More than half of European countries and others around the world such as Japan allow for embryonic stem cell research in various degrees in recognition of the potential benefits it has to offer. Australia, for example, followed the UKs model in allowing scientists to use the tissue of aborted fetuses, with the parents consent, to conduct scientific experimentation.

According to Health-Day, a daily news service reporting on consumer health, permitting stem cell research enabled Swiss physicians at the University of Lausanne to discover that a two and a half-inch piece of skin from a fetus aborted at 14 weeks could provide several million grafts that could be used to treat burn victims.

The same study also found that skin cells from an aborted fetus were able to heal burns faster than standard grafts taken from patients or adult donors.

Patrick Hohlfeld, the prime author of the study said the use of fetal skin has tremendous potential because taking just one skin graft gives you the potential to treat thousands of people (Strode, 2005). In light of this discovery, it seems frivolous and wasteful to allow the expiration of an unwanted embryo without also permitting the tissue to be used for more beneficial purposes.

It has been substantiated from animal research that stem cells can be differentiated into cells that will behave appropriately in their transplanted location, regardless of what that location might be. For example, the transplantation of stem cells following treatment for cancer has found much success for many years.

Experiments such as the transplantation of fetal tissue into the brains of Parkinsons patients indicate that the expectation that stem cell therapies could provide robust treatments for many human diseases is a reasonable one. It is only through controlled scientific research that the true promise will be understood (Frankel, 1999).

Embryonic stem cells possess the ability to restore defective or damaged tissues which would heal or regenerate organs which have been adversely affected by a degenerative disease. Cell therapy has the very real potential to provide new cures for diabetes, cancer, kidney disease, Parkinsons, macular degeneration, multiple sclerosis and many other kinds of diseases.

Cell therapy has also demonstrated a great potential to help repair and regenerate spinal cord injuries which would help paralyzed patients recapture lost body functions. The possibilities are limitless including greatly advancing the human lifespan because aging organs could be replenished and diseased tissue could be replaced.

Personal Opinion

Given the proven facts of gene therapy as it has been discovered in other countries and the subjective understanding of primary arguments against the use of stem cell research in this country, it seems clear that the opposition to stem cell research is based on moral fear rather than verifiable danger.

Whatever ones moral or political position, the fact is that discarded fetuses could serve to advance scientific and medical knowledge in numerous and as yet unlimited ways. Those who believe they are taking the moral ground when it comes to the unborn are making a choice between an already expiring group of tissues and an already living but suffering member of the world society.

Regardless of their decision, the embryo would not survive anyway while blocking research only prolongs the suffering and hopelessness of the living who might have achieved a quicker, more effective and perhaps more lasting cure as a result of stem cell research advances.

Because many embryos used for stem cell research may be acquired through the process of abortion, with laws that differ from state by state, one must take into account these definitions and restrictions as being equally applicable to the scientific community in the conducting of their research.

The vast majority of states in the union allow for abortions to be performed at least through the second trimester, which is more fully defined as 24 weeks into the pregnancy. This limitation was set based upon the neurological point of view of human development, which itself conforms to our societys definition of death as being the absence of a cerebral EEG (electroencephalogram) pattern.

Because life is considered to be the opposite of death, this same standard is used to determine the presence of life. The presence of the EEG pattern of a fetus can be detected approximately 27 into weeks into the pregnancy. Meanwhile, an embryo is defined as a fetus that has reached approximately seven to eight weeks following fertilization.

At about four to five weeks, embryonic germ cells suitable for use in stem cell research, are developing (Morowitz & Trefil, 1992). It can be seen, therefore, that this stage is reached well before any signs of life are present at a level set far below that allowed for abortions to proceed. As an answer to the moral dilemma, however, it has been suggested that only fetuses of stillbirths be used for stem cell research.

However, the collecting of embryonic germ cells would be extremely challenging in these cases as there is only a small amount of time to collect these cells before they degenerate and become invalid. There would also be problems using these cells for research as stillbirths might have resulted from a genetic irregularity that may flaw the research (Sullivan, 2004).

While scientists continue to attempt to battle the issue of stem cell research using their wealth of data and proven human benefit, it is necessary for them to remember that they are not battling against logical, open-minded opponents but morally outraged and illogical ideologues.

Stem cell research is essential if the human race is going to take the next step forward in learning how to combat the plagues of our times  cancer, Alzheimers, Parkinsons, diabetes, sickle cell. It may also provide the answer to many of our more perplexing injuries, allowing severely burned individuals to return to productive lives or those suffering from spinal cord injuries to resume normal life patterns again.

While hard facts and proven benefits are essential in determining whether this type of research should be allowed, moralists opposed to the practice need to also be reminded of what theyre standing for when they insist already dying tissue should be preserved in its natural state rather than being employed to ease pain and suffering and contributing to a better world society.

References

Chapman, Audrey; Frankel, Mark S.; & Garfinkel, Michele S. (November 1999). Stem Cell Research and Applications: Monitoring the Frontiers of Biomedical Research. American Association for the Advancement of Science and Institute for Civil Society.

Dawson, C. (2007). A Practical Guide to Research Methods. 3rd Ed. How to Books Ltd.

Denzin, N. K. & Lincoln, Y.S. (2005). Introduction: The discipline and practice of qualitative research.. The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Frankel, Mark. (1999). Stem Cell Research and Applications: Findings and Recommendations. Stem Cell Research and Applications Scientific, Ethical and Policy Issues. American Association for the Advancement of Science and Institute for Civil Society.

Human Embryonic Stem Cells Reported. (July 19, 1997). New Scientist. Program on Science, Technology and Society.

Irving, Dianne N. (1999). Stem Cell Research: Some Pros and Cons. Written on request of Fr. Thomas King, S.J., Ph.D., Department of Theology, Georgetown University; President, University Faculty For Life, for their newsletter, UFL Pro-Vita.

Sullivan, Patricia. (2004). Frequently Asked Questions: Do Stem Cells Come From Aborted Fetuses? International Society for Stem Cell Research.

Strode, Tom. (2005). Life Digest: New Stem Cell Research Encouraging but Problematic; Researchers Find New Use for Aborted Babies. Baptist Press News.

Mendels law of segregation claims that the two alleles for each trait of a diploid organism split in the process of gamete formation and that during the formation of new zygotes, the alleles will randomly combine with other alleles.

Genotype is the totality of all the genes of an organism, which compose its hereditary basis. A phenotype is a set of all the characteristics of an organism that are revealed in the process of individual development in a certain internal and external environment. While homozygote is an organism that has allelic genes of one molecular form (AA or aa), heterozygote has allelic genes of different molecular forms (dominant and recessive). A recessive gene is an allele that determines the development of a trait only in the homozygous state, and an allele that determines the development in both homozygous and heterozygous states is dominant.

A testcross used an experimental mating test to identify whether an allele is homozygous or heterozygous. Namely, an organism to be tested is crossed with another one whose recessive trait is homozygous, and their offspring are examined. Recessive offspring indicates that the parental organism is heterozygous.

According to Mendels law of independent assortment, every pair of alternative traits is inherited in several generations self-reliantly each other during meiosis. As a result, organisms with new combinations of traits appear among the descendants of the second generation.

The crossing of white snapdragons with red snapdragons produces all F1 hybrids having a pink color. When they reproduce, it leads to F2 hybrids with one red to two pinks to one white ratio, which does not confirm the blending theory. It means that the hybrids maintain their identity since pink gametes produce red and white flowers.

In complete dominance, the phenotypes of the dominant homozygote and heterozygote cannot be distinguished as they are identical, while incomplete dominance presents seemingly blending phenotypic expression. In co-dominance, both alleles impact the phenotype in distinct ways.

The ABO blood system is associated with glycoproteins that can be present it absent in red blood cells. An allele and B allele is responsible for producing and inserting into A and B membranes, respectively, but the O allele is not characterized by the production of glycoprotein. An individual can be homozygous for O, and he or she can have AO or AB genotypes. People with B blood can be BB or BO, people with A blood can be AA or AO, and those with AB have both types of glycoprotein.

Pleiotropy is multiple gene action, influencing the development of several traits. The pleiotropic effect is possessed by genes that control the synthesis of broadly acting enzymes involved in several biochemical processes. An example of pleiotropy is the gene for white coat color in cats. The dominant allele W of this gene determines not only the white color of the coat but also the color of the eyes and deafness of blue-eyed cats.

Epistasis is the interaction of non-allelic genes when the gene of one allelic pair suppresses the action of the dominant gene of the other allelic pair. Instead of Mendelian splitting during dihybrid crossing of 9: 3: 3: 1, splitting of 15: 1, 9: 7, and others were recorded. This indicated that there are certain relationships between non-allelic genes, leading to other types of splitting of traits in offspring. In a dihybrid cross, there will be fewer than four common phenotypic classes.

A simple polygenic inheritance refers to the interaction of several genes to generate a particular trait. This process is usually described in quantitative terms because there are multiple genes, and their characteristics may vary, which cannot be accurately identified using qualitative methods.

Environmental conditions affect the phenotype through temperature, nutrition patterns, stress, as well as exposure to toxins, radiation, and pathogens. For example, smoking and environmental pollution may be triggers for developing a predisposition to asthma and lung cancer. In Siamese cats, higher temperature leads to lighter coats.

A lethal recessive gene can only be homozygous, but it is transferred by heterozygous carriers since they possess normal phenotypes. If the lethal allele did not cause the death of its carrier until his or her maturity and reproduction, it is maintained in the population and conveyed to future generations.

Consanguinity occurs when people with the same blood (cousins, siblings, and so on) meet and mate, and they are more likely to carry the same recessive disease-causing alleles compared to unrelated persons. Therefore, it raises the ratio of homozygous offspring for recessive traits.

Huntingtons disease is one of the most prominent hereditary neurodegenerative diseases that are characterized by the presence of a lethal receive allele. Because of the almost complete penetrance of the mutant BG gene, its carrier will inevitably fall ill. Until the onset of the disease, a carrier of this gene remains healthy and produces children, who have a 50% probability of inheriting the mentioned disease. Since the diseases phenotypic effect is expressed only at 35-45 ages, it can easily escape elimination.

Morgan discovered the mutation of white eyes, which laid the foundation for experimental genetics of Drosophila. Morgan also confirmed that the mutant gene is on the X chromosome, which was the first specific proof of the leading role of chromosomes in heredity. Sutton suggested the theory that the transmission of hereditary information in a series of generations is carried out by the transfer of chromosomes, in which genes are located in a certain linear sequence. Sturtevant proposed to strip genetic maps by plotting dots on a straight line corresponding to specific genes following the frequency of crossing over between them, and it was the first recombination genetic map.

Its small size and the ease of cultivation made it possible to use several Drosophila species as model objects for genetic research. Important characteristics of D. melanogaster as the object of experiments are the small number of chromosomes (2n = 8), a wide variety of visible manifestations of mutations, and the presence of polytene chromosomes in several organs. In addition, the advantages of Drosophila melanogaster over other biological objects are a short development cycle and high fertility.

Linkage is the state when two traits do not assort fully autonomously. Genes are arranged likewise pearls on chromosomes, and they do not assort independently. Depending on the closeness of the genes, meiosis may or may not interfere with them.

Parental phenotypes are offspring phenotypes that resemble those of the parents, and recombinant phenotypes are offspring phenotypes that differ from the parents phenotypes. Thus, it is the similarity between offspring and parental phenotypes that helps in distinguishing between parental and recombinant phenotypes. Recombinant phenotypes appear from crossing over during meiosis.

The presence or absence of the Y chromosome and SRY gene defines human sex, whereas females do not possess this chromosome. The activation of SRY leads to the formation of the anti-mullerian hormone and testosterone, which develop a male reproductive system. In humans, sex is also determined by the environment, and the differences begin at the seventh week of gestation.

Wilson explained the inheritance of color-blindness, suggesting that it is localized on the X chromosome and that in humans, heterogametic (XY) is the male sex. It becomes clear that in a marriage of a homozygous normal woman (XD XD) with a color-blind man (XDY), all children are born normal. However, at the same time, all daughters become hidden carriers of color-blindness, which may manifest in subsequent generations. If a woman suffering from color-blindness marries a man with normal vision, their daughters will receive the sign of a father, and all sons will receive the mothers color-blindness.

Gene editing is a promising new developing biotechnology that can significantly expand our power to modify human beings. Although, questions have been raised about the potential use of genetic information in ethics, religion, law, and society since completing the Human Genome Project. Concerns about the disastrous consequences of this technologys abuse sparked doubts about its proper application. First, it is suggested that adopting gene-editing technology is risky since no future repercussions can be accurately predicted. Secondly, attempting to use gene editing to ensure that humanity has adequate resources is guaranteed to fail. Finally, there has been no successful deployment of large-scale gene-editing technology. All of the possible risks of the technology are ignored based on assumptions. Therefore, gene editing has more risks than benefits regarding the ethics of human interference in the genome and the environmental effect of gene editing. As a result, gene editing must be carefully monitored and addressed cautiously because of the ethical issues, unpredictability, and more significant environmental effect.

First, the adoption of gene editing technologies cannot be accurately predicted, making them potentially harmful. This is evident as several researchers on gene editing have no idea the possible future consequences it may have on the organisms. Human beings have a limited understanding of ecosystems (Clarke, 2020). Researchers tend to learn from the consequences of the actions that have already been performed without enough knowledge. The research further states that genes are complicated interdependent systems resulting in unintended or unexpected consequences through interference. There is a great deal of skepticism about how these advancements will affect DNA since scientists are still uncertain of the functioning of several genes in the human body (King, 2016). Scientists hope that gene editing will help combat pandemics, making it evident that there is no accuracy in determining the technologys future consequences.

Gene editing, which enables the deletion, addition, or substitution of nucleotides at specified locations in the genome, is now a major topic in academic and legislative debates. With the introduction of practical techniques such as CRISPR, the possibility of employing synthetic biology safely in people for either somatic or germline modification is being seriously investigated. The ethical, legal, and social implications of somatic genetic alterations in humans go beyond essential health and safety concerns; yet, current legal and ethical frameworks seem to be more amenable to this technique, which is already being used in (pre-)clinical trials.

Gene editing has also been referred to as gene modification. In theUnited Kingdom, genetic modification is not banned, although some regulatory measures have been put in place. In Kierras argument on the debate on the advantages and disadvantages of gene editing, she states several disadvantages of adopting early-day research into practice (Clarke, 2020). Kierra further noted that the interference of the genes has unexpected consequences both to the subject organism and the general ecosystem. For instance, genetic editing in the UK has been linked with the sudden drop in curlew numbers. This resulted from the release of the non-native birds, as the abundance of these game birds led to an explosion among the predators (Clarke, 2020). Another instance of gene editing conducted on Buri the bull led to unexpected genetic modification changes where there was a change in the shape of the resistance of the antibiotics. Therefore, there is not enough information on predicting the future consequences of gene editing, making the process more dangerous.

Secondly, gene editing is considered an effective method of ensuring that humanity has enough resources to meet its needs. Attempting to use gene editing to ensure that humanity has adequate resources is doomed to fail. This is because humans have been able to sustain themselves throughout the vast majority of human history. Instead of looking for or producing more resources, the problem originates from peoples incapacity to discover strategies to maintain their current resources. Gene editing is thought to have several advantages, including the removal of illnesses and the generation of more tolerant crops, leading to more consistent harvests and a more predictable supply of food (Arlidge, 2021). As the environment continues to deteriorate and humanitys misuse of nature continues, genome editing to produce new crops and improve yields will not be of any benefit. CRISPR is not just concerned with human-related social and bioethical problems. It is important to evaluate interactions with other creatures and the environment, including risk assessment based on the concept of intentional damage, safety measures to avoid ecological degradation, or possible usage in genetic modification of animals and agricultural goods. When CRISPR-created genetically modified organisms are released into the natural environment, there are severe worries regarding the impact on the ecosystem.

Thirdly, considering that there is no successful case of gene-editing technology deployment on a big scale to date, it seems as if the possible hazards of this technology are being overlooked entirely based on assumptions. When determining whether or not to use gene-editing technology, it is critical to evaluate the procedures safety as a consideration in the decision (Holm, 2019). Several ethical concerns have been raised concerning the new technology that seems to be the principal focus of current gene editing research (Dockser, 2017). Questions have arisen whether the use of the technology in the future would be voluntary or made compulsory by the responsible authorities. Such arguments are always based on assumptions as there is no evidence supporting the claims. This is driving the future of gene-editing technology unpredictable and questionable as the safety and efficacy of the technology are not guaranteed.

Human autonomy is a question that cannot be reliably predicted when the deployment of CRISPR and similar technologies approaches a peak. CRISPR can enhance the degree of intellect in cultures; it is believed that gene editing may also have a societal impact. Genetically altering human genes is now possible because of new biotechnological advancements, such as gene editing. This is coupled with a great desire to enhance peoples mental, moral, and social well-being in addition to their bodily well-being (Hofmann, 2018). Genetic engineering would allow for the creation of designer babies, children whose talents and intellect could be enhanced by genetic augmentation. The ability to choose for desired phenotypes could be selected for. Genes may be manipulated to increase or decrease a persons capabilities in a wide range of areas.

One of the most controversial uses yet of CRISPR, which can be used to alter a human embryo genetically, was recently slammed throughout the globe (Al-Balas, Dajani, & Al-Delaimy, 2020). Such alterations to the human DNA are frowned upon by monotheistic faiths, who see them as an infringement on Gods creation. Furthermore, these alterations might have a long-term impact on future generations. As a result of the Human Genome Project (HGP), questions have arisen about how this information would be used in the future. There have been fears that this technology may be misused and that this could have a terrible impact on humankind (Al-Balas et al., 2020). It has become more challenging to regulate the use of germline editing technologies for medical purposes. Genomic adjustments that can be passed down to future generations are called germline editing. Ethical concerns arise when gene editing is used to treat an unborn childs genetic diagnosis since any off-target alterations might develop swiftly (Ormond et al., 2019). Inspections and eventual incorporation of rising scientific technologies are coordinated via an established regulatory structure. Although it has been decades since the system was created, it cannot meet the issues that will inevitably come with the advent of gene-editing technology soon.

When gene-editing methods like CRISPR or other gene-editing tools are first introduced into society, there should be no concern about the ethical consequences. Especially some of the worlds most eminent experts in the fields of biologists and genomics specialists concur that the widespread concern about the ethical basis for gene editing is legitimate, even at this early stage. Genome editing utilizing CRISPR-like technology raises ethical issues when applied to human genomes. There are only a limited number of somatic cell modifications that can be made through genome editing. It is not handed down from generation to generation since these modifications impact just a few issues. Genes that have been altered in germline cells may be handed on to future generations. This technology raises various ethical questions, including whether it is acceptable to utilize it to increase typical human qualities such as knowledge and intelligence. Several nations presently prohibit the use of germline cell and embryo genome modification for ethical and safety reasons.

In conclusion, gene editing is among the most exciting study topics, and it is constantly surprising to the scientific community with new and fascinating findings. However, such monumental advances are not without their specific set of complications, which may harm future generations experience life in the future. It is most probable that the human race will become more morally corrupt if the significance of thoroughly checking and controlling the application of advances connected to gene editing is not addressed, and it is possible that the socioeconomic disparity would expand.

References

Al-Balas, Q. A. E., Dajani, R., & Al-Delaimy, W. K. (2020). The Ethics of Gene Editing from an Islamic Perspective: A Focus on the Recent Gene Editing of the Chinese Twins. Science and Engineering Ethics, 26(3), 18511860. Web.

Arlidge, J. (2021). Why Jennifer Doudnas DNA discovery is revolutionising the way, we tackle disease. Web.

Clarke, P. (2020). Debate: Gene editing the pros and cons for farming  Farmers Weekly. Web.

Dockser, A. M. (2017). The Ethics of Gene Editing. Web.

Hofmann, B. (2018). The gene-editing of super-ego. Medicine, Health Care, and Philosophy, 21(3), 295302. Web.

Holm, S. (2018). Let Us Assume That Gene Editing is SafeThe Role of Safety Arguments in the Gene Editing Debate. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics, 28(1), 100111. Web.

King, A. (2016). Gene-editing: Where do you draw the line? Web.

Ormond, K. E., Bombard, Y., Bonham, V. L., Hoffman-Andrews, L., Howard, H., Isasi, R., & Allyse, M. (2019). The clinical application of gene editing: ethical and social issues | Personalized Medicine. Web.