Historically, humans and many other living beings have been divided into males and females depending on a set of physical features typical of this or that gender. In fact, gender is one of the first labels an individual receives (Thomson). Nevertheless, currently, there is a tendency to raise gender-neutral children, which means that a baby is not identified as a boy or a girl at birth. On the one hand, society is disturbed that these children can have problems with self-identification when they grow up because the impact of gender-neutral parenting is not discovered yet. On the other hand, the supporters of gender-neutral parenting claim that they are raising children free from the pressure of gender stereotypes.
Background
The problem of gender-neutral parenting is relatively new. Although parenting as a concept does not have strict rules and is influenced by the cultural traditions of the society, it usually follows a pattern accepted in a community. Traditionally, parenting styles may differ for boys and girls not only in upbringing. Clothes’ color or gender-divided toys and games are integral to traditional parenting. Gender-neutral parenting opposes such stratification. Already in 2011, a Canadian couple became the first who claimed not to reveal the gender of their baby. Later, in 2016, newspaper headlines announced that a Swedish family decided not to disclose the gender of their baby and apply a “genderless” approach to raising their child (Godden).
Since then, more and more parents were making a decision not to force gender stereotypes and allow their children to observe the world and come to a self-identification. This parenting style is gaining popularity both among celebrities and common people. Moreover, this tendency is spreading to other spheres of life including education. Thus, gender-free teaching is accepted in some schools (Godden). It is implemented through gender-neutral uniforms, refusal of separating toys in primary school and gender division of physical training lessons, and gender-neutral bathrooms. The study by Granger et al. (498) investigate teachers’ facilitation of gender-neutral activities and come to a conclusion that they are used less frequently than masculine ones, which is evidence of the lack of working interventions in the field of education aimed at resolving the problem of gender-neutral education.
The Issue of Gender-Neutral Upbringing
The major claim of gender-neutral parenting supporters is that it is important to raise a child in a gender-free environment with a focus on the health and happiness of a child (Barr). The major problem is that already at the stage of definition gender-neutral parenting is interpreted in the wrong way. Selecting this parenting style does not mean refusal of gender or stimuli to change the biological sex of a child. Usually, it presupposes the provision of opportunities for a child’s cognition of diverse aspects disregarding boys’ or girls’ division. Also, it implies personal freedom in clothes, toys, and the selection of activities. It is considered that gender-neutral parenting de-emphasizes gender roles in a family thus contributing to the acceptance of differences and the creation of adults with changed values who are more tolerant than those brought up in a gender-marked family (Dumas 8). The gender-neutral framework is also applied for resolving selective reduction disputes. Thus, Lee (135) discusses this issue on the example of multifetal pregnancies when a woman chooses to terminate one or more fetuses for safety reasons. The researcher comes to the conclusion that both men and women should have equal rights in making these decisions.
Nevertheless, there is an opposing view, and its supporters claim that gender-neutrality has potential dangers for future self-identification of children. Moreover, the followers of traditional parenting prefer gender-marked items including clothes, toys, games, and other activities. Still, this approach has both strengths and weaknesses. One of the strengths is that it is a traditional model of upbringing that is well-known and is accepted by society. Another strength is that gender-marked upbringing is already investigated and its major consequences are known. Finally, it prepares children for life in a gender-segregated world by identifying themselves as boys or girls. Still, the traditional parenting style with gender identification has some weaknesses. The major one is that it limits the cognitive opportunities of a baby. Thus, being dressed in all pink and playing dolls and pussy-cats does not provide enough information about the diversity of the world. Also, distinct segregation into “boy’s” and “girl’s” toys and activities limits children’s insight and interests. Finally, this approach contributes to more sharp gender segregation and possible discrimination.
However, gender-neutral parenting has claims to oppose the traditional model. First of all, while it is a new approach, it is already popular. It has the potential to eliminate gender stereotypes and the resulting discrimination. While there is no recent research that could reveal the consequences of this parenting style for children’s gender self-identification, the real-life cases published in newspapers and magazines provide evidence that the majority of gender-free children identify themselves in accordance with their biological sex (Barr; Godden; Wells). Moreover, most of the parents supporting gender-neutral upbringing do not intend to conform to a “binary gender” but to provide broader opportunities for their children (Ritschel). Thus, gender-neutral parenting is more allowing than restricting the activities the children can and want to participate in providing them with opportunities to try different tasks and select some that a child is eager to continue.
Conclusion
To summarizing, it should be mentioned that a gender-neutral approach can be beneficial not only for babies during their first years of life. In a more global context, it has the potential to reduce sexism in the world. Also, playing with toys teaches some skills. Therefore, it is evident that the more diverse the toys are, the more skills a child will possess. Moreover, no focus on gender-specific games stimulates children to play together with different types of games thus enhancing their communicative ability and providing grounds for future self-identification. On the whole, gender-neutral parenting has the potential to reduce gender-related discriminative issues and contribute to the development of diverse skills and competencies due to the involvement in different activities.
Granger, Kristen et al. “Preschool Teachers’ Facilitation of Gender-Typed and Gender-Neutral Activities during Free Play.” Sex Roles, vol. 76, 2017, pp. 498-510.
Lee, Kathleen. “In Support of Gender-Neutral Framework for Resolving Selective Reduction Disputes.” Family Law Quarterly, vol. 44, no. 1, 2010, pp. 135-153.
Dumas, Moria Duffy. Gender Neutral Parenting: An Argument for a Place on the Contemporary Feminist Agenda. Dissertation, Southern Connecticut State University. 2015, SCSU, 2015.
Feminity and masculinity refers to the identity of an individual’s gender. Both feminity and masculinity derive their source from an individual’s gender as opposed to sex. Gender in this case refers to social while sex is a biological aspect. The society defines the meaning of being a male or a female.
Males consider themselves masculine while female are feminine. These definitions are social, creating the possibility of some males to consider themselves feminine and some women masculine. An individual with a masculine identity ought to behave in a way that depicts the masculine identity. On the other hand, an individual with a feminine identity should behave in a way that brings out their feminine nature (Melosh 201). The main aim of writing this paper is to explore the different cultures of feminity and masculinity.
The root and development of feminity and masculinity
In the West, men are socially labeled as aggressive and competitive while women are articulate, passive and collaborative. Earlier, people believed that these traits are innate and embedded on the genes of an individual. It is now clear that the degree of masculinity and feminity of an individual is not innate but depends on social and cultural environment of an individual.
There are three key theories that highlight on the development of feminity and masculinity. These theories are psychoanalytic theory, cognitive-development theory and learning theory.
All these theories are similar because they are in two parts. The first part involves a child realizing that he or she is either a male or a female. The second part of all these theories is the child finding out the meaning of female and male with reference to feminity and masculinity.
Recent studies have shown that mothers have a crucial role to play in the development of gender identity. Because they are not of the same sex, a mother and her son relate differently, while she bonds naturally with her daughter because they share a sense of continuity and belonging.
Feminity, Masculinity and art
In Benin, artists focus on the male form more than the female. Artists from this area have a tendency to project on the male form with perfection. This suggests the continuity of the cultural standards in Benin. There is a link between the exclusion of women in the art to convictions of the threats that they symbolize.
This notion is not only in Benin, but also in a majority of the countries in Africa. Depiction of the Portuguese visitors to Benin by artist in the 16th century clearly emphasizes on that exclusion of women and the embrace of masculinity. An example is the figure below. The body of the Portuguese in this artistic piece is flimsy. The artist has used the face, beard, hair and dress to bring out masculinity (Curnow 75).
Over the years, there has been a rise in feminist groups that oppose the use of graffiti in posters that look down on females. The most notable feminist groups that engage in this activism are Women’s Action Coalition (WAC), SisterSerpents of Chicago, Women’s Health Action Mobilization and the Guerrilla Girls.
They scrutinize advertisements, movie posters, book covers etc that portray women negatively (Ivinski 37). After identifying such literature, they inform the person behind it and show their displeasure. A good example of the literature that touches negatively on feminity is in the image below.
It is vital that an artist is sensitive to his or her environment with regard to feminity and masculinity. An artist has to bring out a balance of the two in a way that does not discriminate on another.
The ivory saltcellar, from Benin.Aids activism poster by Gran Fury, 1991.
Works Cited
Curnow, Kathy. “Prestige and the Gentleman- Benin’s ideal man.” The Art Journal. 1997. Print.
Ivinski, Pamela. Women Who Turn to Gaze Around. 1993. Print.
Melosh, Barbara. Gender and American History Since 1890. New York: Routledge, 1993. Print.
Gender is an important variable and perimeter in social and economic analysis. It complements the variables of class, ownership, income and family status rather than competing with them.
The activities outside and inside the home has created a pattern that is important especially in taking the integral view in both the modern and traditional households. Sexual division of labor has formed a specific pattern, this patterns are reflected even outside the household, they are seen to be partly reflective of the traditional “within house” division of labor.
The differential basis of cultivation of skill is important in understanding the inferior economic position of women inside and outside the society. Therefore, it’s important to say that detecting a particular pattern of gender division is possible.
As individuals we coexist with varieties of identities, among this identity is our gender. Other than that, we exist as a member of a certain family, class, occupation group or even a community. Our interests are influenced by our understanding of these different identities that we posses.
Our identities may cause a strong influence on our perception making it impossible to form our own clear picture of our welfare. This notion and perception lead to a major impact on the states and outcomes within the household on the distribution of labor especially in relation to gender.
One of the factors that have influenced gender distribution of labor is technology. Technology has been viewed highly restrictively as relating to mechanical, chemical or biological processes. However, technology has a ‘social’ content to it; Karl Marx called it “the combining together of various processes into a social whole”.
Production does not only involve coming up with finished products from raw materials but also the social organization that enables the use of certain techniques in production .The “outside” activities of the workers depend on the activities “within the house” however such activities are often regarded as ‘unproductive’ work.(Amartya 128)
Gender division of work is one of the ways employed by the societies in trying to reach prosperity. For a household to prosper various activities e.g. purchasing, production of food, money earning activities have to be taken into account, for example who does what? Who makes certain decisions?
The responses to these questions are seen as a reaction to solving the problem of “Cooperation (adding to total availabilities) and Conflict (dividing the availabilities amongst the family members)”.The division of the two activities between the sexes influences the pattern of gender in the division of work.
Labor activities in homes are sometimes affected by ‘cultural phenomena’, such contributes are not directly related to production but affect the division of labor within the household. For example some of these activities might be controlled by stereotype perceptions, a perfect example of such is the perception that women should look after children and that they may take outside work only if they persist in taking care of the children.
The other factor influencing the determination of division of labor is cooperative conflicts. These are interests, contribution and perceptions within the group i.e. household. The wellbeing of a person is less favorable if that person position is a “breakdown”. The “breakdown” shows the vulnerability of the person in the “bargaining”. Incase of a breakdown that person would be in a mess more than previously and that position would weaken his ability for a favorable outcome in the distribution of labor. (Amartya 135)
The self interest of a person affects his wellbeing. If a person takes less note of his or her own wellbeing, this fact makes a person get a less deal, for example as observed in a typical Indian rural woman who was asked about her personal welfare ,her response was in terms of the welfare of her family .
According to Amartya the other factor is that of contribution. A person perceived to be making more contribution to the group gets a more favorable response. (Amartya 136)
Work Cited
Amartya, Sen, Gender and cooperative conflict, UN working paper. 1987. Web.
Gender-based violence is “a form of abuse and discrimination that makes it impossible for the targeted victims to achieve their potentials in life” (Menon 12). Gender-based violence is common in the underdeveloped world such as India. This analysis will identify the major challenges affecting women and children in India.
Highlighting the Broader Gender Issue: How it affects Many People in India
The targeted issue is gender-based violence. The Television Series “Half the Sky” examines a wide range of challenges affecting women in the world. This TV Series identifies a wide range of problems such as “gender-based violence, human trafficking, forced prostitution, abuse, and discrimination” (Menon 28). The TV Series examines the major issues affecting many women in the world. Many societies are currently using different campaigns in order to deal with these issues (Menon 23).
Gender-based violence is common in India. This problem is deeply rooted in the country’s cultural practices and norms. Some gender laws in this India favor men. For example, India lacks adequate judicial practices in order to safeguard the rights of women.
A study by Menon (27) “observed that domestic valence against children and women begins at the family”. Some common malpractices against women “include violence, horror killings, cruelty by husbands, abuse, dowry deaths, rape, and abduction” (Menon 32). These challenges have affected the lives of many Indian women. Over 46 percent of women in India have faced abuse in the hands of their husbands.
The crimes against different gender groups in India have been on the rise. Many women are also abused by their relatives. The number of rape cases in India has been on the rise. Many rape cases are reported in the country every year. Many people do not report such crimes against women in the country.
This development has affected the lives of many individuals in the country. The problem of gender-based violence has resulted in more challenges in the country (Menon 64). Some attributes such as the India’s Caste System is making it impossible for many women to achieve their potentials. The agreeable fact is that “the country is far from providing the best rights to more women in the country” (Menon 69).
Campaign against Gender-Based Violence: Strategies to Solve the Issue
Several campaigns have emerged in order to deal with gender-based violence in India. The challenges encountered by many women in India have led to new laws. Such laws are aimed at safeguarding the rights of many women in the country. A good example of these campaigns is Bell Bajao.
This is an anti-domestic violence group that encourages many Indians to protect the rights of women. According to the pioneers of the campaign, every person can embrace the best practices in order to deal with gender-based violence. The campaign seeks to “reduce the number of rapes, abuses, and killings against Indian women” (Menon 32).
For example, the campaign encourages more people to report every issue associated with domestic violence. The campaigners encourage more people “to intervene whenever there is an ongoing violence” (Menon 84). These strategies have worked effectively in order to reduce the level gender-based violence.
The campaign has made it easier for many people to address the problem of domestic violence. The pioneers of the campaign use powerful adverts in order to deal with the issue. The campaign is currently “encouraging more boys and men to intervene whether they encounter any kind of domestic violence” (Menon 98).
This practice has encouraged more men to be part of this problem. According to these campaigners, more men can make it easier for India to deal with gender-based violence. The campaign has attracted over 130 million citizens. The campaigners also use different celebrities in order to produce the best outcomes. This strategy has made it easier for many Indians to deal with gender-based violence.
How Can We Be involved in the Above Campaign?
Every person in WS 2201 can become part of this Bell Bajai campaign. To begin with, we can collect enough funds in order to empower more women in the society. These funds will make it easier for us to achieve the best results. Such adverts will encourage more people to be part of this campaign.
This practice will ensure every person promotes the best strategies. The practice will deal with gender-based violence. We can also encourage more people in the society to promote the best practices. For example, men can “collaborate with their wives instead of abusing them” (Menon 102). Every child can also talk with his or her father in order to support the needs of many women.
Every individual should also become a change agent. This approach will ensure every person promotes the best practices. Such practices will empower more people to promote the campaign. We can also create new adverts in order to communicate to more citizens (Menon 84). The approach will encourage more people to promote the concept of equality in the targeted society. This strategy will ensure every woman in the society achieves her goals. Every society should use these practices in order to deal with gender-based violence.
Works Cited
Menon, Niveditha. Domestic Violence in India. New York, NY: ProQuest, 2008. Print.
According to Longman, Dictionary of Contemporary English, sociology is defined as the scientific study of societies and the behaviour of people in groups. It also can be synonymic to social science.
It uses different methods (empirical investigation, exploratory and constructive research, analysis) to develop and improve the knowledge about human social activity. Frequently, these facts can be used in practice in order to refine people’s life. The science combines two levels – micro level (interaction between people) and macro level that connects different social systems to one.
Sociology is a very wide discipline. Traditionally, it focuses on social spheres including religion, culture and other, later it was broaden to modern spheres (the Internet), medicine. Nowadays, sociology covers as much as such topics: culture, criminality, economics, environment, education, family and childhood, gender, health, internet, knowledge, law, media, military, politics, race and ethnic relations, religion, social networks, urban and rural spaces, work and industry (Sosteric, 2010).
Anne Oakley and her place in sociology
Ann Oakley was born in 1944. nowadays she is a well-known British scientist in sociology. Oakley’s father is Professor Richard Titmuss. Her mother, Kathleen, was also working in social sphere. Later, she wrote her. She was studying at Somerville College, Oxford University. She received her bachelor degree in 1965. she continued her studies at Bedford College, University of London, Anne has gained a PhD in 1969. main spheres of her investigations included sociology of medicine and health of women.
Ann Oakley gender theory: Main interests
Ann Oakley’s contributions include lots of academic works, most of them touch upon women’s place in life. There are also lots of novels, one of the most popular is The Men’s Room. She has also written her own biography, however it is not full for now.
Main spheres of her interest are numerous. They are childbirth and motherhood, family, feminism, housework, imagining the future, men, relationships between men and women, sex and gender and social science.
In a wide range of books Anne Oakley has proved that the understanding of person’s gender role comes not from biological matter, but from a social one. A person perceives his or her place with communication and interaction with others. The same is with the children. They are given their gender basis from childhood. Oakley believes that gender socialization had four central elements:
Manipulation – a way for parents to influence their children. They can easily encourage or discourage ways of behaving in their children on the basis of their own consideration of good and bad for a male or female child.
Canalisation (Sociology) – children are persuaded to show more interest to some particular toys. Adults have their conceptions of toys that are appropriate for a girl and unacceptable for a boy.
Verbal appellations – this is the use of language. Parents are usually providing their children with names for toys, pets etc. Through verbal appellation in gender socialization, children can be stimulated to usage of certain gender.
Different activities – Girls are encouraged to participate in indoor activities which are often ‘domestic’ in nature. Boys are encouraged to participate in more outdoor activities (Oakley, 1979).
So, socialisation is a key factor to identifying oneself as a male or female person. Furthermore, roots of this process go back to our childhood.
A lot of Anne Oakley’s works were dedicated to women. She was a feminist, so she was struggling for establishment of women’s rights in mainly men’s society. One of these key moments was discussed in her work ‘Interviewing women: a contradiction in terms’.
In this article, Anne Oakley discusses methodological points which she previously highlighted by her research on motherhood. In particular, she describes the gap between textbook advised plans for interviewing and her own experience as an interviewer. Oakley suggests some traditional criteria for interviewing.
First, the problem lies in the one-side process. The interviewing situation implies only an interviewer asking and the person answering. The problem is that the interviewer does not give any information. Oakley shows the absurdity of such situations through a discussion of the questions she usually receives from people during taking an interview.
Second, many scientists advise interviewer to be strict and show certain attitude while interviewing. In their opinion, strictness will provide objectiveness in responses. However it is not so far true. Not feeling comfortable in conversation, a respondent will not say true and sincere things.
Third, sometimes interviewers are seen as having no personal opinion. They are confining everything only by means of statistics and other social data obtained from people. This will not help in taking an interview, as a respondent needs to have an interlocutor to reveal his or her thoughts, but not an emotionless robot that is just asking questions one after another. (Oakley, 2010)
This experience of such problems Anne is applying on feminist interviewers. In order to get helpful data, an interviewer should consider everything mentioned above.
‘When I say I’m a feminist what do I mean? I mean that I believe that women are an oppressed social group, a group of people sharing a common exclusion from full participation in certain key social institutions (and being over-represented in others).
Women in Britain in the 1980s are still subject to the awful soul-destroying tyranny of being told the meaning of their lives by others in terms which are not theirs.’(Oakley, 1984) this is a citation connected with Oakley’s studies on feminism. She points out that women have no rights and they have a duty to establish them.
Positions in government were bothering her a lot. In her next work, she writes: ‘The state is a masculine institution: men hold most of the top positions in government and its associated agencies…’(Oakley, 2003) She was arguing with the fact that women have no possibility to obtain higher positions in society.
In conclusion, Anne Oakley has made a great benefit in the development of social science. Her works are dedicated to such burning issues as feminism, child upbringing, education and other maternity problems. She touches upon men’s nature of the world. Her works are of great importance to further generations.
List of References
Oakley, A. ‘Interviewing Women: a Contradiction In Terms’ Doing feminist research, Roberts H. Web.
Oakley, A. 1979 ‘Becoming a Mother’, Oxford: Martin Robertson.
Oakley, A. 1984 ‘Taking it Like a Woman’, London: Jonathan Cape.
Oakley, A. 2003 ‘Gender on Planet Earth’, Cambridge: Polity Press (New York: The New Press)(2).
Sosteric, M., Brasted, M. and Scheff, J. T. ‘The Socjournal’, A New Media Journal of Sociology and Society. Web.
How is gender socially constructed? The essay answers this question. It defines gender as a social construction and explains its significance as a cultural phenomenon.
Gender as a topic has become very popular over the recent past. The global society has witnessed many changes in social construction of gender. According to World Health Organization, gender is a socially constructed trait, conduct, position, and action that a given society considers suitable for men and women. Lockheed (45) defines gender as a given range of characteristics that distinguishes a male from a female.
Gender refers to those attributes that would make an individual be identified as either male or female. As can be seen from the above definitions, gender is more of a social than a physical attribute. We look at gender from a societal point of view. Lepowsky (90) defines social construction as an institutionalized characteristic that is largely acceptable in a given society because of the social system.
Social construction, in a narrower term, refers to the general behavioral patterns of a certain society shaped by beliefs and values. A socially constructed characteristic therefore varies from one organization to another. Different societies have different beliefs and cultural practices that help define them. Therefore, a social construction of one society would be different from another society.
To social constructionists, social construct is a notion or an idea that is considered obvious and natural to a certain group of individuals in a given society, which may be true or not. This means that it holds just to the specific society. In this regard therefore, gender and associated beliefs would vary from one community to another depending on perceptions.
On the other hand, essentialists hold there is a set of characteristics that are universal in a certain entity. This means that a given entity can receive a single definition, regardless of the societal set up. In this regard, gender is a universal entity, irrespective of the society and the cultural beliefs associated with it. This perspective dilutes the notion that gender is a social construction.
This is because it gives it a universal definition, where there is a remarkable difference in the social construct of different societies in the world. This is due to differences in religion, cultural beliefs and civilization. To validate this discussion, the essay is based on social constructionist thinking as opposed to essentialism.
Social Construction of Gender
Gender is socially constructed. As Lepowsky (31) notes, there is a remarkable difference in the way different societies view the two genders that is, male and female. This scholar says that issues related to gender purely take the approach of social constructionists. He says that societies in the world have varied characteristics, depending on cultures.
He notes that the way one society would view the relationship between the two genders would vary from another, which also depend on a number of factors. Lerro (74) is opposed to this notion. He says that gender is best viewed from essentialists’ perspective. He holds that universally, women have always been regarded as the weaker sex, irrespective of the society. In many regions in the world, women have been treated with low esteem.
This is because of the fact that they are physically weak as compared to men. To various societies across the world, women are expected to be below men socially. Although the current wave of change has seen women take active roles in income generating activities, many societies still consider them as home keepers who should always be willing to receive and obey instructions from men.
This scholar’s argument is valid. However, his explanation, though leaning towards essentialism, still points out that gender is a social construct. Although many societies have almost a similar perception regarding gender, the fact is that they have construed the meaning of gender. The perception is a mere creation of the society members.
According to Lepowsky (53), gender cannot take an essentialist approach. The current world has varied perceptions towards women. The society in Saudi Arabia defines gender in a very different way as compared to the United Kingdom society. Saudi Arabia is an Islamic society that follows strict teachings of the holy Quran.
In this society, there is a big social gap between men and women. The society defines a woman as a subordinate who should always serve men. When it comes to addressing issues of importance, a woman must consult a man because by virtue of being a woman, the society assumes that one cannot make a decision personally.
This is a very sharp contrast to how this gender is viewed in a liberal country such as the United Kingdom. This society has completely narrowed the gap between the two genders that what remain are the physiological differences between the two genders. The country has embraced equality between the two sexes, a fact that saw it elect a female Premier Margret Thatcher.
The social environment in Saudi Arabia is very different from that in the United Kingdom. Because of this, the two societies have different views on what the two genders are and how they should relate. While one society is of the view that gender is just but the biological differences that makes one male or female, the other society sees more. It sees difference in roles, freedom, and positions in the society.
Relationship between the Two Genders
The society is waking to a new down where women and men are considered equal. The only differences existing are biological. Man has been the dominant sex over years. Terms such as mankind, chairman and fireman were used to refer to both men and women. However, these are currently considered sexist titles, which should be avoided at all costs. Although the global society is still largely patriarchal, there is an observable effort to create equality between the two sexes.
However, men are not willing to relinquish their prestigious positions in the society. In social centers such as schools and colleges, men would try to prove that they are in control. Plante (6) notes that jokes are always essential in our society. Although they are always taken from the face value as a form of entertainment, it has a purpose beyond entertainment.
This scholar gives an analysis of sexist jokes used by men towards female students in learning institutions. What comes clear is that men still rely much on their physical superiority, as their way of showing dominance. They use force in order to make female students listen to their jokes, which is highly sexist.
When it comes to sex, men completely change. Chappell (19) gives a confession of a certain girl and her sexual encounter. Through this, it can be observed that when a man has the desire for sex, he is willing to bend very low to a woman. However, things change immediately after the process. He becomes rude and he would easily pick mistakes from the same woman.
Sex, Gender and Gender Conformity
Gender identity is the biological characteristic that would define an individual’s gender. In this regard, it would be appropriate to just categorize humanity based on sex. This would mean that the two categories would be men and women. However, because of these biological differences between the two sexes, there is another way of classifying the two sexes that is, gender. Gender is more of a social than a biological difference between the two sexes.
As Plante (110) notes, in this approach, the two genders are analyzed based on the abilities and inabilities. Because men are considered stronger physically, they are given a higher rank in the society because it is assumed that their capabilities are superior to those of women. Sex in itself is a gendered word. In many societies, sex is used to emphasize the difference between the two genders.
Because societal pressure, the ‘weaker’ sex (woman) is forced to conform to the position they are given. They conform, not because they like the assigned position, but because they are not allowed to oppose the decision. They may not necessarily accept the position given to them by the society. However, because the society is intolerant and very rigid, they are left with very limited option other than conforming to the norm.
In some instances, women are exposed to physical abuse from their male counterparts who are keen on asserting their authority in the societal set up. Plante (136) says that this high handedness has seen many women suffer in silence, simply because they are women. Gender identity disorder is a syndrome that is always traumatizing.
An individual who cannot clearly be categorized as a man or a woman may find either himself or herself at the center of social stigmatization. Such an individual lacks a gender to identify with in a society that is so keen on identifying individuals based on gender.
Conclusion
It can be seen from the above discussion that gender can be defined differently, depending on the community in question. Depending on the societal structure of a given community, gender will assume a meaning depending on how men and women relate. Unlike sex that is defined based on biological differences, gender is defined based on the behavioral patterns of the two genders and the society’s perception of the concerned individual.
Every society has its own way of viewing men and women and the relationship between the two. In some societies, women are treated with very low esteem. In such societies, gender is held with high esteem, as a way of showing the boundary that exists between men and women. In other societies, civilization has made a woman be accepted as equal to a man hence the term gender has lost its previous meaning.
Issues of gender have raised many questions in the current society. In the current world, women have acquired a new status. They no longer depend on men for everything. As a number of authors note, gender has to be given a new definition other than what it was before. Based on how gender is defined, the current society needs a to re-define it.
Works Cited
Chappell, Marissa. The war on welfare: family, poverty, and politics in modern America. Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010. Print.
Lepowsky, Maria. Fruit of the Motherland: Gender in an Egalitarian Society. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993. Print.
Lerro, Bruce. Power in Eden: The Emergence of Gender Hierarchies in the Ancient World. Manchester:Trafford Publishing, 2005. Print.
Lockheed, Marlaine. Gender and social exclusion. Paris: Education Policy series publishers, 2010. Print
Plante, Rebecca. Doing gender diversity: readings in theory and real-world experience. New York: West view Press, 2010. Print.
Have you ever thought about why some children prefer dinosaurs to Barbie or, vice versa, some children like Barbie more than dinosaurs? The idea of toys’ preferences is related to human nature, nurture, and behavior and closely connected to the sex difference of children. Deborah Blum admits that gender blur is considered to be a significant issue to comprehend the differences people face day by day. People are classified by gender factors such as masculinity that is usually characterized by aggression and some kind of dominance and femininity that is characterized by its submission and frequent passivity.
The hormones like estrogen and testosterone help to build a nervous system that is different due to its sexuality basics. For example, estrogen is defined as a female sex hormone that aims at diminishing or shrinking muscles as well as body movements. Which are similar to the feminine ones. Estrogen is identified as the hormone that is able to affect the human mind as a result of which mannerisms are of feminine nature. Female acts differ considerably from those of male representatives: female behavior is less aggressive and may be influenced by control. The investigations of some scientists prove that the biological characteristics of men are more violent and aggressive. Any kind of aggression is inherent not only to human beings: different animals, as well as humans of the male gender, are identified as more aggressive. It is necessary to admit that the factor of reproductive genes may also serve as a kind of advantage to aggressive human behavior. Blum (1998) points out “male chimpanzees declare war on neighboring troops, and one of their strategies is a warning strike. They kill females and infants to terrorize.” Also, Blum reports that male is more predisposed to commit crimes, and females, in their turn, are only capable of a single pregnancy, this is why there is no genetic advantage to aggressively fighting for multiple mates.
Another reason why aggression of men is more evident than female aggression is the number of hormones like testosterone and androgen. Testosterone is the hormone that amplifies human physical and behavioral differences in childhood and adolescence. According to Deborah Blum (1998), this hormone has “body-building functions, it influences some behaviors as well. Males tend to have a higher baseline of testosterone than females and therefore you would predict that all of those behaviors would be more generally found in men than in women.” An unborn child who does not have enough testosterone may become a female, and its male characteristics are diminished. In other words, a person who has more testosterone is apt to be more masculine such as murderous women or passive men.
Blum reports that testosterone rises in response to competition and threat. When people are in the competitive world of dating, some threats make testosterone increase. It means that a woman may have some male characteristics if the testosterone level is higher. Hormones imbalance results in gays and lesbians. People rarely choose to become a homosexual because it is basically programmed into their brain due to their sex hormones. Homosexuality could be accepted as a biological fact.
I agree with Blum’s point of view that genetics is the major factor to determine human behavior. She mentions the differences between genders and indicates that certain masculine behaviors such as aggression have raised the necessity for successful sexual selection. Masculinity and femininity cannot be explained through society alone, this is why nature and nurture also play an important role in male and female development.
Reference List
Blum, D 1998, ‘The gender blur: where does biology end and society take over?’ UTNE Reader. Web.
Sociology analyzes social facts to understand the way particular social functions. As Conley rightfully emphasized, sociology may come to the obvious conclusion (Norton Sociology). Still, more importantly, it may bring a new perspective to ordinary things and make an individual realize something obvious. According to Emile Durkheim, social facts are patterns of how people think, feel, and behave (“Emile Durkheim on Suicide & Society”). The patterns are external to the individual, and they are driven by external coercive power. In this regard, it is pretty evident that gender and race are social facts.
Race and gender are associated with psychological and cultural distinctions, which attribute to one group only. Besides, race and gender influence individuals’ social location (“What is Sociology”), and this fact proves that particular societies have evolved external patterns dedicated to these classes. These patterns exercise coercive power, as an individual might follow them even if they do not share these views. For instance, genders dress differently for various occasions, and these customs have been fostered in them by society, and their environment has shaped even their tastes. Additionally, multiple ethnicities represent different cultures with their marks, so they are easily perceived in society. Consequently, race and gender become specific social facts that shape society and are shaped by it.
My Perception of Sociology
Before the course, I have perceived sociology as a tool to observe society and mark its current tendencies. Now I see its empirical and practical potential and understand the need to master a “sociological perspective.” The idea I find interesting is that sociology derived from “twin concerns of inequality and the order of French Revolution” (Charon 12). I believe the reason for grounding sociology summarizes its primary objective – to understand the way society works and how people can make it better. I will turn back to this quote as I learn to analyze social patterns and orders to put knowledge to practice.
Works Cited
Charon, Joel. The Meaning of Sociology. Prentice Hall, 1998.
With the development of humanity, the problems of gender interaction in society have become less acute compared to the situation in past eras. Nevertheless, despite the success of the struggle for equality and established moral values, the issue of gender-based violence continues to exist. Women, in this case, are a vulnerable side, although there are cases of violence against men. According to the World Health Organization, the most common causes are domestic disagreements that account for 38% to 50% of women murdered by their intimate partners (5). The situation is aggravated by the fact that gender-based violence occurs not only among adults but also among young people, which creates additional difficulties and is a good reason to draw various stakeholders’ attention. Despite widespread access to information and opportunities to receive help, victims of physical abuse often seek to cope with their challenges individually, and this does not contribute to solving the issue effectively. Gender-based violence is an urgent problem that affects people of different ages, countries, and sexual orientations and requires addressing through the creation of an adequate preventive environment and strengthening measures to persecute aggressive citizens successfully.
Global Context of the Problem
As people move towards democratic freedoms and human rights, along with the values of equality and mutual respect, gender-based violence remains a problem in a global context. The situation is aggravated by the fact that, in some world regions, the existing patriarchal foundations do not contribute to creating a favorable environment for dealing with the issue in question. Wood et al. examine the rural region of Tajikistan, the country in Central Asia, and note the distinctive perceptions of violence between men and women, particularly the empowerment of the male population (1). In such archaic conditions, women are not endowed with an opportunity to fight for their rights, and any manifestations of violence against them are permissible at the level of traditional perception and people’s cultural background.
Another factor proving the global context of the problem under consideration is the economic crisis in many world regions. As Dowd argues, gender-based violence develops where the authorities are more concerned about financial problems than social ones (42). Violence between intimate partners is a consequence of social and economic challenges that impede normal life and are a catalyst for aggression (World Health Organization 5). As a result, women often experience physical abuse while living in poverty because low social status is one of the concomitant factors of violence.
Today, a number of agencies work to strengthen the regulatory framework and publicize the problem at the international level. Simister cites the examples of UNECE, the World Health Organization, and some other organizations that aim to disseminate information about the inadmissibility of gender-based violence (190). As Gerlach notes, with the emergence of the United Nations, the first attempts to reduce pressure on women were undertaken globally and across different social spheres (86). However, given the aforementioned challenges, particularly economic difficulties and patriarchal canons, the problem has not been resolved until now. Therefore, in an international context, conducting targeted work to help vulnerable populations and prevent physical abuse has weight as an activity to emphasize the importance of this issue and its urgency in modern society. Notably, the manifestation of violence among young people is an acute problem within the stated topic.
Gender-Based Violence Among Adolescents
Gender-based violence in adolescence is a particularly dangerous phenomenon since the psyche of young people is not formed comprehensively, and physical abuse based on gender can be a stimulus for the development of severe disorders. According to Mathews and Gould, adolescents who have experienced gender-based violence are prone to intellectual disabilities and even chronic illnesses (61). However, despite these threatening prospects, this form of social conflict exists, and individual social constraints exacerbate it. For instance, Chandra-Mouli et al. state that “the percentage of countries with gender gaps in school attendance increases from 37% for primary education to 54% and 77% for lower and upper secondary education, respectively” (239). Teenage girls become objects of health-harming acts, and the current social regulations cannot address this issue adequately due to the lack of proper control and sustainable policies to protect vulnerable adolescents.
The existing social norms of some groups can also be a negative driver of gender-based violence in relation to vulnerable adolescents. Sommer et al. remark that gender-based stigma may arise, and what is contrary to modern values in a civilized society may be acceptable in individual communities (155). As an example, the authors cite the concept of victim-blaming, according to which a girl is initially guilty of committing violence against her due to her overly defiant behavior, appearance, and other controversial factors (Sommer et al. 155). This practice does not fit into modern social norms, which, nevertheless, does not affect the episodic nature of cases of violence. Moreover, according to the World Health Organization, young boys can also be targets of violence from older girls, and precedents exist (21). As a result, stigmatization manifests itself against both genders, albeit unequally.
The need to ensure the protection of vulnerable adolescents from gender-based violence is felt acutely during military conflicts. Etienne gives dire cases of young females’ abuse by soldiers and notes that such incidents should be regarded as a war crime against humanity and punished to the fullest extent of the law (139). However, even if victims of violence are assisted, they are at risk of developing dangerous mental disorders caused by acute shocks. Ensuring the safety of adolescents from gender-based abuse should be a mandatory practice in a modern democratic world, and this category of the population should be given no less attention than adults. Thus, discussing the ways to mitigate these issues from different perspectives is critical.
Gender-Based Violence Towards the LGBTQ Community
Issues related to gender-based violence arising from the topic of sexual orientation are the problems that concern both adults and young people. In particular, the LGBTQ community is vulnerable, and many of its members are forced to face stigma and bias from the sexual majority. Crooks et al. state that schoolchildren who identify themselves as belonging to the LGBTQ community are often harassed and pressured by peers (45). This, in turn, affects their morale negatively and is a favorable factor for the development of concomitant mental disorders. Therefore, countering such a form of bullying is an important aspect of creating a normal environment in which people with equal opportunities can defend their interests.
Ways to Mitigate the Problem
To provide vulnerable categories of the population with protection from gender-based violence, targeted work should be carried out from an early age. Crooks et al. propose to create special youth programs for primary and secondary school children, which include teaching social interaction skills (31). This practice can be useful as a tool to educate children and adolescents about the dangerous consequences of gender-based abuse, and building healthy behaviors is a valuable outcome of such work.
Maintaining an adequate preventive environment at the international level should be supported by responsible organizations and agencies dealing with social regulations. The World Health Organization offers a special algorithm that includes several stages of targeted work, in particular, joining the efforts of different committees, investing in maintaining a stable regulatory framework, and developing individual community practices (19). The aforementioned problem of the perception of gender-based violence within outdated cultural values can be addressed through the involvement of local representatives to implement corresponding security programs at the regional level. These initiatives may contribute to addressing the issue as effectively as possible while taking into account the characteristics of each population group.
With regard to gender-based violence in the LGBTQ community, special measures can be taken. In particular, Crooks et al. pay attention to the program of assistance to schoolchildren with non-traditional sexual orientation as one of the tools to address the problem (45). Such a program aims to give students an opportunity to share experiences and create a communication environment in which bullying gives way to positive interaction. Addressing this form of gender-based violence at an early age is an important aspect of the formation of appropriate social values and norms. As a result, in adulthood, the likelihood of facing open aggression can be minimized due to timely work with the population.
In addition, educating the adult population as a tool for strengthening preventive work is no less important aspect than corresponding regulatory decisions. According to Simister, education is an effective form of combating gender-based violence since, despite distinctive deviant features in different communities, the background of the problem is the same – abuse allowance by the gender factor (70). The more often people hear about the inadmissibility of humiliating others’ honor and dignity, the higher are the chances of reducing the incidence of physical abuse against vulnerable groups. Moreover, through education, stakeholders can not only build but also assess the sustainability of specific measures taken to reduce risks (World Health Organization 21). Therefore, outreach work, complemented by appropriate regulatory constraints, is a valuable practice.
Conclusion
Addressing the issue of gender-based violence by introducing both relevant legal practices and educational projects at different levels is a crucial task due to the dangerous implications of this social problem. Particular attention should be paid to the topic of physical abuse by the gender factor among children and adolescents since their psyche is the most vulnerable, and a number of health problems can develop. The representatives of the LGBTQ community are also under the threat of social pressure and may need support and protection to defend their interests and social rights. The reasons for gender-based violence can be distinctive, but the main prerequisites for the issue are economic constraints and impaired cultural norms promoted in individual communities. According to Etienne, local groups can educate the population successfully and build an adequate preventive environment (139). At the same time, international organizations’ activities are also valuable due to the popularization of the issue globally and an opportunity to attract public attention.
References
Chandra-Mouli, Venkatraman, et al. “Addressing Harmful and Unequal Gender Norms in Early Adolescence.” Nature Human Behaviour, vol. 2, no. 4, 2018, pp. 239-240.
Crooks, Claire V., et al. “Preventing Gender-Based Violence Among Adolescents and Young Adults: Lessons from 25 Years of Program Development and Evaluation.” Violence Against Women, vol. 25, no. 1, 2019, pp. 29-55.
Dowd, Douglas. Inequality and the Global Economic Crisis: Douglas Dowd. Pluto Press, 2009.
Etienne, Margareth. “Addressing Gender-Based Violence in an International Context.” Harvard Women’s Law Journal, vol. 18, 1995, p. 139.
Gerlach, Christian. Extremely Violent Societies: Mass Violence in the Twentieth-Century World. Cambridge University Press, 2010.
Mathews, Shanaaz, and Chandré Gould. “Preventing Violence: From Evidence to Implementation.” ChildGauge, edited by Lucy Jamieson, Lizette Berry, and Lori Lake, University of Cape Town, 2017, pp. 61-67.
Simister, John. Gender Based Violence: Causes and Remedies. Nova Science Publishers, 2012.
Sommer, Marni, et al. “How Gender Norms Are Reinforced Through Violence Against Adolescent Girls in Two Conflict-Affected Populations.” Child Abuse & Neglect, vol. 79, 2018, pp. 154-163.
Wood, Elizabeth A., et al. “Exploring the Differences Between Men’s and Women’s Perceptions of Gender-Based Violence in Rural Tajikistan: A Qualitative Study.” BMC Women’s Health, vol. 21, no. 1, 2021, pp. 1-15.
World Health Organization. RESPECT Women: Preventing Violence Against Women. World Health Organization, 2019.
In 1993, the Canadian Panel on violence against Women coined one of the greatest statements on violence and intimidation against women. To this panel, violence against women in the society draws inspiration from inequality structures in the patriarchal nature of many societies. Therefore, developing a sustainable solution to this ill depends on the ability of leading elites to develop adequate equality and equity structures between men and women in the society. Until then, gender violence will remain elusive. In the Eastern Europe’s case, there exists a link to detach to gender violence against women in the post war error from the real drivers of the vice (Hepburn and Simon 57). More emphasis seems to get diversion towards the structural rooting of violence in the society. During and after the war, women suffered in the hands of men as sex pets, and commercial sex workers. Much focused aimed at clearing men of the vices committed rather than seeking justice for the women in question. The root driver of this school of thought draws inspiration from the conservative societies that believe women lack equal position in the society and should play a subordinate role to men.
Understanding Structural Roots of Gender Violence
In similarity to the universality and pervasiveness of conflicts and wars, gender violence spreads out across geographical, cultural, social, and ethnic borders. Even though the international community and human right watchdogs continue to play a vital role in fighting gender violence, the intensity of its persistence remains high (Andrijasevic 42). Gender violence across these boundaries harbors relatively similarly consequences and trends with women as the major casualties. Such an observation, based on the historical manifestations of violence, draws inspiration from the socio-economic and political contexts within which women exist. Social stratification and male-dominated societies produce these gender discrimination tendencies within class, caste, and patriarchal social relations in which male individuals enjoy super power over female counterparts. Even though direct and physical violence against women lead to physical injury and physiological trauma, use of women as sex pets and commercial sex workers during the disintegration of the Soviet Union created a social and psychological damage to the vulnerable women during and after the wars. In the Bosnia and Serbia conflict, women used as sex slave remained in psychological trauma giving up their desire to fight for dignity and self-esteem. This violence, coupled with the embedment social gender stratification normalized the violence leading to loss of dignity in women (Gallagher 72).
Consequences of Structural Violence
In war and post war economies, women and children often represent the casualties. The consequences of war on women are far reaching ranging from physical injury to psychological traumatic situations (Wilson, Friedman, and Lindy 91). Since inequality sustained the during the fall of Soviet Union and the Bosnian-Serbian conflict , the cumulative impacts of these conflicts stemmed inequality within the society with women. Denial of fundamental human rights and exploitation of sex values in women remained the great drivers of violence during these two conflicts. Violence set up within societies with conservative opinions about the roles of women presented great impact on the women suffrage especially in mental, sexual, and reproductive health (Dudley, Silove, and Gale 33). Forced sex led to unwanted pregnancies and sexually transmitted infections. The worst part of this violence occurs during the pregnancy stages of a victim with injuries on fetus and infants. Fatal situations during this war caused miscarriage among women leading trauma and other mental health problems such as depression, fear, anxiety, and obsessive behaviors.
Human Trafficking and Displacement
According to statistics at the United Nations, conservative estimates indicate that more than two million people are victims of human trafficking. Among the casualties of the vice are migrants and refugees. War refugees and other individual fleeing their countries for safety often land in the hands of greedy and egocentric individual ready to earn some money from the desperate state of the affected individuals. Women and children represent the social groups suffering from this vice. Soldiers and other corrupt security officers in the immigration and security sectors act as the ambassador of human trafficking (Downe 65).
At the United Nations, data on human on human trafficking indicate that sexual exploitation of women and young girls from war torn regions are high. According to the Norwegian discourse on the sex purchase law, human trafficking becomes rampant in areas of war in which gender and social structures in which women serve as subordinates to their male counterparts in the society. Dang and Suphang (77), in their analysis of wartime sexual violence argue that sexual orientation in the society plays a role in in human displacement and sexual abuse of women. In the piece, they maintain that in societies with conservative opinions about the role of women in relation to those of the male counterparts, stands high chances of women and girl child exploitation in times of war compared to societies with relative equality between the two genders. During the fall of Soviet Union and the post-integration conflicts, women and girl in the region suffered not only physical and emotional problems, but also trans-locational effects. Several young girls and women, on the run for safety, landed on the hand of human trafficking leading to more damage.it is also important to note that women and girls presented the highest number of casualties of the refugees in the Bosnian war with Serbia. The role of men in the military and the militia groups partly explains the gender distribution in many refugee camps. In a setting where women and girls congest a given refugee camps, limited resources cause a state of disparity. For this reason, women become desperate to earn a living from any activity. For this reason, human trafficking often takes an easy course as some women willingly move into the activity for the sake of leaving a congested camp (Yakushko 173).
In the wake of globalization and technological advancements, the demands for resources continue to rise. Several conflicts over natural resources and other factor arise across the world forcing a large number of people into displacement. For this reason, there has been an increase in the number of refugee camps. As communism ended, the demand for control of resources to serve the rising independent states set precedence for increased number of conflicts (Tepfenhart 89). Several countries broke out together but disintegrated due to lack of agreement over control of resources. As the number of international conflicts increased, several vices occur within the displacement facets of the affected populations. With little disregard to the plight of the displaced refugees, there exists a disconnect between the human rights group striving to serve and rehabilitate the depressed refugees and the unscrupulous soldiers and other institutional officials seeking to earn few bucks from the desperate situations of the refugees. In the Bosnia war with Serbia, several women displaced from their original homes based on ethnicity and violence got refuge in the camps under military protection. In such camps, some soldiers not only subjected them to sexual exploitation but also engaged in further displaced through human trafficking. The trauma resulting from loss of family during war and conflict coupled with the separation of women from their cultures offered a prerequisite for trauma and depression (Tepfenhart 93).
Women Trends in War
In the history development of wars, women and girls as casualties stand out as one of the uniform phenomenon. Smock (23) in her analysis of the plight women and young girls argue that media, and political leaders continue to unravel the relatively quiet and unexplored tragic stories of rape during wars. Even though rape exists in the society with or without wars, in the war context it takes a relatively traumatic course as victims often suffer without any legal proceedings against the perpetrators. Apart from the absence of judicial proceedings against the perpetrators of this vice, nepotism, favoritism, and tribalism sets out as a factor of rape and sex slavery in many war camps (Downie 63). Women in each society have a culture and way of life. In the war camps the war camps, things change. It remains a norm for women to play subordinate roles to the soldiers and serve as slaves. Women with relatively masculine and stronger genes get better treatment and service in order to sire children with abilities to serve in the military. Women with weak and unwanted traits on the other hand act as sex pets and customers to the human trafficking syndicate with the camps.
In the Bosnia-Serbian war, there existed not only rape but also forced reproduction of perpetrators genes to eliminate the genes considered inferior in the society (Kourvetaris 163). Despite the biological believes and facts about children being a balance of the genes from the biological parents, the Serbian perpetrators of rape and gender violence in this war believed that the genes from the perpetrators dominated the child’s biological characteristics. The Serbians therefore, in their superiority complex’ war with the Bosnians, exploited this fact on Muslim women in the war camps with the aim of cleansing the inferior Muslim minority. In the refugee camps during this war, the Serbian soldiers raped and abused women refugees until death or conception. The victims who conceived were further concentrated in the camps to ensure zero abortion procurement (Marchak 16). Through these inhumane acts, the Serbian soldiers aimed at increasing their ethnicity and eliminating the Bosnians. On the Bosnian side, more than two thousand women from the Serbian communities underwent the same activities during the war (Vlachova and Biason 63).
Sexual objectification theory remains evident in this explanation of rape and ethnic cleansing in the refugee camps during the Bosnia-Serbia war. Evidence show that soldiers from both camps used the women as an object of developing a new and superior identity irrespective of the traumatic problems the women went through. As objects of developing a new and superior identity, the soldiers raped, maimed, and in some cases killed women who failed to conceive. As described the objectification theory that sees women as objects and means to an end for the male in the society, the Bosnia-Serbian war presents a great example in which this theory stands out as the leading school of thought especially among the soldiers (Fairchild and Rudman 347).
Conclusions and Recommendations
Structural rooting of gender violence in the society plays a vital role in the culture and bearing of women roles in the society. In order to develop a society devoid of gender violence, the change towards equality and equity among the gender remains overdue. Gender empowering and creation of social cultures that appreciate the role and differences in the gender act as a basis for stemming out gender violence (Bronstein 71). In times of war and conflict, human rights and social activists need highly developed systems of monitoring the military activities taking place in the refugee camps to ensure protection of women and vulnerable person living in the camps.
Structural and cultural violence towards women remains evident in many societies. Inequalities and discrimination against women in the education, employment, and leadership opportunities presents an ample environment increased violence and gender disparities. Given the patriarchal nature of many societies, there is need for sensitized women focused development to stem out the culture of discrimination. Developing and in depth understanding of the root drivers of gender and violence against women offer the opportunities for unmasking the gruesome patriarchal structures which encourage women victimization (Schumacher and Slep 235). In the objectification theory, scholars need to develop adequate points against such a school of thought and encourage women to embrace their dignity and live in equality with the male counterparts. Offering women equal opportunities with the male counterparts improves their abilities to withstand violence and the traumatic problems associated with war and effects of war.
In the social empowerment and capacity building perspective, women need to develop sustainable income earning activities to reduce overdependence on their male counterparts. Economic independence offers basis for social independence thus reducing vulnerability of women during war (Smolak and Murnen 510). As some organization and international non-governmental organization continue to develop women empowerment programs through community groups’ investment and small business enterprises, there remains a need for improved funding of women empowerment initiates to reduce the level of women dependency on male earnings.
Works Cited
Andrijasevic, Rutvica. “Beautiful Dead Bodies: Gender, Migration And Representation In Anti-trafficking Campaigns.” Feminist Review 86 (2007): 24-44. Palgrave Macmillan. Web.
Bronstein, Carolyn. Battling Pornography: The American Feminist Anti-Pornography Movement, 1976-1986. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2011. Print.
Dang, Nguyen, and Chanthawanit Suphang. Uprooting People for Their Own Good?: Human Displacement, Resettlement and Trafficking in the Greater Mekong Sub-Region. Hanoi: Social Sciences Pub. House, 2004. Print.
Downie, Pamela. “Two Stories of Migrant Sex Work, Cross Border Movement and Violence.” Canadian Women Studies 25.2 (2006): 61-66. Print.
Dudley, Michael, Derrick Silove, and Fran Gale. Mental Health and Human Rights: Vision, Praxis, and Courage. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2012. Print.
Fairchild, Kimberly, and Laurie Rudman. “Everyday Stranger Harassment and Women’s Objectification.” Social Justice Research 21.3 (2008): 338-357. Print.
Gallagher, Tom. The Balkans in the New Millennium: In the Shadow of War and Peace. London: Routledge, 2005. Print.
Hepburn, Stephanie, and Rita Simon. Human Trafficking Around the World: Hidden in Plain Sight. New York: Columbia University press, 2013. Print.
Kourvetaris, George. “Ethnonationalism and subnationalism: The case of former Yugoslavia.” Journal of Political and Military Sociology 24.2 (1996): 163. Print.
Marchak, Patricia. No Easy Fix: Global Responses to Internal Wars and Crimes against Humanity. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s UP, 2008. Print.
Schumacher, Julie, and Amy Slep. “Attitudes and Dating Aggression: A Cognitive Dissonance Approach.” Prevention Science 5.4 (2004): 231-243. Print.
Smock, David R. Teaching About the Religious Other. Washington: United States Institute of Peace, 2005. Print.
Smolak, Linda, and Sarah Murnen. “Gender, Self-Objectification and Pubic Hair Removal.” Sex Roles 65.7/8 (2011): 506-517. Print.
Tepfenhart, Mariana. “The Causes of Ethnic Conflicts.” Comparative Civilizations Review 68.2 (2013): 84-97. Print.
Vlachova, Marie, and Lea Biason. Making the World a More Secure Place: Combating Violence against Women. Geneva: DCAF, 2004. Print.
Wilson, John, Matthew Friedman, and Jacob Lindy. Treating Psychological Trauma and Ptsd. New York: Guilford Press, 2001. Print.
Yakushko, Oksana, Megan Watson, and Sarah Thompson. “Stress and Coping in the Lives of Recent Immigrants and Refugees: Considerations for Counseling.” International Journal for The Advancement of Counselling 30.3 (2008): 167-178. Print.
