In the last 50 years, the role and social functions of women have dramatically been changed due to extreme desire of women to fight for their rights and freedoms. The emergence of feminist movements allows male society to reconsider their attitudes to the roles of women. Specifically, the conventional views on women as mothers, wives, and friends have been blurred with the emergence of emancipated movement leading to the professional equality of women.
More and more females occupy leading positions at the top of managerial ladder by brining in confidence in other women. Significant advances have been achieved by women in educational, industrial, and social sphere. Despite the valuable contribution that women made to the development of society, the role reversal between US men and women is demonstrated most explicitly and painfully in the working class, having significant cultural and political consequences for the development of the American society.
So far, it was hard to imagine that women can occupy the leading positions in industrial, scientific, educational, and political spheres, since men were traditionally believed to be the most suitable for these professional areas. Nowadays, these stereotypes have been blurred and, as a result, a plethora of advances has been introduced to various social and cultural spheres.
In particular, because male prevailing society prevented them from learning, “knowledge…make[s] them question the binding power of the conventions and believes which…would show them how to achieve their freedom” (Barnes, 2009, p. 22). Education, therefore, was the only path to achieve privileges that men had. Moreover, women’s desire to gain advantage over men led to the achievement of the economic independence, as well as advances made in industrial spheres.
The criticism of gender differences has touched on the changes in top corporate positions that were previously taken by men. Thus, the shift of power from men to women has allowed the latter to possess greater control of middle management positions. The statistics shows that “women now hold 51.4 percent of managerial and processional jobs – up from 26.1 percent in 1980” (Rosin, 2010, n. p.).
Because of ongoing suppressions, women activated their aspirations to go through the barriers and acquire professional credentials to prove their knowledge is a valuable asset to the development of society. Thus, women have managed heighten the corporate performance and, therefore, each firm thinking beyond stereotypes ad interested in profits succeeded significantly in recruiting high-potential and skillful women.
Role reversal of American men and women have significantly affected cultural and political atmosphere in the United States. Clair (2011) emphasizes, “given the trends of pushing economy and society, this domination seems like a last gasp of a dying age” (p. 147).
Though male professionals hold about 15 job categories, women have captured the rest, including nursing, teaching, manufacturing, etc. Therefore, the role reversal has made women dominate and become even more independent and confident. As a result, women have become less reliant on men and, as result, the latter are now less independent and resolute.
In conclusion, the advances in various facets of societal development have posited women to higher professional positions. Advances made in education, industry, and leadership has significantly feminized the modern culture. Men become more development on women’s culture and companies encourage gifted and promising women to apply for their positions.
References
Barnes, E. (2009). Woman in Modern Society. US: Echo Library.
Clair, M. (2011). So Much, So Fast, So Little Time: Coming to Terms with Rapid Change and its Consequences. US: ABC-CLIO.
Human capital is one of the most fundamental aspects in contemporary organizations and it determines the outcome of productivity or organizational success significantly.
The modern world of human resource management seems to have changed significantly and as policies and regulations change, the need to reconsider workplace gender equity and diversity has received considerable attention across organizations (Herring, 2009). Human resource management is currently facing substantial challenges pertaining to employee gender equity and diversity that workplace reforms take as means of integrating fairer working community.
Gender discrimination or imbalance has been a matter of great concern in the contemporary employment realm, which has sometimes affected the reputation and performance of companies (Malvin & Girling, 2000). During these difficult and challenging economic hardship times, utilizing talent from the entire workforce that promotes inclusive working environment may deem significant to company’s competence. Gender equity and diversity are critical elements in any workplace environment.
Concept of diversity and equity
Human potential seem to differ from one individual to another and that is where the concept of equity in employment or workplace arise, taking into consideration fairness and justice regarded as a productivity factor in organizations (Hiranandani, 2012).
Equal opportunity principally refers to addressing human resource representation and balance and a terminology used in HR as measures taken by organizations to guarantee equality in recruitment and employment procedures. Equity is all about fostering and promoting the right to be different and free from discrimination, to possess a certain level of dignity and remain valued as an individual while at the same time remain entitled to personal beliefs and values (Monks, 2007).
Diversity means varied or assorted and in HR is normally all about valuing individual differences and establishing an environment with a culture of respecting personal differences for organizational or societal benefit. In modern business world, considering diversity in the workplace and nurturing an inclusive and unbiased working environment is becoming essential.
Workplace gender diversity is a matter of providing equal employment opportunities for all individuals despite their sexual characteristics and notwithstanding educational outcomes across gender or their ethnic groups. According to Monks (2007), “work-life balance policies need to be capable of translation into flexible practices, tailored to suit particular circumstances, and adapted as employees’ needs change over the course of their careers” (p.33).
Over the years, diversity management has come up as one of the integral part of human resource management with substantial research revealing that firms that have integrated diversity management systems demonstrate high levels of labor productivity especially during economic crunches.
Diversity management has currently “emerged as the most popular alternative to settle racial and gender discrimination issues compared to any other affirmative actions or employment equity strategies” (Hiranandani, 2012, p.11). With emerging management trends, diversity and equality approaches have gradually facilitated the transformation of workplaces towards diverse representative environments where innovation and productivity become shared responsibilities.
A diverse or inclusive workplace
An organization will remain considered having a diverse workforce or an inclusive one when a number of workplace issues portray evidence of multiplicity. An inclusive workplace “provides a welcoming culture where each individual feels valued; receive equal treatment coupled with deserved respect and dignity” (Monks, 2007, p.41).
An inclusive workplace translates to organizations that are without charge of sexual harassment, victimization and any form of discrimination. Organizations deemed as inclusive workplaces are normally proactive in their quest of equality, while at the same time realizing and seeking concrete outcomes including positive achievements as stipulated in the legislation (Malvin & Girling, 2000).
Inclusive organizations must always acknowledge, accommodate and value workforce diversity while providing facilities and adjusting policies that spur equality, enhance the dignity at work, improve working conditions, reinforce employee welfare and encourage fair recruitment (Monks, 2007). Organizations thought to have an inclusive workplace normally encourage and motivate all employees to develop and progress professionally and unnecessary occupational and hierarchical isolation never exist.
Gender discrimination: interviews at a glance
Based on my personal observation on the issue of gender discrimination, cases of gender bias at the workplace have existed in American companies for quite a while. I happened to build substantial interest in investigating the issue of workplace employee diversity and gender discrimination and from a wider view, interviewed people who have suffered effects of a glass ceiling or racial discrimination and these facts protracted.
My interview engaged 20 actively working people employees from different companies who could produce significant evidence over workplace diversity. Despite the American government struggling to instill equity in organizations, race, ethnicity and cultural differences are becoming constant problems in North American workplaces.
Glass ceiling is a terminology used in describing a situation where organizations use invisible discriminatory barriers that frustrate or depress minorities and women from career success. From the face-to-face interview undertaken, the researcher managed to assemble a few responses on perceptions regarding the state of workplace gender prejudice within the American organizations.
From the 20 women respondents interviewed directly by the researcher, 12 participants that represent 60% of them claimed that gender discrimination is still an incessant problem affecting the majority of the American companies.
Of this population, 5 respondents who represent 25% of the population involved in the face-to-face interview claimed that gender discrimination in American workplaces is a forgone issue, while only 3 respondents remain unsure about the issue of gender bias at workplaces. When questioned whether they encountered such challenges during their employment era, approximately 15 (75%) of the respondents revealed that they underwent workplace gender bias and are probably experiencing this problem to certain extents.
Minority participants 5 (25%) of them responded that they had never experienced workplace gender discrimination. Of those who experienced workplace gender discrimination, approximately 93% of them claimed that gender discrimination affected their competence at work since they had no opportunity to exercise their professional abilities freely following nature of these challenges that this situation presented.
Gender and diversity at the workplace is an issue that seems to differ from one nation to another, an organization to another and even one company to another (Malvin & Girling, 2000). Generally, developed nations seem to have improved significantly over the years on issues regarding gender and diversity at workplace given their ability to integrate policies and regulations governing employment reforms and standards.
In the United States, the status of a glass ceiling against women and minorities has improved following intensified campaigns against discrimination and presence of workplace diversity-management initiatives that began in USA in 1990s following the urging need to control individual and cross-cultural differences within the diverse demographic workforce (Hiranandani, 2012).
Since the advent of workplace diversity management that immigration activities and large women populace entering USA promoted, companies have since then developed policies concerning equality and human rights, dignity at workplace, fair employment, and improved working conditions that signify inclusive workplaces (Herring, 2009). However, glass ceiling still exists.
A decade after the development of the concept of diversity management in America, glass ceiling continued to prove challenging to women employees and the minority groups and cases of discrimination continued to protract.
A study conducted by Cotter et al. (2001) aimed at examining the effects of the glass ceiling at American workplaces revealed considerable evidence on continued glass ceiling and its effects. From the perspective of this study, organizations or industries practicing gendered glass ceiling, had a lower female share of Chief Executive Officers compared to that of their male counterparts.
This report can thus provide a substantial conclusion that despite workplaces becoming more diverse and women labor force participation rates increasing over the years, glass ceiling seem to prevail in hierarchical order (Cotter et al., 2001). As the system of employment within hierarchies continue and the criterion to consider top positions remain discriminated in terms of gender, the practice may commence over the years depending on policies governing the organizations.
Effects of workplace gender diversity
Research has established considerable effects of workplace gender diversity in relation to a continuum of organizational issues ranging from productivity, strategic management to enhanced corporate governance.
According to Malvin and Girling (2000), workplace diversity potentially contributes to competitive advantage for the organization as roles within the organizations remain distributed on the basis of professional competence and specialization where important aspects of problem solving and enhanced creativity emerges. People bring different sets of significant human capital contributions including qualifications, abilities, skills and achievements that can substantially contribute to organizational success in varied ways.
Hiranandani (2012) posits, “A diverse workforce can maximize talent and creativity and foster innovation, which can ultimately lead to increased profits and positive public image for a successful business enterprise” (p.7). Managers concerned with HR management are gradually becoming enlightened over issues regarding gender and workplace diversity, but little is known on the significant contribution of inclusive workplace or workplace gender diversity and therefore efforts to create and promote such workplaces are still negligible.
Notwithstanding its ability to prove significant to organizations with potential benefits becoming clear and logically sound, workplace diversity has remained underestimated and undervalued. Monks (2007) notes that developed a study to examine the business influence on equality and diversity to examine the issue in the international paradigm.
The report evaluated international research to produce evidence regarding equality and diversity and its correlation to organizational performance. Hiranandani (2012) investigated diversity management in the Canadian workplace while examining critical perspectives, the significance of incorporating an inclusive workplace and providing a framework to assist towards antiracism approaches.
This study also emphasized on establishing the situation regarding the ongoing workplace discrimination against visible minorities across the Canadian employment system. To enhance the understanding of the effects of workplace gender diversity, following the arguments and facts highlighted in the two above-mentioned studies will shed more light on the accrued contribution of a diverse workforce in organizations.
Diversity enhances organizational performance
Beyond any reasonable doubt, all profit and non-profit organizations aim at positive outcomes or simply enhanced performance, factors that not only financial capital but also human capital contributes heavily towards their attainment.
Monks (2007) notes, “Investment by organizations in initiatives that promote workplace equality and foster diversity has substantial benefits for both employees and employers” (p. 6). An inclusive workforce generates working pressure that significantly contributes to radical and competitive working groups that foster organizational productivity.
Monks (2007) study, identified that organizations with policies aimed at enhancing inclusive workplace or diversified workforce contribute to employee positive outcomes including job satisfaction, employee commitment, work-life balance and reduced work stress that significantly enhance organizational success indirectly.
With a streamlined top management that includes both genders, a sense of openness and integrity becomes evitable and achievable in organizations, as women have proven more trustworthy. Monks (2007) also notes that diversity potentially reduces absenteeism, improves employee relation and reduces labor turnover.
Diversity fosters innovation and creativity
In the modern business world that has remained characterized by globalization, uncertainties and radical changes, organizations will perform if they can readily adapt and learn businesses changes within its operational atmosphere. The need to remain competitive and innovative becomes integral.
Still on the part of organizational performance that several aspects can depict, studies have revealed that workplace diversity enhances or fosters innovation and creativity among the workforce that further contributes to organizational effectiveness. Hiranandani (2012) postulates, “A diverse workforce can maximize talent and creativity and foster innovation, which can ultimately lead to increased profits and positive public image for a successful business enterprise” (p.1).
At this point, workforce diversity becomes a significant organizational approach as in such rapidly changing socio-economic milieu, diverse knowledge; creative ideas and innovative minds combine efforts to enhance effective performance in organizations (Malvin & Girling, 2000). Through workforce diversity therefore, there is maximum access of talented employees and utilization of their innovative ideas that spur corporate effectiveness that enables them fit within the competitive business world.
Knowledge rests upon individuals and human capital differs distinctively from physical strength to intellectual ability. In organizations, communication is an aspect that allows knowledge sharing among members and an inclusive or diversified workplace stands a better position of acquiring a wider pool of talented workforce that generates a greater body of professional knowledge.
Herring (2009) notes that companies must promote workplace diversity as the emerging knowledge economy and knowledge intensification are important factors influencing performance in workplaces. Diversified workforce is where innovation generates from, since knowledge diffuses from different organizational members with differing intellectual abilities.
Knowledge development and diffusion are principle to improvement of economic activity. As postulated by Monks (2007), “knowledge is embodied in people, and it is the quality of human resources that will determine the success or otherwise of firms and economies in the years ahead” (p.15). A human being generates new knowledge. The same people disseminate and use the information that finally generates distinctive value.
Diversity enhances worker’s competence
Healthy competition, both internally and externally is significant as it forces organizations to respond to issues more straightforwardly and aim at expanding market accessibility and building its business reputation (Herring, 2009).
Professional development among workers is more competent in a diversified workforce where aggressiveness towards achieving better work results and professional acknowledgement prevail. Workers normally struggle to receive performance acknowledgement from their bosses and in an inclusive workplace, competition is generally higher than in an exclusive workplace (Malvin & Girling, 2000).
People carry different potency and an inclusive workplace enables employees to compete through their innovative ideas, professional qualifications and basic work skills that generate pressure on individual employee outcomes that further foster organizational effectiveness.
Monk (2007) notes that there is a positive relationship between diversity in top management and organizational effectiveness since organizations with top management that contains an inclusive system of governance is likely to have an informed decision-making due to shared opinions, views and perceptions regarding certain problems from both genders.
Diversity captures new global markets
Diversity management principally refers to organizational willingness to design programs and policies that enhance greater inclusion of all qualified individuals to exercise their professional expertise in an organization, despite their racial or sex differences (Herring, 2009).
Organizations with diversity management policies are capable of attracting talents and workforce allover thus tapping and exploring new global workforce markets. With the globalised business world, organizations have resorted to international markets and the majority of them no longer confine themselves within national markets.
Currently, the quest to enhance the effectiveness in organizations has been augmenting and this aspect has resulted in globalization of labor market and integrating diversity management policies across organizations may provide opportunities to increase market share in global labor market (Monks, 2007).
Therefore, “enhancing workforce diversity has the potential to capture new global markets and thereby boost corporate success” (Hiranandani, 2012, p.8). Since organizations enjoy unlimited access to global labor market rights, organizations with inclusive workplaces can build its reputation to employees.
Diversity encourages flexible working arrangements
All employees feel motivated when working in an environment that offers contributive working schedules that promote good health at work and positive outcomes of individuals. According to Malvin and Girling (2000), organizational commitment towards diversity management include integrating initiatives that promote employees to work in flexible, safe, understanding and creative environment.
Flexible working arrangements have been key aspects that workplace diversity offer and employees normally feel appreciated when organization consider their workplace safety. An inclusive workplace provides a range of “flexible working conditions that include arrangement of working hours, provisions for leave, recognition for cultural requirements, and that enables organizations to attract a diverse group of employees with a wider pool of talent” (Hiranandani, 2012, p.13).
As revealed by Malvin and Girling (2000), companies with shift work schedules have increased nowadays and by integrating policies that cover diversity management, managers find it easy to enhance flexible working through flexible schedules.
Conclusion
The world of globalization and industrialization has proved challenging with rapid socioeconomic changes and uncertainties affecting the business world. Companies with sound management practices have resorted to strategic management practices that involve incorporating diversity management techniques that entail integrating policies that allow inclusive workforce.
Over the years, glass ceiling has been a constant hitch to the development of women and minorities since it provides barriers towards exploration of their professional skills. Despite gaining substantial recognition since the year 1990s, diversity management has not been successful as such, as organizations possess different policies.
By enhancing inclusiveness in organization’s workforce, there are possibilities of enhancing organizational effectiveness as diversity in organization fosters innovation and creativity, enhances worker’s competence, reduces top laxity within the top management, reduces labor turnover, and discourages ill behaviors like absenteeism among others. All these aspects have a positive contribution to organizations in the sense that they influence an individual’s performance outcomes.
Reference List
Cotter, D., Hermsen, J., Ovadia, S., & Vanneman, R. (2001). The glass ceiling effect. Social Forces, 80 (2), 655-682.
Herring, C. (2009). Does Diversity Pay? Race, Gender, and the Business Case for Diversity. American Sociological Review, 74(2), 208–224.
Hiranandani, V. (2012). Diversity Management in the Canadian Workplace: Towards an Antiracism Approach. Urban Studies Research, 1(1), 1-13.
Malvin, S., & Girling, G. (2000). What is managing diversity and why does it matter? Human Resource Development International, 3(4), 419-433.
Monks, K. (2007). The Business Impact of Equality and Diversity: The International Evidence. Dublin, Ireland: The Equality Authority.
The most outstanding aspect of the social status of females and males is the privilege of men in nearly all facets of life, even in contemporary times (Pölkki et al. 20-22). Such culturally-established male supremacy may be explained in different approaches and from various points of view.
The current paper will focus on one of the aspects of gender-based inequality, which is apparent in modern society, that is, the amount of housework that is done by individuals of different sexes. After explaining the problem in question in more detail, as well as describing the significance of the study and its theoretical framework, a review of the scholarly literature pertaining to the topic of gender discrimination will be carried out in order to provide more significant background for the planned research. After that, a method for carrying out a study which will test a hypothesis related to one of the important aspects of gender-based discrimination will be offered.
Background
Problem Statement
In most occurrences within today’s society, women are seen to have less privilege when judged against men (Valentine et al. 806). Women across the globe are expected to devote a significant amount of time to care for their families, and these social expectations and currently existing stereotypes may create serious hindrances for women’s professional growth and success, for the employers prefer to hire those people who, as they believe, will demonstrate greater commitment to working and will have no distractive factors. In this way, although it is often considered that women and men have equal opportunities in the labor market, the implicit unequal perceptions of female and male social positions influence organizational policies of employment and result in gender inequality.
Significance of the Study
For the purpose of this study, privilege will be taken to represent dominance or the ideas that members of a society to whom high status and rights are bestowed are anchored stringently in their gender (Massen et al. 73-92). The significance of this study will be based on an affirmation that if women do not put themselves in positions of contentment with little privilege, they will increasingly attain high status with practical effort and be in equal or nearly equivalent positions as men.
Theoretical Perspective
The feminist theory represents the extension of feminism into theoretical, imaginary, and truth-seeking discussions (Donovan 34). The feminist theories seek to comprehend the aspect of gender inequality by evaluating females’ social tasks, concerns, encounters, welfare, responsibilities, in a diversity of sectors such as the education, the family, and the social sphere.
According to the functionalist feminist theory, the gender role is one of the central elements of the social system; it defines the functional premises of any social system (adaptation, objectives’ fulfillment, integration, etc.), and forms the levels of social, cultural, and personal behaviors (Garcia and Heywood 327). The family institute is interrelated with other social and political institutes, and the gender roles in the family are interrelated with such social changes as differentiation, adaptive renewal, integration, and generalization of values.
The functions of the family are different from the functions of the economy; they involve children’s socialization and emotional enrichment of adult family members. The initial position of the woman in the family structure is defined by her central role in the accomplishment of these tasks and functions. In order to fit these roles, the woman is supposed to be expressive, emotional, and sensitive. The family functions of the woman affect the tasks women attempt to accomplish in other social structures, especially the economy. For instance, women are expected to be engaged in expressive forms of labor.
Therefore, the functionalist feminist perspective was chosen because it allows for demonstrating that the participation of women in economic performance is limited by their responsibilities in the family.
Theory Application and Its Contribution to Research
Gendered social roles are wrongly perceived as the manifestation of natural individual identity, while, in fact, the mechanism of gender development is rooted in the complex of ritual actions taken by a person during social interrelations. In this way, the introduced concept of role-playing is nothing more than an artificial social organization, and gender differences, as well as the existing gender stereotypes, have a social meaning. Therefore, the consideration of functionalist principles in the research may facilitate the comprehension of the social nature of gender inequality in contemporary Western society.
Literature Review
Patriarchy supporters argue that society enjoys numerous benefits because men have privileges in comparison to women (Miller 423). In contrast, feminist activists and supporters are inclined to underscoring the tremendous suffering that women go through for being underprivileged. They affirm that women have over the years suffered discrimination, which is attributable to male dominance.
The situation of men having privilege in modern society in comparison to women has been a contentious issue (Miller 423). Both previous and current studies have evaluated the degree of its occurrence and impact in the community with regard to biological and spatial aspects. Numerous concerns have been voiced, for instance, that women constantly have to accept lower salaries in the labor market than men and to endure being oppressed in the family unit, religion, community, political arena, and general civilization. This has led to restrictions for women because of stereotypical gender roles buttressed both at home and in the workplace. Nevertheless, the improved empowerment of females is notable in recent times, e.g., by women gaining the right to vote and concerns of rising gender equality.
According to Leung, Li, and Zhou, it is evident that through male privilege, the society restricts women in a variety of ways (1153-1154). Mothers go through worse employment disgrace when judged against women without children, while fathers acquire bonuses and higher salaries than men without children. It is often asserted that women undertake most of the household tasks even in homes where the wife is in the same job position as the husband. Mothers (irrespective of whether they are working or not) are normally anticipated to forgo most of their desires and leisure time to cater for household tasks and look after their children. In contrast, fathers are considered good by just having a source of livelihood, and can have their desires and leisure time as much as they like.
Women often have greater anticipations that they have to be married when judged against their male counterparts regardless of the reality that the number of single women greatly exceeds that of qualified single men (Batres, Re, and Perrett 1293-1300). This makes heterosexual monogamous marriages impracticable for a high proportion of women. Also, even when women have technological and legal opportunities, their agency is more restricted.
Methods
Research Question
Can the sex of a married individual be used as a predictor of the number of hours that they spent doing housework or caring about a child over the last month (while controlling for the number of hours that that individual spent working over the last month)?
Variables for the Study
The independent variable: sex of the participants.
The dependent variable: the number of hours spent over the last month while doing housework or taking care of children.
The covariate: the number of hours spent working (to earn money) over the last month.
Hypotheses for the Study
The null hypothesis: The sex of a married individual cannot be used as a predictor of the number of hours that they spent doing housework or caring about a child over the last month (while controlling for the number of hours that that individual spent working over the last month).
The research hypothesis: The sex of a married individual can be used as a predictor of the number of hours that they spent doing housework or caring about a child over the last month (while controlling for the number of hours that that individual spent working over the last month).
Research Design
The research will employ the methods of quantitative data analysis, correlational design. A survey will be administered to the participants of the study in order to collect the data; the latter will then be analyzed by employing statistical software.
Population and Sample
The population for the current study will be comprised of members of young heterosexual married couples (aged 20-35) who have one child (aged 1-5) and live in the state of Virginia. The sample will consist of at least a number of individuals which is sufficient to obtain results at the alpha level of α=.05, the power of at least.80, and to detect an effect of at least a medium effect size.
Data Collection
The data will be collected by utilizing the method of computer-assisted telephone interviewing (Kendall 29). Random phone numbers will be dialed, and those who pick the phone will be asked a number of questions (Part 1 of the survey, see Appendix 1) to decide whether they qualify for the study. If they answer “yes” to every question of this part of the survey, it will be decided that they do meet the necessary criteria, and they will be asked the questions from the Part 2 of the survey. The responses to the second part of the survey will be recorded and stored for further analysis.
Data Analysis
The data obtained via the data collection procedure will be recorded and transformed so that it is capable of being analyzed via IBM SPSS statistical package. An analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) will be carried out, which will allow for evaluating whether the number of hours spent doing housework or taking care of a child can be predicted from the sex of the respondent while controlling for the number of hours they spent working (Field 479-484). Appropriate conclusions related to the null and research hypotheses will be drawn.
The Methods That Will Be Not Used in the Study
Therefore, a correlational qualitative method was chosen for the study. It will allow to see the correlational relationship between variables, but will not permit for making conclusions about the causal relationships between variables.
On the other hand, if a descriptive quantitative study was chosen, it would only provide the description of the sample (and allow for generalization of the results on the population), but it would not make any comparisons between males and females, which is why this method/research design would be inappropriate.
If an experimental or quasi-experimental method was chosen, it would allow for drawing conclusions related to the causal relationship between variables. However, conducting such a study in sociology is often extremely difficult; in particular, it would be hard or impossible to manipulate some independent variables (e.g., perceptions about women or participants’ gender), making such a study practically unaccomplishable.
It would also be possible to employ one the qualitative methods (e.g., phenomenological or content-analysis) for a study on this topic. This would allow for evaluating the phenomenon from a more subjective point of view, for instance, exposing the experience of the participants of the study. However, such a research would be more subjected to bias than a qualitative study (Creswell 232).
It would also be possible to use the secondary analysis of data, collecting quantitative studies on the topic and conducting correlational quantitative analysis. This would allow for analyzing massive amounts of data, but would require significant effort and, strictly speaking, would not produce any new knowledge, only analyzing the already existing knowledge.
Conclusion
From the literature review, it is apparent that gender-based discrimination and gender inequality still exist in the modern society. The unequal amount of housework that is done by representatives of the two different sexes could be one of the manifestations of such inequality. Therefore, the current paper provides a research proposal aimed at finding out whether the number of hours spent doing housework and caring for a child can be predicted from the sex of the participant while controlling for the number of hours they work to earn money.
It might be hypothesized that the hours spent on housework can be predicted from sex, but not from the amount of time spent to earn money. If this is true, then it could be apparent that doing household duties is a barrier for women to participate in economic activities, for they have to do more housework than men and, therefore, are physically incapable of dedicating the same amount of effort to their work.
Appendix
Part 1
Is your age between 20 and 35 years?
Are you married?
Do you have precisely one child aged 1-7?
Part 2
What is your biological sex, male or female?
How many hours have you spent working in order to earn money over the last month?
How many hours have you spent doing housework over the last month?
How many hours have you spent providing care for your child over the last month?
Works Cited
Batres, Carlota, Daniel Re, and David Perrett. “Influence of Perceived Height, Masculinity, and Age on Each Other and on Perceptions of Dominance in Male Faces.” Perception 44.11 (2015): 1293-1309. Print.
Creswell, John W. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE Publications, 2009. Print.
Donovan, Josephine. Feminist Theory: The Intellectual Traditions. New York, NY: Bloomsbury Publishing USA, 2012. Print.
Field, Andy. Discovering Statistics Using IBM SPSS Statistics. 4th ed. 2013. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. Print.
Garcia, J. R., and L. L. Heywood. “Moving toward Integrative Feminist Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences.” Feminism & Psychology 26.3 (2016): 327-34. Print.
Kendall, Diana. Sociology in Our Times: The Essentials. 10th ed. 2016. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning. Print.
Leung, Kwok, Fuli Li, and Fan Zhou. “Sex Differences in Social Cynicism Across Societies: The Role of Men’s Higher Competitiveness and Male Dominance.” Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 43.7 (2012): 1152-1166. Print.
Massen, Jorg, Anne Overduin-de Vries, Annemiek de Vos-Rouweler, Berry Spruijt, Gaby Doxiadis, and Elisabeth Sterck. “Male Mating Tactics in Captive Rhesus Macaques (Macaca Mulatta): The Influence of Dominance, Markets, and Relationship Quality.” International Journal of Primatology 33.1 (2012): 73-92. Print.
Miller, Cherry. “Book Review: Comparative Politics: Breaking Male Dominance in Old Democracies.” Political Studies Review 13.3 (2015): 425. Print.
Pölkki, Mari, Raine Kortet, Ann Hedrick, and Markus Rantala. “Dominance is Not Always an Honest Signal of Male Quality, but Females May Be Able to Detect the Dishonesty.” Biology Letters 9.1 (2013): 20-22. Print.
Valentine, Katherine, Norman Li, Lars Penke, and David Perrett. “Judging a Man By the Width of His Face: The Role of Facial Ratios and Dominance in Mate Choice at Speed-Dating Events.” Psychological Science 25.3 (2014): 806-811. Print.
Sports are a major source of entertainment, but when certain disciplines attempt to integrate women and men, spectators may not be so receptive. These supporters are not used to such a new concept, yet it would be intriguing to see the outcomes of several classic sports if both genders were included. Multiple actual and perceived factors indicate that society is not yet prepared to remove gender segregation in competitive sports. There are several reasons why males and females should be separated in sports. These vary from simple bar debates to more complex issues such as ‘binding men and women to compete together eliminates those whose religious beliefs ban mixed-gender events.’ In each instance, however, the primary argument appears to be that females cannot contend with males in sports owing to their physical disparities. This point may be advanced for entirely different reasons, which is rather intriguing. There are numerous representatives from both the scholarly and public dimensions that advocate the raging fight against gender separation in sports. However, it seems that such a position is not consistent, taking into account a variety of essential points within the scope of the theme. Although different institutions have promoted sports practice without gender segregation, it has been shown in real life that this is not possible due to physical differences, cultural values, and disregard for sports organizations.
Physical Differences
Despite the fact that men and women live, work, and socialize together in everyday life, the sport has traditionally been and will likely continue to be an activity that divides its participants by gender. The primary explanation for this is that men and women are constructed as physically different from one another (Sobal & Milgrim, 2019, p. 30). As a result of the fact that males are often taller, heavier, more powerful, and faster than women, it is not actually feasible for them to compete on an equal level in the majority of sports. Competitions for men and women are often held in separate divisions in the vast majority of sports. This is done to increase the level of competitiveness in the game, making it more exciting for participants and spectators alike. A position against such a state of affairs is that the described approach makes gender stereotypes more integrated into the public mind. It is assumed that sports serve as a promoter of gender segregation in all spheres of life (Ljungqvist, 2018, p. 1). However, men and women do not always compete on separate teams in every sport. In several sports, males and females create a team and participate in mixed competitions. With equal numbers of men and women on each side, they may compete with and against one another in a fair manner. Then, there are a few sports in which males and females compete against one another regardless of their gender, such as equestrian and sailing.
Cultural values
Since sex segregation is a primary organizing factor for the majority of contemporary sports, the reason for binary gender separation of sports is founded on a complex mixture of biological, economic, and commercial factors, along with societal conventions that continue to frame sport as a male realm. Sex segregation is often imposed unquestioningly, regardless of the players’ age, strength, or talent, and without anybody questioning the reasoning or rationale behind it. Gender ideology is intimately tied to the segregation of the sexes (Braumüller et al., 2020, p. 2). This ideology comprises interconnected concepts and beliefs that are commonly used to characterize masculinity and femininity, designate individuals as male or female, assess forms of sexual display, and establish acceptable positions for males and females in society. Society has gotten used to the assumptions that humans are either men or women; heterosexuality is the natural basis for human procreation; other sexual identities are aberrant; males are physically greater (Flores et al., 2020, p. 384). Therefore, they are better equipped to hold authority and occupy leadership positions in the public realm. Individuals are so used to seeing distinct genders participate in conventional sports that altering this may lead many of them to quit watching sports. An opposite position here is that modern cultural values reflect another approach toward the issue – inclusiveness should be a foundation for all areas of life. However, in terms of sports, it seems that this principle means equal career and achievement opportunities for men and women. Gender segregation is likely to be justified by the aspects explored above.
Disregard Sport Organizations
Individuals are so used to seeing distinct genders participate in conventional sports that altering this may lead the majority of them to quit watching sports. At the very least, this conclusion may be of concern to sports leagues and television networks. It has been said that if new mass and length categories are developed in numerous sports and if the regulations are modified, females will be able to participate and win against males in a number of sports (Kerr & Obel, 2018, p. 311). However, this is also likely to lead companies and advertisers to lose the significance of their brand and, as a result, generate less revenue and sales. Even team managers or their athletes may grow dissatisfied under such conditions, and they may even decide to resign or demonstrate against those who promote combining teams (Piggott & Matthews, 2020, p. 5). Combining conventional sports with both sexes is inconclusive unless all parties are happy with the notion from a commercial perspective. So that commerce does not decline, they must ensure that their customers, sponsorships, the news, and even their teams will be good with gender segregation in sports, which does not seem possible for now. Given the arguments provided, it might be assumed that the complete removal of gender segregation in sports disregards the involved organizations to a great degree. Their established policies are essential for the sports industry in general, which fuels the sector and maintains stability in terms of arranging competitions.
Conclusion
Commonly, the segregation of males and females in sports is explained by issues related to competition fairness and the encouragement of wide and equal participation. In non-sporting situations, however, sex- and gender-based categorization are subject to strong societal, legal, and moral prohibitions. The practice of separating males and females in competitive sports is so widespread that one could conclude it is ethically and legally harmless. Additionally, professional sport has a very institutionalized nature. Even in informal and amateur settings, adherence to public regulations controlling participation is a crucial aspect of the sport. The regulations of a sport tend to have a constitutive nature; that is, they tend to determine the sport itself. Due to sports’ cultural importance and the connections that people develop with them, discussions and choices about the regulations surrounding involvement in sports have the possibility to imprint beliefs back upon society. Despite the fact that such positions have a rational seed, the discussion above proves that physical differences, cultural values, and disregard toward sports organizations justify gender discrimination in sports.
References
Braumüller B., Menzel, T. & Hartmann-Tews, I. (2020) Gender identities in organized sports – Athletes’ experiences and organizational strategies of inclusion. Frontiers in Sociology, 5(1), 1–17.
Flores, A. R., Haider-Markel, D. P., Lewis, D.C., Miller, P. R., Tadlock, B. L., & Taylor, J. K. (2020). Public attitudes about transgender participation in sports: The roles of gender, gender identity conformity, and sports fandom. Sex Roles 83, 382–398.
Kerr, R., & Obel, C. (2018). Reassembling sex: reconsidering sex segregation policies in sport. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, 10(2), 305–320.
Ljungqvist, A. (2018). Sex segregation and sport. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 52(3).
Piggott, L. V., & Matthews, J. J. K. (2020). Gender, leadership, and governance in English national governing bodies of sport: Formal structures, rules, and processes. Journal of Sport Management, 35(4), 338–351.
Sobal, J., & Milgrim, M. (2019). Gendertyping sports: social representations of masculine, feminine, and neither-gendered sports among US university students. Journal of Gender Studies, 28(1), 29–44.
Gender roles are socially stipulated behavior norms based on unique factors and images assigned to each sex. People perceive the opposite sex on the basis of gender determinants and principles. There are patterns of behavior and communication assigned to both sexes, different cloths styles and social values followed by men and women. In general, and almost universally, women have been assigned responsibility for childbearing, child rearing, and related household behaviors, while men have been assigned roles having to do with external relations, hunting, and warfare. Gender norms violations can be identified as adoption of behavior patterns and actions atypical for a given sex and prescribed to an opposite gender
Main Text
Gender norms violations are perceived as such because at the level of personality, the concept of sex role refer to differential expectations of general behavioral and temperamental characteristics associated with stereotypes of men and women. For instance, goatee (facial hair) is a typical gender norm violation for women. For a Western man, high heels and a skirt are also considered gender roles violations. While this aspect overlaps considerably with the structural usage of sex roles, the intersex consensus and persistence over time of sex role stereotypes suggests utility of the concept beyond the specific application to family role differentiations.
The differentiation of expected behavior and personality characteristics of women and men is reflected at the individual level in conceptions of gender identity that are related to portrayal of masculine and feminine behaviors within and outside of specific role contexts (Schaefer 34).
Following Schaefer (2005), gender roles are imperfect but useful concept to refer to those differences between women and men that are socially recognized and defined by appropriate normative role expectations. Sexual relations between men, lesbian elations and homosexuality are considered as gender norms violation. Whether these expectations are derived from social circumstances such as traditional role differentiation with the family, or from the needs of the sexes in interpersonal relations, or from some aspect of biological difference, is not a substantial issue in this research. The greater the difference the stronger the role differentiation is assumed to be.
From this perspective, change in sex roles appears as change in the differences between the sexes. For a woman, a typical example of gender role violation is to get very drunk or be extremely violent. However, as women and men together make up society, obviously important aspects of change experienced by women are also experienced by men and are not, consequently, processes of sex role change per se, but rather of social change. The overlaying of social roles with sex roles precludes a precise and generally applicable conceptual distinction between these two forms of change. In spite of these changes, if men use makeup and have long hair it is always perceived as gender role violations.
For example, sewing might be fun, unless one is a boy, then it is devalued and rejected in favor of building with wood and hard steel tools. Again, being a person who builds with wood but does not sew dresses anchors the gender identity; the cognitive aspect of role patterns results in conformity to normative cultural patterns through principles of consistency and appropriateness, even without actual reinforcements; models are chosen in terms of gender category to be appropriate to self.
People sort things out in terms of gender identity and acquire the appropriate characteristics (Schaefer 39). Once established, the basic sense of gender is stronger and more stable than even physical sexuality, as the literature on transsexuals shows. Apart from the study of values about women’s roles, usually formulated in terms of career versus homemaking, there has been almost no research on sex differences along these dimensions. It is not typical for women to be a fire-fighter or taxi driver, aerospace engineer and boxer, military or captain. For a man, it is a violation of gender roles to become a governess or a nanny.
Conclusion
In sum, the main evidence on sex differences in achievement has to do with differences in the way achievement imagery is aroused in women and men and in the way scores based on that imagery predict achieving performance. To account for those gender differences, various writers have developed some interesting and provocative interpretations having to do with the implications of sex role characteristics and stereotypes for expectancy and attribution factors that interact with achievement motivation to produce total levels of motivation for success. Notwithstanding the interest and elegance of some of these models, a number of important inconsistencies point toward substantially different conclusions and outcomes.
Nevertheless, the consistency of discursive writings and the content of the sex role stereotypes that are congruent with the cultural patterns being described clearly suggest that an important component in the sex differences on achievement orientations must derive from differences in these basic profiles. With that awareness, gender identity is established as a permanent and basic categorical foundation for all later learning and experience. Once gender identity is established, future learning takes place in terms of basic, cognitive mechanisms.
Works Cited
Schaefer, R. T. Sociology Matters. 2rd edition. McGraw-Hill Humanities/Social Sciences/Languages; 2005.
A theory is a way of accounting for, predicting and explaining relationships. They help us to predict behaviour changes. There are three categories of gender development theories. These include; biological, interpersonal and cultural theories. This paper will examine the interpersonal theory of gender development which is the most valid in life development. It will also illustrate its real life application by reviewing some of my early personal experiences.
Interpersonal Theory
The Interpersonal theory of gender development comprises of the psychological theory (social learning theory, imitation, experimentation and observation, and role modelling of caregivers and other individuals) and cognitive development theory. It assumes that associations are key or core to human development. The initial interaction which is important is the relationship between the infant and caregiver. This type of interaction determines how an infant will define identity in future. Psychological theory explains why people behave the way they do. According to behavioural theories, all characters are achieved or acquired via conditioning. On the other hand, cognitive theories revolve around the functioning of the brain. This can be explained through activities such as decision-making, attention, motivation, problem solving and thinking (Wood, 2010, p. 160).
For instance, the interpersonal theory (psychological theory) is useful in explaining how young children develop different character traits as they grow. It also explains how individuals acquire different gender roles at an early age. During the early stages of development, internalizing other people’s views form the primary structure of psyche. In cases where the caregivers or mothers do not show affection towards their children during their early stages of growth, the children may feel unloved and unworthy. Consequently, such children are likely to develop unpleasant characters such as pessimism, irritability and lack of self confidence later in life. At the very early stages of growth and development, mothers are known to spend more time with their children as compared to the fathers. For that reason, they end up having more influence on the development of their children in most cases. However, in most cases they tend to behave differently when it comes to the boy and girl child producing different results. When a mother relates more closely with her daughter, providing more care and showing tenderness, the daughter is likely to identify with her and can easily open up to her when in a crisis. On the other hand, mothers tend to encourage more independence for the boy child. This is because; they hardly address emotional issues when relating to them. This helps the boy child to differentiate himself from the girl child and mother. Therefore, boys are likely to detach themselves from their mothers at an early age and become more autonomous. As children mature, they carry on with these traits depending on the identity created during their first interaction with caregivers.
Children can also learn through observing others and adopting their behaviours. Parents as well as caregivers should act as good role models as they are likely to influence their children’s behaviour either positively or negatively. They should also cultivate good behaviour and discourage undesirable behaviour. This can be achieved through giving incentives for the desired behaviour and punishing bad behaviour. This type of interpersonal theory, where individuals learn innovative behaviour through observational learning, punishment or reinforcement of the communal factors within their surroundings, is referred to as social learning theory. For instance, when a student performs well in school, she or he is given a reward that encourages him or her to work even harder. On the hand, destructive behaviour such as burying or fighting others can be punished by way of withdrawing some favours (Hale, 1993).
The influence of rewards and punishments equip the children with unique material in the social anticipations regarding their gender while instilling good values. Therefore, when a girl child performs a feminine deed such as washing the utensils, she is likely to receive splendid support and applause from the mother. The same happens to a boy child. When a boy executes some work perceived to be masculine, he is likely to receive a lot of support, interest and praise from the father.
For example when I was young, we always used to spend more time with my mother than she used to spend with my brothers. In addition, she told me that as a girl I needed to be always clean and dressed smartly in order to be physically attractive. She encouraged me to perform duties perceived to be more feminine. These included; cooking, washing utensils sweeping the compound, hair plaiting among others. On the other hand, my brothers used to spend most of their time with my father than I did. Moreover, they learned that as a masculine figure one needed to be independent and caring since they could see my father working hard in order to provide for the family. My father supported and praised any activities which seemed masculine that my brothers were involved in such as making toys and pretending to buy goods for their family members. This encouraged my brothers to work very hard in school. Both of them are now graduates in civil and mechanical engineering respectively. They are also very responsible fathers who work very hard to provide for their families.
In today’s society, social learning theory (interpersonal theory) has been implemented in movies as well as in the television rating system. This rating system is created for all parents to understand what programs their children are exposed to. The ratings are grounded on age-correct material to assist parents in choosing a particular content which is suitable for their children. However, some material could be destructive to children without cognitive capability to process particular content, since they tend to emulate the characters observed on television. Therefore, parents should be very careful on what their children watch on the television sets and in the movies. They should only encourage them to watch movies and programmes which are relevant and valuable to their general well being (Sullivan, 2003).
Cognitive Theory
Cognitive theories are in the category of interpersonal theories of gender development. They focus on the mental processes such as how people perceive, think, remember and learn. The major interest of cognitive theories is on how individuals perceive information, process and stores it. There are several practical implementations for cognitive psychology. This includes; ways of improving accuracy during decision making, ways of advancing memory and designing educational programs to improve learning. For instance, children play an active responsibility in establishing gender identity. The cognitive approach of the Interpersonal theory helps one to select the appropriate method to apply when teaching children on issues regarding to competence in feminine and masculine behaviour (Sullivan, 2003).
During development, children go through many phases in developing gender identity. From the time of birth to when they attain 30 months of age, children largely depend on communication with their caregivers for their needs to be met. When they attain three years of age, they become more aware of their sexuality. Therefore, as they mature, they seek for role models with whom they can identify with especially from the same sex. For example, boys learn that being aggressive is masculine. On the other hand, girls learn that being calm, soft, dependent, physically attractive and organized is feminine. However, children who are brought up in an environment where they experience violence or any other negative behaviour might adopt that.. Thus, the behaviour of a child according to this theory is not only determined by psychological factors but also by the environment in which an individual is exposed to (Sullivan, 2003).
To a great extent, this aspect of interpersonal theory is applicable in our day to day lives. For instance, in several adverts, celebrities are used to entice a specific group of individuals to buy certain commodities. Since many people identify with such icons, they are easily influenced into buying these commodities regardless of their quality. This way, the social cognitive theory is applied to influence people’s way of thinking and behaviour. For example, I once attended a HIV/AIDS campaign where different ladies were expressing how an individual should conduct herself in order to avoid contracting the disease (HIV/AIDS). Here, I learned several prevention measures that can be used in order to live a quality life. As a young girl, I should always open up and share with my mother on any emotional issues affecting me. I also learned that it is unwise for ladies to walk unescorted at night, as this can contribute to rape cases. Therefore, by selecting the appropriate age, gender and ethnicity, the utilization of cognitive theory would assist in making sure that an HIV/AIDS campaign succeeds by rendering the right information to the teenagers. The information should help them to identify themselves with an identifiable group, possess a better aspect of self-efficacy and later emulate the practices so as to take appropriate measures for a better society. Therefore, children learn more about gender stereotypes via their mental ability to plan or organize their social globe.
Conclusion
In conclusion, theories are practical and those concerning gender and sex impart on our thoughts and behaviours. They explain how we perceive ourselves and what we later become in life. What’s more, interpersonal theory is valid in the process of gender development since it encompasses all areas of human development including behaviour and mental development.
References
Hale, R. (1993). The Application of Learning Theory to Serial Murder. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 17 (2): 37-45.
Sullivan, S. (2003). The Interpersonal Theory of Psychiatry. Web.
Wood, J. (2010).Gendered Lives: Communication, Gender, and Culture, 9th edition. Boston: Wadsworth Publishing. Gender Theories
K-pop music has enjoyed phenomenal international success over the past decade and has become an ambassador of modern Korean culture. Korean pop music has become not only a source of multimillion-dollar income but also set trends in related fields, including fashion, cosmetics, advertising, and plastic surgery. Despite the fact that Korean idols of modern k-pop music have many fans, they also receive criticism. However, they are more susceptible to gender inequality and stereotypes, which are part of the industry. The biggest problem the k-pop industry has with the general is the slow progress of social gender roles. While male idols enjoy the freedom to choose their image and refute stereotypes of masculinity through a more androgynous style, women are limited in terms of self-expression. In the industry, they are forced to illustrate femininity and fragility in order to meet the prevailing notions of gender roles in society. This circumstance gives rise to gender biases that are broadcast to the audience and root outdated images.
Gender Bias in Korean Society
Fig. 1. Glass-ceiling index, 29 OECD countries
Gender discrimination is an integral part of patriarchal culture, which is also true in South Korea. However, modern society pays more and more attention to the problem of inequality, which allows women to declare the existing situation. The so-called glass ceiling is a common problem in Korea, as the country was ranked 30 of the 36 among the OECD nations for female employment in 2018 (“Attempting To Break Through,” 2019). The country was ranked 115 out of 149 in the World Economic Forum’s global study on gender wage inequality (“Attempting To Break Through,” 2019). However, Jung & Cho (2019) report that Korean women are significantly affected by the glass ceiling in relation to job security. Moreover, in South Korea, according to researchers, there is a dual labor market in which women are at a disadvantage (Jung and Cho, 2019). It is also noteworthy that South Korea has the highest level of education among women aged 25 to 34 among the OECD nations (“Attempting To Break Through,” 2019). These data show that there is a long tradition of gender bias that currently affects the economic life of women in South Korea.
Despite recent efforts to eliminate discrimination in both economic and political spheres, Korean society remains deeply patriarchal. Men and women are expected to fulfill certain gender roles, which are actively promoted by the state. The main problem in South Korea’s labor law in this regard is the low penalties for gender discrimination in employment. In particular, women in South Korea “regularly face questions about their marriage status and plans for having children when applying for a job” (Stangarone, 2019). Such questions when applying for a job are illegal under Korean labor law. However, when KB Kookmin Bank discriminated against 112 women candidates, the company paid only $ 4,500 in fines (Stangarone, 2019). This example illustrates how gender bias is rooted in Korean society and affects all areas of the country’s life. In particular, the Korean government does not seek to legislatively regulate this situation.
Korean Pop Culture Tradition
Gender inequality within Korean society has been widely reported recently. However, it is most noticeable in the media and music industry, where objectification and sexualization of female images dominate. In the news, one can often see reports of tragic events which happen to Korean celebrities. For example, in January 2021, Korean society was rocked by the suicide of young actress and model Song Yoo-Jung (Smith, 2021). This event was only part of a chain of similar incidents that took place in the Korean media space. Increasingly, young actresses, models, and singers face emotional distress and commit suicide. There are many reasons for such tragic events, but the most important of them are high career expectations and public pressure.
The K-pop industry is often criticized for the emotional pressures which are put on idols, particularly female. K-Pop idols’ life is extremely public, and they are almost constantly busy with work. These circumstances negatively affect the mental state of Korean celebrities. Regarding the suicide of the young singer and actress Sulli, it is reported that “tabloids and gossip television drive a culture of constant scrutiny” (Ryall, 2019). However, it can be argued that such events affect not only women idols but also men since episodes of such suicides among male celebrities are also known. For example, the tragic events which led to the suicide of Kim Jong-hyun in 2017 or the death of Cha In-ha in 2019 are discussed in public (Smith, 2021; Ryall, 2019). In fact, the pressures in the media space affect young people regardless of gender. However, female idols are subject to higher levels of social expectation and more pressure from society.
Although the K-pop industry is the most progressive industry in Korean entertainment, it is also associated with a media tradition. The Korean Institute for Gender Equality Promotion and Education found in a recent study that Korea’s most-watched TV programs show 56 cases of gender bias in just seven days (Kim, 2018). Some of the episodes featured even promoted sexual harassment or gender-based violence. However, to a large extent, Korean television entertainment programs exploit lookism and sexual objectification of women. This circumstance is important in the context of the study of gender inequality in the K-pop industry since its roots are in traditional entertainment media programs. Thus, when combined with the discussion of patriarchal Korean gender values, such content is controversial.
Korean dramas, K-pop music, and beauty products have had great global success. However, “rapid industrialization outpaces the slow changes of its society, which is not to say that Korean society is completely backward — but it is still considered quite conservative compared to other developed societies” (Cariappa, 2020, p. 3). The so-called Korean Wave has taken over the European world, not least due to its special cultural traditions (Chang & Lee, 2017). The direction of these products, which are internationally popular, sets the vector for the development of society. However, changing global market conditions are not conducive to the transformations in gender roles that are represented in Korean society. The K-pop industry illustrates how gender biases are rooted in the values of Korean culture and how they influence the perception of women and men in both Korea and the West.
K-pop Industry Gender Biases
The K-pop industry, in particular, is built around gender stereotypes featured on television, including lookism and sexualization. The images of K-pop idols, especially women, are often manipulated to attract audiences. The emphasis in lyrics, music videos, and performances is on sexual content and the objectification of images of young women (Lin & Rudolf, 2017). This picture is consistent with both the Western view of Asian exotic women as sexual objects and the intra-Korean expectations of fragile and weak girls. Despite the fact that the K-pop industry is mainly focused on female audiences and exploits images of male idols, this situation only exacerbates the position of women in this area and reinforces gender stereotypes. Moreover, the images of young K-pop idols of women also influence the perception of their young audience by shaping gender biases among them.
Despite the fact that many K-pop stars have been striving to challenge gender stereotypes lately, a lot of groups still align with the stereotypes. Laurie (2016) notes that k-pop is based on “idealized images of youth, gender, race, and sexuality that stitch together the genre as a whole” (p. 226). In particular, the producers of various groups and idols deliberately create images of overt sexual objectification to attract audiences. In particular, this aspect may be the reason for the popularity of the genre both in the West and in Korea.
However, the widespread gender bias in the industry hinders the development of gender equality both in the media space and in society. Song (2016) explores the images of provocative clothing featured in K-pop idol music videos from 2004-2005 and 2014-2015. According to the data, the average found a ratio of images of sexuality among male and female groups is 0.63 to 3.45 in 2004-2005 (Song, 2016, p. 28). In 2014-2015, these indicators increased to the ratio of 0.8 and 10.68, respectively (Song, 2016, p. 28). Thus, in the past decade, the number of cases of sexual objectification of Korean female idols has almost tripled, while this aspect for male idols has hardly changed. Despite the fact that the number of female K-pop idols remains significantly lower than that of men, they use more sexual content in their videos.
The main bias of modern K-Pop culture is the beauty standards which girls must meet. Dr. S. Heijin Lee notes that the more traditional type of idol suggests fragility, cuteness, and long legs (The Korea Society, 2018). Lin & Rudolf (2017) also emphasize that “K-pop fans are more likely to support the traditional view that the man should be the family’s main breadwinner” (p. 49). Thus, their idols and their images form certain expectations of the audience related to gender roles. Modern K-pop idols opt for more rebellious imagery; they are also subject to a common stereotype. Despite the fact that the industry has been represented by more diverse concepts in recent years, women also meet a number of restrictions and expectations in it. Lee also notes that men in the same context enjoy greater freedom since by exploiting the image of masculinity, they also exhibit androgynous traits depending on the conditions (The Korea Society, 2018). Thus, men, unlike women, can use a wider range of behaviors that will be acceptable to them. In contrast, female idols must follow the rigid canons and frameworks of the genre.
A separate gender-specific feature of the K-pop industry is the prevalence of plastic surgery. While male idols are also subject to objectification and should be the personification of a perfect physical body, women are more likely to resort to the services of plastic surgeons. Lee points out that in today’s Korean society, surgical modification is a way for women to gain confidence (The Korea Society, 2018). In particular, the K-pop industry is the main advertising for this trend through the representation of the ideal bodies of female idols. Korean k-pop group “Six Bombs” even used their before and after photos of plastic surgery to promote their new song in 2017 (Asian Boss, 2017). Moreover, many Koreans underline that appearance is a priority characteristic for a K-pop idol, and surgeries can help them achieve success (Asian Boss, 2017). This circumstance also ensures the sustainability of gender bias, as the industry sets uniform beauty standards that both fans and band members aspire to. The need for perfect physical shape also results in increased emotional pressure on idols.
Additionally, the prevalence of plastic surgery among male K-pop group members is not widely advertised or discussed. McGrory (2019) notes that “‘soft masculinity’ or flower boys has surfaced with many Korean men getting surgery to look like pretty male K-pop idols.” Modern K-pop idols challenge the concepts of true masculinity by wearing makeup, manicures, and trendy hairstyles. Men in the industry can afford to polarize their imagery without facing public criticism. Women, on the other hand, cannot widely use the androgynous style for successful promotion. The industry presents stricter standards for women to follow in order to look feminine and innocent (Shlufman & Shin, 2020). Whereas among male idols, groups as BTS exploit the images of soft boys, female idols who go against the stereotypes are few. One of them is Amber Josephine Liu, who wears short hair and baggy clothes, making her look androgynous and atypical in the industry. The girl notes that in 2009 when she joined the K-pop group, there was no other such singer in the industry (Shlufman & Shin, 2020). However, Amber Josephine Liu soon became a role model for many Korean girls and idols.
Despite the changes taking place in the industry, progress has been extremely slow. While most of the audience for Korean products, including the K-pop industry, are women, it is beneficial for producers to exploit traditional imagery (Chang & Lee, 2017). Images of more feminine men and traditionally sweet women are the most common because of the audience the product is targeting. Given the limited prevalence of the feminist movement in South Korea, radical changes should not be expected in the coming years (Cariappa, 2020). Thus, while K-pop culture is shaped by traditional Korean gender roles, it also translates them to society and audiences. However, the image of men in the industry is changing rapidly, while female stereotypes are transforming little.
Another significant aspect of the K-pop industry is the relationship between idols. In particular, same-sex relationships or their manifestations have been widespread among members of male groups lately, which delights fans (The Korea Society, 2018). However, among female collectives, LGBTQ character relationships are not common and even condemned. Female idols are expected to interact with men, allowing fans to idealize their relationship. While the K-pop community is considered one of the most LGBTQ-friendly, this statement mostly applies only to men (The Korea Society, 2018). In contrast, female idols remain models of traditional gender roles. In this way, the industry promotes freer ideas about men than women. Male idols enjoy the freedom to express their androgyny and homosexuality, even as part of their marketing efforts. Female idols, on the contrary, are forced to obey the established canons and rules in society that do not allow them to exhibit non-stereotypical behavior.
Gender discrimination in the K-pop industry finds many expressions beyond LGBTQ manifestations. BeBoss TV (2020) gives examples of how double standards affect idols of different genders. For example, overly revealing clothing is a reason for criticizing female idols, while a half-naked male body on stage is welcome. Additionally, physical imperfections in the form of non-standard weights are also undesirable for women and normal for men. The author emphasizes that women’s groups are often compared to men’s from a disadvantageous side (BeBoss TV, 2020). Moreover, supporting the feminist movement among Korean K-pop idols is often subject to criticism, while it is encouraged in Western society and male idols. This fact corresponds to the fact that in Korean society, feminism is often perceived as aggression and hostility towards men and not a manifestation of women’s rights (Cariappa, 2020). Therefore, female K-pop idols must maintain the gentle and naive image which is the role model in the industry. They cannot have an opinion or a voice, whereas individuality in male idols is praised.
Conclusion
The overall discussion of gender bias in the k-pop industry is based on traditional ideas about gender roles in modern Korean society. Female idols, unlike male idols, are examples of traditional values and are forced to follow a rigid framework. Men in the industry can use the androgyny and manifestations of LGBTQ freely and gain fan approval. Women in K-pop can only exploit the image of fragile and feminine creatures, and any deviation from the standards is criticized. Thus, the stereotypes of Korean society are applicable to the K-pop industry, which illustrates them in miniature. This situation may indicate the lack of sufficiently rapid progress towards gender equality in South Korea, as well as insufficient government efforts to promote it.
Cariappa, N. (2020). Through the lens of Koreans: The influence of media on perceptions of feminism. Master’s Projects and Capstones, 1-39. Web.
Chang, P. L., & Lee, I. H. (2017). Cultural preferences in international trade: Evidence from the globalization of Korean pop culture. Research Collection School of Economics, 1-53. Web.
Jung, H., & Cho, J. (2019). Gender inequality of job security: Veiling glass ceiling in Korea. Journal of Asia Pacific Economy, 25(4), 1-20. Web.
Laurie, T. (2016). Toward a gender aesthetics of K-pop. In I. Chapman & H. Johnson (Eds.), Global glam and popular music: Style and spectacle from the 1970s to the 2000s (pp. 214-231). Routledge.
Lin, X., & Rudolf, R. (2017). Does K-pop reinforce gender inequalities? Empirical evidence from a new data set. Asian Women, 33(4), 27-54. Web.
McGrory, K. (2019). How male K-pop stars are challenging gender norms and looking great while doing it. Medium. Web.
The style of talking significantly reveals one’s gender as well as his/her degree of courtesy. Over the years, many researchers have carried out various researches concerning gender and politeness. There seems to exist a specific style of speech or rather terminologies that people associate to either men or women.
Such terminologies further define one’s level of politeness. According to Mills (2000, p.20) “politeness in gender involves the evaluations, which people engage in through their conversations.” Gender is one of the variables that influence interpretations and some production of linguistic politeness. A person exhibits the level of politeness through the language he/she employs.
For instance, the linguistic symbols of a person significantly illustrate his/her levels of courtesy. Mills (2000, p.34) argues that “politeness cannot be understood from mere utterances of the person or any choices or options made by a single individual but rather as a complex process involving strategies and sets of practice that communities practices.”
These strategies are contested, affirmed and individuals within these communities must be engaged in order to know their own positions and behaviors within their various groups. As the paper unfolds, there exist a strong positive correlation between one’s language and his/her level of courtesy, which further varies based on gender.
Language and Politeness
The level to which a woman portrays courtesy differs significantly when compared to that of men. Language formulation/production and interpretation is also an important aspect when it comes to gender and politeness (Bergvall 1996, p.21). The way society engages in socialization and their language plays a greater part in the question of politeness.
Therefore, circumstances and situations in which people are, to a greater extent play a function in the way they become. Their utterances and their actions towards their fellow colleagues will automatically depict or rather borrow from their way of upbringing.
For instance, as person who was brought up in a family or background where people heckled to each other, this behavior will be cultivated in him or her hence impacting on his/her behaviors and more specifically to his/her politeness.
Interactions and nature of talk in the society also has an effect on the level of politeness. Brown and Levinson’s model on politeness has provided a base line in the study of politeness over the years. In this model, the speaker in any interaction need to uphold to certain standards in his utterances in order to deal with any forces or potential threats in the ‘face’ of his hearers.
Brown and Levinson meaning or implication of “face”, a word coined by Goffman means self image of a person. Therefore, in any interaction speakers employs or uses words or language that would promote his self-image in the eyes of his hearers. Labov (1973, p.66) argues that ‘face’ should be emotionally invested, maintained, enhanced, and continuously attended since it may get lost”.
He refers the term a threat to an individual face as a face of threatening act declaring politeness as the only working remedy. Therefore, politeness (positive) is build by a speaker demonstrating some sense of closeness and showing affiliation like giving compliments and commending positively on issues that people or hearer find important to them. People cannot see or touch politeness.
However, it can be judged by others as a socially constructed norm in which a particular community or society practices. Therefore, when an individual goes against these practices of a society he or she must go through a judgment by the society based on his/her level of politeness. One can identify such “polite people through their utterance and communication full of complements” (Holmes 2006, p.5).
Language and Gender
The question of whether men show any differences in their conversational have sparked heated debate. Some argue that gender does not make any difference when it comes to politeness. However, others hold that some of these “differences are not universal as some of men may exhibit feminine conservational qualities and vice versa” (Chambers & Trudgill 1980, p.54).
To make the issues even more complex, the introduction of computer mediated communication like internet, email, chat on the internet, the issue of gender is of less importance as people are able to hide their identity. Some researchers have come up with their assumptions based on gender.
For instance, Tannen (1991, p.23) argues that “ women talk more than men and are more polite, cooperative as opposed to their male counterparts.” Furthermore, he points out men as authoritative in their conversations, dominating it and often interrupting one another.
Lakoff (1975, p.30) argues that women depict higher levels of politeness in their language and in most cases use polite words in most of their conversation as compared to their male counterparts. For instance, they use super polite forms of language like “would you mind …” “I appreciate for you’re…” and many others.
Furthermore, women are fond of using apologetic expressions in their interactions as opposed to their male counterparts. Some of the expressions they use include, “I m sorry, but I feel” among other phrases they like using. When it comes to complementing each other, Holmes (2006, p.32) argues, “…women compliment more as compared to their male counterparts.”
A compliment is a sign of politeness and consideration, appreciation of what someone has or is.
As previously noted, most compliments are associated with appearances for example “‘I like your dress’, ability or performance compliment like ‘woou you played awesome’, compliments relating to possessions like ‘I Like your new red car’ and compliments relating to personality like ‘I am lucky to be one of the chosen to head this commission’” (Holmes 1992, p.24).
In support of the fact that women seem complimented more often, a study carried in New Zealand portrayed 57% of women answerers as relating to appearance compliments compared to the 36% depicted by men. Viewed from a non-sarcastic perspective, the compliments seem no more than positive polite utterances acting as a way of satisfying the positive courteous intention or meaning of women.
Gender and Politeness
When it comes to gender and politeness, Labov (1973, p. 67) upholds the opinion of women as more polite and ones who never say “no” directly but rather say it indirectly as opposed to their male counterparts. For instance, some of the tactics they use include delaying in their response, employment of hedging expressions, using “of remarks” and by giving an acceptable reason for their lack of interest in certain issues.
Zimmermann & West Dominance model further supports the claim that men in most instances appear antagonistic in their application of language as opposed to their women counterparts who seem timid.
According to Holmes (1992, p.20), society expects women to exhibit acceptable behaviors, which see most girl children given much attention compared to the boy children who seem left to stay roguish sharing what they like.
Therefore, the society too expects them to demonstrate politeness in their use of language and in their conversations at large. As a result, they speak in a more standard form as opposed to male counterparts.
In addition, women stand out as subordinate groups and therefore they must demonstrate politeness avoiding offending the males by looking after their own face.
Gender usually develops from impressions and experiences from the society, which the people come from. Therefore, “…gender is not a possession or something that men and women develop, and perform” (Butler 1990, p.40). Therefore, one can best understand the issue of gender from a society field as illustrated through the people linguistics.
According to Tannen (1991, p.243), women are more positive when it comes to giving complements as opposed to their male counterparts. When talking to same sex peers, most of the women use positive courtesy schemes. Furthermore, politeness dominates a peer-to-peer interaction as opposed to interactions with other people or groups.
In addition, the study reveals that women apologize more often as compared to their male counterparts. This research therefore demonstrates to some degree how courtesy varies based on gender and further illustrating that women are likely to appreciate most often as opposed to women.
This politeness is because of the past socialization and upbringing where as they are socialized as role models and appreciative in all they do by the society.
Mills (2004, p.180) claims that, “politeness ought to enhance affirmation and act as a distinction of a person’s social position from the others” implying that politeness should be inherent rather that attaching it to the collective rank of people in the society. An individual’s politeness need not to function as his/her security mechanism but a tool for alleviating his/her social position.
Politeness is something that one can prove over along period. It does not come from the first appearance or utterance of the person but it must proof the test of time before its approval. This means that the community as a whole needs to approve someone’s politeness as opposed to individual level basis.
The meaning of politeness is also an issue that requires close attention as there might be conflict of what it means. The meaning of politeness may vary from one person to another due to different in situations, circumstances and socialization.
Conclusion
Based on the expositions of the paper, it seems evident that there are some differences when it comes to gender and politeness as reveals through the day-to-day interactions and the style of talking.
Nevertheless, it is not ample to base the argument on the male and female’s use of politeness strategies in their communication in their particular interactions but rather on the gendered domains like the community of practice and the apparent standards. It is also important for one to analyze closely how the people seem judged based on their utterances in order to get a clear understanding of what politeness really is.
Without proper consideration and analysis, the judgments may not hold any truth. Furthermore, the power of masculine and feminine strategies of speech needs consideration in the long run within the interactions of people on various issues. Understanding of community of practice is important since through it people can forge ahead and understand clearly the relationship between gender and politeness.
Reference List
Bergvall, V., 1996. Constructing and Enacting Gender through Discourse: Negotiating Multiple Roles as Female Engineering Students. Rethinking Language and Gender Research. Theory and Practice. Singapore: Longman.
Butler, J., 1990. Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity, London, Routledge.
Chambers, J., & Trudgill, P., 1980. Dialectology. Cambridge: University Press.
Holmes, J., 1992. Women’s talk in public contexts. Discourse and Society, 3(2): pp. 131-150.
Holmes, J., 2006. Gendered Talk at Work. Oxford: Blackwell.
Labov, W., 1973. Sociolinguistic Patterns. Pennsylvania: University Press.
Lakoff, R., 1975. Language and Woman’s Place. New York: Harper and Row.
Mills, S., 2000. Rethinking politeness, Impoliteness and Gender identity. Web.
Mills, S., 2004. Class: Gender and Politeness, Multilingua, 23(2), pp. 171-190.
Tannen, D., 1991. You Just Don’t Understand: Women and Men in Conversation, London: Virago.
This paper discusses three interrelated concepts of gender, race and class. The three concepts are said to be related because they are all socially constructed. The concepts are also institutionalized, meaning that they are entrenched in social systems and institutions such as organizations, schools and governments.
The three are therefore characterized by discrimination, inequality, prejudice and skewed distribution of resources and power. In a nutshell, men hold senior positions of leadership than women, the whites colonize the non whites, and the rich exploit the poor. The concepts are discussed below separately.
Gender
Gender refers to the social construction of the differences between males and females. For example, the belief that all men are brave and strong while all women are coward and weak. Sex is defined as the biological differences between men and women. For example, body anatomy.
While most or all males have beard, more muscular bodies and deep voices, most or all females do not have beard , have high pitched voices and are less muscular. Gender stereotypes are therefore the believes that people have towards males and females (Connel 72).
There are both implicit and explicit attitudes towards males and females. When we say that the attitudes are implicit, we mean that they are internalized in our thinking processes. For example, a teacher may select male students to represent a school in a math contest and select female students to represent it in the art subjects or in languages.
This may happen as a result of the belief that all males are good in mathematics while all females are good in easy subjects like the arts and languages. In professional context, a male doctor may be referred to as ‘the doctor’ while a female one may be referred to as ‘the woman doctor’ to imply that it is unusual for a female to be a doctor.
When we say the attitudes are explicit, we mean that the stereotypes may not be necessarily internalized, but are based on generalizations about males and females. For example, a firm may refuse to recruit females to work as guards because of the belief that females are not only weak, but are also prone to other forms of violence such as rape.
Both implicit and explicit attitudes towards gender stereotypes are sometimes correct but are not always true. For example, while it is correct that men are courageous and able to do tough subjects like mathematics, not all of them are able to perform well in mathematics.
In some cases females may outshine males in mathematics. For a person to confirm a certain stereotype, he or she must do a research on the same. While doing the research however, he or she must bear in mind that attitudes and behaviors keep on changing (Mora and Ruiz 34).
Gender stereotypes are related to ambivalent sexism, which is the coexistence of positive and negative attitudes towards a certain sex. Ambivalent sexism is understood by taking a closer look at some words and phrases which are used to describe females. For example, a female Chief Executive Officer (CEO) may be described as very cute, adorable and attractive.
Another example is the saying that men are incomplete without women. These are positive attitudes towards women. In leadership context, the female CEO may also be described as a ‘very good public relations agent’ while the male CEO may be described as a ‘very good leader’.
These ambivalent attitudes towards females are used by males to remain at the top of the hierarchy of power and leadership and place females at the bottom. While a phrase like ‘that female CEO is very cute, calm and attractive’ implies a positive attitude towards her, it can also imply that she can be too emotional to become a good leader.
Ambivalent sexism is therefore used mostly to propagate the inequalities between males and females especially in the pursuit of power and authority. This leads to the enactment of policies which do not adequately reflect the views and wishes of females in the society.
Race
Race refers to the physical characteristics of people from different parts of the world. Such characteristics include skin color, dialect, eye color, type of hair and cultural practices. However, the skin color is the most common criteria for distinguishing people by race. We have various races such as the Whites, the Asians, the Jews and the Blacks.
Race contributes to the formation of two groups of people namely the dominant and the subordinate groups. A dominant group is defined as the most powerful group in a society. This group enjoys the highest social status and has access to unlimited privileges. A subordinate group refers to people who are singled out for unfair treatment due to their physical and social characteristics. This group is also subjected to various forms of discrimination by the dominant group. (Glenn 41).
The defining criteria in the formation of the two groups include race, ethnicity and skin color. Others include colonization, migration and annexation. In the United States, the dominant groups are characterized by skin color and ethnicity. Basically, the White Americans are classified as the dominant group.
Their ethnicities include British, Germans, Norwegians, Irish, French, the Dutch and Polish.They are categorized as the dominant group because they were the ones who played a major role in the attainment of American Independence form the Great Britain. They are also very rich, highly educated and enjoy a high social status. They also do white color jobs and always hold positions of leadership in political, social and economic spheres (Rothenberg 17).
The subordinate group comprise the African Americans, the Asian Americans, Latin Americans, Spanish and Jewish Americans. These are the people whose skin color is different from that of the White Americans. They are not as economically stable as the White Americans. In most cases, they do casual jobs especially in the plantations, factories, airlines and in the hospitality sector.
One example of how the two groups have an impact on each other is their economic relationship. The dominant group owns the means of production. As a result, it usually employs the subordinate group to do the casual jobs as the dominant group takes the leadership and management positions in various sectors of the economy.
Class
Class refers to the social differentiation of people within a society depending on their social status, which is majorly determined by their economic status. People of low economic status usually belong to a low social class and vice versa. Karl Marx presented a two class model of society comprising the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The bourgeoisie are few in number and they own capital for production. They are also rich, powerful, oppressors, exploiters and they always win elections in democratic countries
On the other hand, the proletariat are the workers, owners of labour and they are the majority in numbers but are powerless since they are oppressed and exploited by the rich and they always lose in elections in democratic nations. The proletariat can be described as a class in itself in the sense that they share same objectives and relationships to the means of production, that is, they are laboures who are paid in wages (Rank 13).
The two classes are always in conflict with each other because their interests are incompatible. While the bourgeoisie have the interests of maintaining the status quo which ensures their dominance, the proletariat are interested in changing the status quo which deprives them of good life.
However, the two classes are not aware of the nature of the circumstances which they live in but assume that the situations which they find themselves in are natural and nothing can be done to change them, a situation Karl Marx calls false class consciousness (Andersen and Taylor 26).
Conclusion
The concepts of gender, race and class are interrelated, meaning that they are all products of social constructions and are based on historical perspectives of discrimination, stereotyping and prejudice. They are also systems of power and control, manipulation and exploitation. While men dominate women, the whites dominate the non whites and the rich dominate the poor in the society.
The concepts are entrenched in our society and social institutions to the extent that we see them as normal. However, an objective analysis of the concepts shows that there are no fundamental differences between men and women, whites and non whites and the rich and the poor, meaning that if the playing ground was to be level, what a man can do can also be done by a woman, what a white man can do, a non white can also do and what can be done or achieved by a rich man can also be done or achieved by a poor man.
Works Cited
Andersen, Margaret, and H. Taylor. Sociology: Understanding a Diverse Society, Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2002. Print.
Connel, Raewyn. Gender, Washington DC: Polity Press, 2009. Print.
Glenn, Nakano. Unequal Freedom: How Race and Gender Shaped American Citizenship and Labor, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002. Print.
Mora, Ricardo, and C. Ruiz. Gender Segregation: From Birth to Occupation, Madrid: Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, 2000.Print.
Rank, Mark. One nation, underprivileged: why American poverty affects us all, New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.Print.
Rothenberg, Paula. Race, class, and gender in the United States, Walton: Mac higher publishers, 2009. Print.
Gender pay equity calculates the average wage of women earnings by determining the percentage of females pay in relation to male earnings. Whether a man is paid hourly, earns after a week, full time employment, or any other sort of employment, gender pay equity states that a woman should get an equal rate as that of the male worker.
Gender wage discrimination is a condition that displays the differences between the divisions of wage offers being contrary from the allocations of values of the marginal product between the males and the female workforce. In Australian continent, the situation of wage allocation and employment level among the two genders varies a lot. This paper examines three major reasons for the current gender pay inequality in Australian work force for the last two decades.
Discussion
An equal remuneration for the work force should be given for equal or comparable value. Research indicates that there are various constructs that explain the gender pay disparities in Australia and that these disparities must no be the main factors that lead to multimarket disequilibrium.
The Chamber of Commerce & Industry of Western Australia and the leading business organization in the state reported that by 2008, gender pay gap stood at 37% when measured against the average wages that one earns on ordinary times. This displays the various characteristics on the female laborers in Western Australia (Chamber of commerce and industry 2008).
Several efforts have been made to establish the reason for the pay disparities. This has even contributed to Western Australia, New South Wales and Queensland pursuing several reviews on pay equity. All these efforts have yielded to almost the same conclusion and propositions.
Reasons for Gender pay inequalities in Australia
Part time employment is a major contribution of the increased gender pay inequalities in Australia
Over the last bi-decades, the percentage of women employed at part times in Australia grew at a rate of 3.7 per cent for every year. In general, this increment of females in part time works contributed in the making of more than half of the total women who were employed in Western Australia in this particular time. Today, history has repeated itself with most female workers choosing to work at part time. Making an approximately 73% of the work force.
Recent research indicates that in 2007 most workforces in part time across WA (Western Australia) included women (News limited. 2008). When the average weekly wages of Australia men and women is measured, the results indicate that women continue to earn less because of the particularly working on given hours. This is a clear indicator that the significant number of women in part time employments contributes to the state’s gender pay disparity (Chamber of commerce and industry 2008).
According to this research, most women workers opt for this kind of employment compared to full time because it enables them to attain a balance between work and their family chores. This is as a result of most women having remained the source individuals with the assignment of caring for their families.
More so, the high earnings from the expanded Australian economy at this in these two last decades gave most families the ability to economically and financially sustain their families with either one parent working for few hours or totally abandoning employment (URCOT 2005). Secondly, Australian female workers opt for part time employment because of underemployment.
“Underemployment has three distinct related meanings. In one sense, it refers to a situation in which someone with excellent job qualifications is working in a position which requires lesser qualifications. In the second sense, underemployment means working part time when one would prefer to be working full time. Thirdly, underemployment is a form of overstaffing in which employees are not being fully utilized” (Smith 2003 1).
From the definition of underemployment, it can be concluded that some of these workers are forced by circumstances and situations that surround their natural feminine life.
Secondly, the type and nature of work contributes to the increased gender pay disparity among females and male in Australia
A general look at the kind of work that most women undertake world wide in most industries shows that females are more likely to be employed in industries that offer services as compared to their male counterparts.
More often, these industries have a low pay rate than manufacturing and building or construction sectors. High numbers of male employees dominate managerial and high- ranking positions compared to female workers. Most men also easily secure employments in mining, construction and financial companies. These positions command high compensations as compared to what females get in the service industries.
Statistics indicate that in 2007, the service industry, one of the largest industries in Western Australia, accommodated more than 88 per cent of the overall female workforce in the state. Some of the sectors in the industry include communications, insurance and finance, business and commercial property, wholesale trade, transport services, restaurants, cultural, and other services.
Among this group is the retail trade. In 2007, Chamber of Commerce and Industry in Western Australia found out that, that the industry employed over 17.2 par cent female work force in the state (Robinson, Deborah. 2010). These figures were quite high as compared to only 11.4 of male employees in the same industry.
By 2007, there was a rise in the number of females by 21,825 in relation to a decade before then, whereby the figure stood at 63,650 for female workers in the retail trade. When evaluated, the weekly standard wage income for women were lowest compared to men’s wages in the industry. A keen look at statistics of the amount of money that women earned in the year 2007 in various service industries shows that what men were earning within or without the industry greatly varied from the females’ wages (Catalyst Australia. 2008).
The minimal number of women in managerial roles in Australia is minimal
This is another factor greatly contributes to the widened disparity level between male and female remuneration in Australia. As compared to the last 10 years, the number of women in managerial positions or roles has increased although with a very minimal percentage.
In 2007, the CCI (Chamber of Commerce and Industry) established that the figure of women heading managerial positions had increased with only 7000 within a period of ten years. As a result, it can be summed up that male dominate most managerial positions in Australia (Australian Government 2007 1-6).
In Western Australia, most administrative and managerial responsibilities among female workers fall within 5.2 per cent of the national workforce (Federation election platform 2010).
A report named “Looking at the 2010 Australian Centre for Leadership for women” shows that Women sitting on boards and in management or executive positions in Australia are insignificantly small as compared to men in the same levels and positions. The body represents only a percentage of 12 being executive leaders and much fewer in the board of directors.
The research also indicates that more than 40 per cent of companies in the country have female Chief Executive Officers or even having a woman in board of directors. When the number of women in the managerial positions is minimal as compared to that of men, the end result is that, the female workers will receive normal low pay for their low positions in the services industry (Needham 2009).
There are also other arguments that attempt to say that lower wages among female workforce in Australia mainly occur among the women-dominated sectors likes family support centre, rehabilitation centre, refugee camps, and in the migrant regions. However, these sectors should also be brought to pay the female workers similar pays as it happens in similar male- dominated sectors.
From the above explanations it can be deduced that there exist major imbalances in Australian workforce’s pay that is highly dictated by ones gender. However, studies indicate that there is a great link between the reward that an employee receives and the function that the workers play or the person’s responsibility.
Employees’ reward is supposed to play three major roles. Firstly the compensation must be given to the right person for the right roles, tasks and responsibilities. With observation of this, the person’s contribution is later recognizes and rewarded accordingly.
After receiving the remuneration, the employee should feel satisfied and rightfully rewarded for having impacted on the production output. Reward is also a form of incentive on workers. The reward must motivate the workers in order to continue putting their efforts for optimum realization of the organizations goals. It is therefore, clear that Australian female workers are not sufficiently rewarded when compared to the men working for the same value.
This has further widened gender inequality cycle in the continent. It is therefore clear that Australian female employees may display certain behaviors that do not conform to the organizational behaviors expected. Hence most of them are either sucked or deliberately fail to look for permanent employment due to the dissatisfying reward.
It is also clear that these workers may have varying attitudes towards the employment they are in or the job place. This is what employment satisfaction studies indicate (Shields 2007, 35-39). Arguments have been made that when marginal product of labor for the employees is enhanced, the employees’ value in turn improves hence an increase in wages for the workers because the employers will be satisfied with the workers input.
Over the past years women have been on the forefront trying to fight social, institutional and cultural disparities so as to achieve equivalent opportunities at work place. However recent statistics indicate that the number of labor force in Australia has significantly changed in the last few decades. Females have managed to gain acceptance in the labor force and in turn a sufficiently equal pay (Human rights and equal opportunity commission 2008 1-6).
Looking at these details, it took the state a decade to create these few positions, so the question that emerges is whether Australian Government is doing enough in creating equal opportunities for the women to make effective decisions on their own and undertake leadership roles. Gender equality is a very pressing issue in almost all Australian’s initiatives and programs. This is because it is the centre of growth and stability of the governance (Sharma 1997 6-23).
Today, Australia has adopted the policy that allow both men and women, and among boys and girls to equally develop and progress in various ways including the wage rate for all earners. Gender equality program in Australia emphasizes on reducing poverty, and equally empowering women in the employment sector. The policy also aims at improving the economic status of female workers to gain access to financial and services that accompany the business world.
Women enterprises and reduction of time burdens that make women chose part time jobs are also among the concerted efforts to boost the wage rate of female employees in the continent (Australia Government 2007, 1-15). Importantly, organizations that do not conduct gender pay audits should revisit the case. Gender pay audits tools that gauge pay inequalities in an organization.
They also determine the specific duties, units of business and the departments within which one is operating. This is a tool that most organizations in the continent fail to utilize. Equal pay includes pay, allowances payments that accompany merits, bonuses, performance payments and also superannuation,
Conclusion
For any nation, government or state that wishes to progress economically and socially, embracing gender equality, policies that advocate for equity in compensation and rewarding of employees must be adopted. This is an essential and sound practice for the nation’s growth and development. This calls for concerted efforts from among all individuals and industries in the state to see that the female workforce is rewarded and compensated according for their value in production (Australia Government 2007, 5).
Reference List
Australian Government. 2007. “Gender equality in Australia’s aid program, why and how and why gender equality is essential for development: 1-15.
