Cultural factors play an important role in a persons sexual orientation and gender identity, yet such influences may have a negative effect. For instance, many people tend to classify others as either female or male depending on their birth gender and treat them accordingly throughout their lives (Spielman et al., 2020). However, the cases such as that of David Reimer demonstrate that an individuals gender identity and sexual orientation are more complicated than traditional binary views. David Reimer was an intersex person who was born as a boy, but his testicles were removed soon after he was born due to health problems (Spielman et al., 2020). The parents tried to raise the baby as a girl, yet it was difficult for the child to identify as a female (Spielman et al., 2020). Eventually, David realized that he was a male and wished to continue living as one (Spielman et al., 2020). Consequently, David Reimers story suggests that such cultural factors as how gender is perceived and treated in a community cannot define an individuals identity but can rather force them to hide who they are.
Furthermore, a person who is intersexed has to deal with several cultural and emotional issues. First, despite many people being intersexed, they are quite frequently neglected by society or discriminated against when noticed (TEDx Talks, 2019). For example, intersex babies are likely to be operated on without consent and with no medical need because of cultures that recognize individuals only as male or female (TEDx Talks, 2019). Second, intersex individuals are typically told to keep their identity secret, which may cause them to feel ashamed of who they are (TEDx Talks, 2019). Moreover, society often reinforces a certain gender on intersex people to accept a personality that does not correspond with theirs (TEDx Talks, 2019). Accordingly, a person who is intersexed is usually put in a box of cultural prejudices, which cause negative emotions.
References
Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., & Lovett, M. D. (2020). Psychology. OpenStax.
It is a necessity to explain findings discussed in Inventing the Cosmo Girl: Class Identity and Girl-Style American Dreams by Ouellette, as it provides the understanding of the primary concepts, which occurred in the past. Firstly, Brown, who was editor of Cosmopolitan in the 1960s, focused on delivering the message to a particular class (Ouellette 116). One of the primary findings discussed in the analysis is cultural discourse, as this feature made the women feel like special historical subjects (Ouellette 117). It can be comprehended, as Brown was the first lady, who addressed the sexism issues and taught her first readers not to pay attention to the double standards, which occurred in the society (Ouellette 117). She wanted to form a particular class of Cosmo Girls, which have a complex and sexualized identity (Ouellette 117).
Secondly, Ouellette pays special attention to the book Sex and the Single Girl by Brown, as it was an essential element, which contributed to the formation of Cosmo Girl identity (Ouellette 117). The book focuses on the detailed tutorial of how a girl, whose life is a complete challenge, can become successful in the modern world. It covers important aspects such as flirting and budgeting (Ouellette 117). It encouraged women to be financially independent and have active control over their lives. It could be concluded that Cosmo Girl is a sexualized symbol of pink collar femininity (Ouellette 118).
Brown encouraged women to spend money on cosmetics and clothes to change the personal identity. She paid a significant amount of attention to the articles, which helped women to construct new personal images of themselves (Ouellette 120). It was one of the primary focuses of the magazine.
Additionally, the falsity of appearance was emphasized as a primary tool to pursue the changes of personality (Ouellette 121). The articles paid significant attention to the improvement of the outlooks by fake eyelashes and makeup. As it helped cover all the possible drawbacks of the appearance.
The ideal characteristics of Cosmo Girl were white, heterosexual, upper-middle class (Ouellette 121). The attention of the other races was only briefly discussed in the magazine, as the white girl was ideal. However, it was possible to change the position on the social ladder. A girl could use the tips from the magazine and marry to a well-educated man. In this case, the Karl Marx theory could be applied to change the social position. The girls should have a tendency to become more successful, as Poor girls are not sexy! (Ouellette 123).
Additionally, Brown suggested that the only way to overcome the challenges of the class is hard work and conspicuous consumption (Ouellette 123). She also claimed that the existence of the class differentiation is a natural phenomenon (Ouellette 123). Furthermore, it was suggested that the identical sharing of cultural capitals was present, and women could transfer between the classes by marrying the right people.
Nonetheless, it has to be mentioned that female sexual desirability was restricted by the cultural codes of the working class prostitute (Ouellette 123). The girl, who represented the social class, appeared on the cover of the magazine wearing luxury clothes and makeup. She usually combined all the attributes of the social class identity. Continuing with the prostitute topic, Brown emphasized that sexuality is a unique instrument, which can change a girls life. One of the examples is sex for presents, as charitable girls were having sexual intercourse for meals, jewelry, and so on (Ouellette 124).
In the end, Cosmopolitan contributed to the construction of a new image of the American dream, as it encouraged self-development and denied Victorian sex norms (Ouellette 125). Sex was discovered as a primary tool for the social mobility and improvement of living conditions. Lastly, the women were understood as competitors, as they needed to fight for the hot spots (Ouellette 125).
Now, it is vital to apply the findings presented above to the modern version of Cosmopolitan, as it helps see, which concepts have changed over an extended period. However, the aspects will be summarized and divided by several major topics. As we live in the modern era, equality is an essentiality of our lives. This point can be seen in new Cosmopolitan September 2015. Cosmopolitan does not focus anymore on the particular races, and people of all ethnicities are present. For example, Sephora advertisement is a pure representation of equality, as it shows the beauty of women of different races (Coles 27). Moreover, the equality between social classes is also emphasized. For instance, it has a unique part named confession , where people can tell ridiculous and embarrassing stories (Coles 64). It shows that individuals of all social classes can make mistakes. As for the independence, women are highly independent in the modern society, and there is not a necessity to express this position in the journal. Moreover, any woman can read it, and it is not aimed at a particular social class or sexual orientation.
The appearance and the primary attributes of the cultural codes are presented on the cover of the magazine, as Demi Lovato is a celebrity, who stands out for her good looks and luxury clothes. Moreover, modern Cosmopolitan contains many advertisements, which also represent the main features of the social identity, for example, the publication of Black Opium by Yves Saint Laurent reflects the sexuality and the luxury of the perfume (Coles 1). Moreover, the magazine consists mostly of advertisements, which promote the luxurious lifestyle.
Despite the changes in the other topics of Cosmopolitan, makeup and clothing are essentialities of the magazine since it is vital to dress according to the trends. Section Style shows potential clothing combinations, which are actual for September (Coles 92). As for the makeup, the modern magazine has a section called Beauty to present new trends in the makeup (Coles 116). In this case, these features are also the tools to express women sexuality. However, they are mostly devoted to the beautiful looks and self-development than using it as a primary tool to attract men.
It still focuses on self-improvement and independence. However, its context is broader and pays particular attention to the broadening the horizons of different knowledge. For instance, now Cosmopolitan has a special section, where it advises what books to read (Coles 30). However, it provides tips how to change ones habits and dressing style and become like Demi Lovato (Coles 58). Self-development remains an essential factor to improve the position on the social ladder.
The relationship between men and women and flirt remains in the priority. As the equality is present even in the clothing, particular attention is paid to the problem of how clothing can ruin the relationship (Coles 86). As for the sexuality, one of the rubrics is Sexiest Gentlemen alive (Coles 71). The photos are rather funny. In this case, the sexuality is not taken seriously. Nonetheless, it also pays attention to the other more serious matters related to sex, such Why dont I want to have sex? (Coles 154). Lastly, it addresses the office topic and certain negative accidents, which might occur at the workplace (Coles 158). Sex is important, but it is not discussed as a potential tool to change a position in the social hierarchy. It is discovered as an entertainment, and Cosmopolitan offers various tips to improve the pleasure of the process.
In conclusion, Cosmopolitan partly lost its idea of being a success, sexuality guide, and initial features of the American dream. Now, it is just a potential source of entertainment, as it helps relax and enjoy the quality of pictures since the photos dominate. Moreover, it provides interviews with the stars, which will help spend the leisure (Coles 163). Its primary goal is to inform and advise the possible trends, but it does not insist on using them.
Reading the Codes
This chapter presents the analysis of the pictures of men and women given in the Cosmopolitan with the help of Erving Goffmans frameworks. Firstly, Goffman addresses the feminine touch and mentions that womens hands are displayed delicate and often positioned as holding themselves (Morris and Warren 5). The following aspect can be seen in the advertisement by Tacori (Coles 10). The models hands look feminine and hold each over. In turn, mans hands are usually shown as strong and masculine. The advertisement by Ralph Lauren uses the man model, who has powerful hands (Coles 80). His power and strength are also emphasized with the help of the red color.
Moreover, the Goffman claims that women have a cultural identity of being passive in the advertisements (Morris and Warren 6). This factor is a primary determinant of female sexuality. In turn, men look mighty and strong. This correlation can be noticed in the advertisement by Revlon, as the man seem to be powerful, and the woman is dependent (Coles 73). The woman looks fragile and corresponds with the principles of sexuality emphasized by Goffman.
Another unique feature, which was vehemently emphasized by Goffman, is the fact that it appears that women have no control of the situation compared to men (Morris and Warren 7). In this case, the Revlons advertisement can be used again. As it was mentioned earlier, the man looks convincing, and the woman is fragile and feminine (Coles 73). Moreover, it seems that the woman is not in control of the situation, as her smile intends to show her absence and happiness of being with the man. However, it has to be mentioned that this perception of gender cannot be used in the advertisement, as it creates the misconceptions about the womans exaggerated vulnerability (Morris and Warren 7).
Moreover, Goffman claims that women are often shown as being childish (Morris and Warren 8). It can be seen with the help of the advertisement of Burts Bees (Coles 131). The models expression contributes to being childish and having no control of the situation. Her lips are in a position that she is about to laugh. Her curls also contribute to carelessness.
In conclusion, it could be said that all of the principles can be applied regarding the advertisements in Cosmopolitan. It is clear that women will always be portrayed feminine, as even sportswomen, which seem strong and powerful, still cover the primary principles of female sexuality. For example, the model in the advertisement of Sketchers Sport displays firm determination, but she looks rather feminine due to the position of her hands (Coles 145).
Works Cited
Coles, Joanna 2015. Cosmopolitan: Web.
Morris, Scott, and Katherine Warren. Media Education Foundation Study Guide: The Codes of Gender, Northampton: Media Education Foundation, 2014. Print.
Ouellette, Laurie. Inventing the Cosmo Girl: Class Identity and Girl-Style American Dreams. Gender, Race, and Class in Media. Ed. Gail Dines and Jean Humes. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc., 2003. 116-128. Print.
Education is often seen as a way to success in most families today. Thus, it is a crucial aspect of the social setting. However, equal access to learning has not yet been attained in a society where multiple factors affect how kids access education. Household income is one of these issues that is assumed to play a crucial role in access to education. Thus, family earnings and their correlation to education achievement are critical topics that have been discussed severally (Bartik & Hershbein, 2018). In addition, these domestic earnings are essential in defining the familys status both economically and socially, hence determining the kind of edification the children will acquire in their lives. Apart from that, other factors that affect childrens schooling include the gender, race, and political stability of a country (Bartik & Hershbein, 2018). This paper seeks to review how household income affects educational attainment and the wage gap between females and males and its reasons.
Interrelation Between Household Income and Degree Attainment
Various types of household income affect educational attainment in different ways. These earnings can be grouped into well-paid or high-income homes and poorly paid or low-income families. Well-paid households have been ascertained to have a high degree of accomplishment of their kids in college (Wolla & Sullivan, 2017). This can be attributed to factors such as most of the parents being educated, the children being more accessible to more learning materials, and children being taught soft skills that will complement hard skills trained by the education system (Bartik & Hershbein, 2018). The above can be explained by two theories: the Investment theory, which postulates that high-income parents translate to comfortable housing, a well-balanced diet, books, other training materials, and refreshing holidays for their children (Cooper & Stewart, 2020). This would, in turn, make the children free of stress and focus more on their studies and perform better. The Family stress theory suggests that in high-income households parents have less or no financial stress, which influences the conceptive and physiological outcomes that positively impact the childrens performance in education (Cooper & Stewart, 2020). These families have the optimum environment that favors better education attainment.
Moreover, parents with higher incomes are most likely to become public figures and very influential figures. Thus, they have access to human capital and could help schools by offering such resources (Cheang & Goh, 2018). These parents can also influence government institutions and push policymakers to pass policies to provide more resources for schooling and put more emphasis on education (Cheang & Goh, 2018). This could, in turn, enhance the education sector. Thus, the children of such individuals will, in the end, obtain better training. In addition, such public figures could also empower learning institutions to develop a better social culture in schools, which will directly affect their childrens health positively hence, higher degree attainment (Cheang & Goh, 2018). This places students of high-income parents in a better position to excel in their education.
Low-income household students have been associated with low degree attainment (Wolla & Sullivan, 2017). These children are denied access to crucial resources in learning; hence they struggle from kindergarten to college level and may drop out at the college level due to financial constraints. College requires well-prepared students in academic and time management skills (Copper & Stewart, 2020). Learners with low incomes are likely to begin school behind their age mates from high-income households (Copper & Stewart, 2020). This has led to students from low household incomes having poor education foundations and substandard cognitive ability. They also hardly possess soft skills such as time management which affects their college education and may lead them to drop out of college. Insufficient finance causes disadvantages to students hence low degree attainment in low-income households.
However, parents income on students performance may not overly correlate with degree attainment in every case. A comprehensive systematic research done by Copper and Stewart in 2020 reveals that other factors could also affect the students performance. The study resulted in some of the students from low household incomes excelling without many hindrances related to finances. Despite that, there was a significant interrelation between household income and degree attainment. Copper and Stewart proposed that more expert teachers could be posted to schools with students from low household incomes to develop some conscientious framework for these kids. This would then aid in preparing these students for college education and acquiring more financial grants, thus, increasing the number of students attaining degrees.
The Wage Gap Between Female and Male Analysis
There are multiple influences that contribute to the wage gap between genders. The female gender earns eighty-three cents for every dollar a man makes (ILO, 2019). According to the ILO (2019), these factors include a few women in leadership positions, duration of work shift, maternal leaves, level of education knowledge, and women-dominated profession. There are about 50% more men than women in high-level management positions (ILO, 2019). This is because this group tends to concentrate on human resource managerial positions than other administrative spots, lowering the salary compared to their male counterparts in different executive positions. This is still causing a salary rift between women and men.
The salary margin between men and women is due to the different working hours outlined concerning different genders. Males and females are paid differently according to the number and time of working hours. Women are paid lesser than men as they leave early to go home to nurse their older folks or children and do the unpaid home chores (ILO, 2019). This dramatically reduces their salary scale or level as compared to men who can work for longer hours. Therefore, society should step up its efforts to ensure both genders play equal roles in family responsibilities to give more time to women to work and narrow the wage gap.
Women in the employment sector are forced to leave the workforce for various reasons. Women leave employment for maternal leave or nurse their ill loved ones or children as society expects them to do (ILO, 2019). This reduces their time in the workforce, and by the moment they are back to their workstations, their male counterparts have increased their salaries, thus, widening the wage gap. These career breaks can force other women to opt for part-time employment since full-time occupation may not be available, as employers prefer male employees as they rarely have career leaves (ILO, 2019). This disadvantages women in terms of wage pay as part-time salary does not offer packages with full-time employment.
The difference in education levels also contributes to the wage gap. A higher level of education means more excellent pay. However, 45% of women with advanced degrees in the USA earn lesser than their male colleagues with just a bachelors degree (Coron, 2021). This is attributed to women making decisions to pursue lower-paying advanced degrees. For example, regarding females and males with MBAs, females are likely to pursue advanced degrees in marketing and publicize low-paying fields. In contrast, males will pursue higher-paying areas like financial work (Coron, 2021). This contributes to the gender rift despite being in the same career field.
Decreasing the way gap would be so profitable to both the genders and the government as well. It is projected that a decrease in the salary rift between men and women, according to the continuing trend, would result in an increase of six trillion US dollars in taxes by the year 2025 (ILO, 2019). This would be a tremendous boost to the global gross domestic product (GDP) since it is the purchasing power of the entire population (ILO, 2019). This could be done by enterprises developing a genderless professional culture and offering equivalent stipends for male and female employees.
Conclusion
In conclusion, parents level of income influences the parenting obligations of some individuals, which, in turn, affects how a child behaves, thus impacting the kids educational performance directly. Most high-income parents provide a better environment and chance to their children to excellently attain their education in better environments. Low-income parents also impact students self-esteem and cognitive and physiological behavior that influence their performance and future decisions. The gender wage gap is still a critical issue despite improvements from previous years that need to be tackled. Additionally, society and enterprises play some crucial part in ensuring equality in gender is exercised in regard to wage distribution.
References
Bartik, Timothy J. & Brad Hershbein. 2018. Degrees of Poverty: The Relationship between Family Income Background and the Returns to Education. Upjohn Institute Working Paper 18-284. Kalamazoo, Upjohn Institute for Employment Research. Web.
A conceptual model of sociology called ethnomethodology is predicated on the idea that upsetting a societys established social hierarchy will reveal its typical social structure. The subject of how individuals explain their conduct is investigated by ethnomethodologists. It is a style of inquiry dedicated to learning the feasible tactics of common-sense thinking used by society participants throughout daily life. They might well purposefully interrupt social rules to observe how individuals retaliate and how they attempt to reinstate social order in an attempt to address this question. For instance, the participants in the conversation could nod their heads to show agreement, glance at one another, and ask and respond to questions.
Dramaturgy, a subset of the performing arts, focuses on drawing plays to life on display. Front-stage conduct expresses internalized standards and expectations for behavior influenced by the environment, the specific position somebody performs within, and ones outward looking. In any case, front-stage conduct often adheres to rote social scripting taught and modified by cultural standards. One example is wearing well to hide melancholy. Individuals are liberated from the expectations and rules that govern conduct on stage whenever they act backstage. Since they may let their guards down and act in manners representing their unfettered or real personalities backstage, individuals tend to be more at ease and relaxed. For instance, behaving sluggishly after not eating anything.
According to the differential association hypothesis, social contact with others are where individuals pick up their principles, attitudes, skills, and motivations for committing crimes. Agents of social control identify the weak as deviant and criminal based on stereotyped beliefs within the labeling theory of crime, which is linked to interactionism. This leads to consequences like the self-fulfilling prophecy, the criminal profession, and the intensification of deviance. The gypsy Roma youth documentary emphasizes juvenile delinquency by demonstrating ways kids pick up criminal conduct via social contact. An example would be when a female is observed robbing customers of their cash as they withdraw from Banks.
Hyperreality is a scenario in which representations of reality feel more authentic than the real thing. It is the process of substituting a depiction for a fact. The dove commercial video film depicts a woman before and after applying cosmetics to demonstrate how humans have become skewed from reality. As a result, this has influenced how people see facts in the new age. People aspire to match the depicted resemblance of reality but will never be able to.
Radical feminism is a worldview that strongly emphasizes the patriarchal causes of gender inequality, or more precisely, the social dominance of women by males. It holds that patriarchy oppresses women and favors men by largely partitioning societys rights, benefits, and authority along sex lines. Marxist feminists aim to change Marxist theory via the notion of patriarchy to explain better how women are subordinated. Considering Brazilian women and the widespread usage of cosmetic surgery on their bodies, this illustrates how women view their inequalities. They undergo this surgery to feel good about themselves and see themselves as equivalent to other men. An illustration is when a lady attempts to get this operation to get rid of her large tummy.
According to the structural-functional approach hypothesis, society is ordered by a framework that includes human behavior. As a result, it contributes to the organizations continued operation in view of the various roles that men and women perform. Those positions were based on the physical differences between men and women. Due to their physical prowess, males were given tasks like hunting, and women took care of the household. These responsibilities eventually became formalized, and that is how they now function. According to the symbolic interactionism idea, gender is anything an individual undertakes. For instance, a guy wearing a skirt is seen as rejecting conventional gender norms.
While the level of equality between men and women in various spheres of social life has been increased over the past decades, there are still some aspects that have not found a resolution yet. One of such highly crucial points is the gender pay gap and its implications. Although females have earned the possibility to fill in the job market niches that have long been considered as purely male, the former are frequently underpaid in comparison with the latter. Hence, the topic of interest is the gender pay gap.
The gender pay gap is defined as the average gross hourly earnings of men and women who are working. Although the problem has decreased considerably since 1980, it is still rather disturbing (Graf, Brown, & Patten, 2019). According to the analysis performed by the Pew Research Center, female employees earned 85% of what male workers did in 2018. Compared to 2017, the situation improved insignificantly, since the disproportion of the same factor constituted 80% (Graf et al., 2019). Such statistics indicate that women have to work 39 days longer than men to earn an equal yearly salary (Graf et al., 2019). In 2018, a slight reduction in the gender pay gap was noticed for workers between 25 and 34. Meanwhile, the index was higher for all workers in general. In the 25-34 age group, women earned 89 where men made a dollar (Graf et al., 2019). Therefore, the problem of the wage gap cannot be neglected, and it is necessary to investigate its causes and offer solutions.
Taking the general topic of interest as a basis for research, the following research questions may be outlined:
What factors affect the emergence of the gender pay gap?
What are the approaches to mitigate the problem for US female workers?
Why do men and women treat the issue differently?
A probable answer to the first research question is that the emergence of the gender pay gap is contingent on historically established attitudes toward labor and the division of responsibilities into male and female. The second question might be approached with the help of local and national changes to labor policies. The reply to the third question may vary depending on the respondents realization of the depth of the problem. Not all women may feel underserved, and not all men may be inclined to refute the issues existence.
When seeking responses to these questions, one should realize that there are other facets of the problem except social ones. First of all, inequality in payment poses psychological problems since women may feel suppressed and underestimated. Secondly, political and economic causes and outcomes of the issue have to be considered. Next, biological and anthropological aspects of the difference in the financial reward for work should be discussed. Therefore, the gender pay gap is a complex social phenomenon that is closely related to non-social issues, including anthropological, economic, political, and psychological, and requires thorough investigation from various angles to find a viable solution.
Literature Review
Anthropology
The anthropological approach is rather closely related to the selected topic since the core conflict is that between the two genders. Boll, Jahn, and Lagemann (2017) argue that it is wrong to view the gender pay gap purely from the perspective of hourly wages difference. Instead, scholars introduce the gender lifetime earnings gap concept that helps to evaluate the biographical aspect of gender pay (Boll et al., 2017, p. 4). Cross-sectional age-specific studies performed on the basis of Germany allowed identifying that the gap in payment increases with age, being lowest at the 30s and higher when men and women approach retirement.
Economics
From an economic point of view, the gender pay gap is a negative factor influencing the economic position of women as a vulnerable group. According to Mandel and Semyonov (2014), there are several main economic reasons for the gap: labor supply, occupational discrimination, sociodemographic factors, and the unexplained portion of the gap (p. 1597). Research findings indicate that a recent gap decline both in private and public sectors is associated with decreased economic discrimination against females (Mandel & Semyonov, 2014). Furthermore, the working hours are reported to be the most significant constituent related to the gender pay gap. As a result, a period of stagnation is currently prevailing in the economic dimension of the researched problem.
Politics
In the political context, the gender pay gap in the USA is related to the variety of states political environment. Particularly, as Maume and Ruppanner (2015) remark, the US labor force is contingent on such factors as being a female employee or having a female supervisor. Economic inequality theories associate mens supremacy of authority posts as a means of increasing gender inequality prevailing in the labor market (Maume & Ruppanner, 2015). Findings on state effects are diverse depending on the location, but scholars conclude that state liberalism plays a positive role in reducing the pay gap.
Psychology
A psychological approach to analyzing the gender pay gap is largely focused on the phenomenons negative impact on womens mental condition. However, research indicates that men can also be affected by workplace and wage inequality. As argued by Wright, Eaton, and Skagerberg (2015), the psychological dimension of the gender pay gap can be explained via the empathizing-systemizing theory. According to this trend, each individual is inclined toward a particular combination of the cognitive approaches of systemizing and empathizing. Wright et al. (2015) note that emphasizing is the initiative to identify the psychological state of others. Meanwhile, systemizing is the motivation to establish and discern rule-based and social systems. The percentage of each of these two components formulates ones psychological attitude toward the gender pay gap.
Sociology
Sociological view on the gender pay gap is based on the devaluation theory. According to Ochsenfeld (2014), the concept of the gender pay gap takes its roots from horizontal sex segregation in higher education (p. 536). The theory of devaluation presupposes that the tendency to select future profession among men are contingent on their breadwinner role rather than on valuative discrimination (Ochsenfeld, 2014, p. 536). Women, on the other hand, select the future profession with respect to predicted interruptions in employment due to maternity. As a result, a radical disparity in wage based on gender develops in society.
The Interdisciplinary Approach
Finally, it is necessary to analyze the issue of the gender pay gap from an interdisciplinary point. Research by Auspurg, Hinz, and Sauer (2017) aims at identifying the reasons for the pay gap based on social and economic approaches. Specifically, scholars scrutinize the issue with the use of the double standard and reward expectations theories. Auspurg et al. (2017) conclude that the combined effect of interdisciplinary causes is that both male and female workers agree to some extent that womens lower pay is fair. Hence, researchers offer two possible explanations of the mentioned phenomenon. The first one is that females might view lower wages as appropriate due to gender-specific referents. The second is that the input into the labor market made by women is considered lower than that made by men (Auspurg et al., 2017). The combination of various dimensions of the researched problem allows for a deeper understanding of it.
Summative Integration
The issue of the gender pay gap seems to be most closely related to the social dimension. However, it is crucial to view the identified problem in integrity with other approaches to obtain a complete picture. The reviewed studies allow inferring that the gender pay gap has features that may also be addressed by professionals in such spheres as psychology, anthropology, politics, and economics. It is viable to note that the roots of the problem are found in the anthropological dimension, but its outcomes are most vividly exhibited in the fields of economics and politics. Psychological research of the issue is also important since it enables scholars to identify the cause-effect relationships between the roots and results of the gender pay gap.
Conclusion
The analysis of the gender pay gap makes it possible to derive that this issue is a complex social phenomenon associated with a variety of non-social aspects. To find effective solutions to this problem, it is necessary to perform a multifaceted analysis of its main causes. Although statistical data indicate a reduction in the gender pay gap, this decline is not sufficient to consider the question solved. If the dilemma is not given appropriate attention from scholars and policymakers, it is likely to become intensified in the nearest future. Therefore, it is important to integrate knowledge in different spheres and research to alleviate the problem of the gender pay gap.
References
Auspurg, K., Hinz, T., & Sauer, C. (2017). Why should women get less? Evidence on the gender pay gap from multifactorial survey experiments. American Sociological Review, 82(1), 179-210.
Boll, C., Jahn, M., & Lagemann, A. (2017). The gender lifetime earnings gap: Exploring gendered pay from the life course perspective. Journal of Income Distribution, 25(1), 1-53.
Mandel, H., & Semyonov, M. (2014). Gender pay gap and employment sector: Sources of earnings disparities in the United States, 1970-2010. Demography, 51(5), 1597-1618.
Maume, D. J., & Ruppanner, L. (2015). State liberalism, female supervisors, and the gender wage gap. Social Science Research, 50, 126-138.
Ochsenfeld, F. (2014). Why do womens fields of study pay less? A test of devaluation, human capital, and gender role theory. European Sociological Review, 30(4), 536-548.
Wright, D. B., Eaton, A. A., & Skagerberg, E. (2015). Occupational segregation and psychological gender differences: How empathizing and systemizing help explain the distribution of men and women into (some) occupations. Journal of Research in Personality, 54, 30-39.
The term gender is one of the basic terminologies which have been given general definitions which encompass all aspects of humanity, for instance age, being male or female, sex among others. When this is analyzed in relation to this context it is used to refer to the sexual identity. Sex therefore can be used as a term which refers to either human females or males in regard to individual biological features which are mainly: chromosomes, sex organs, hormones and other physical features that might be present on the human body (Haraway, 1991). In todays society, normally these features are used used to categorically determine most of the peoples identities and this relates to sex. In many cases this term has been used to put a difference between people of opposite biological entities socially and even in the culturally natured societies. According to the research conducted by Gartens (1996) on gender distinctions and sex, he concluded that the two factors are more or less the same in regards to the differentiation between consciousness and the mind.
Main Discussion
According to his research Gartens (1996), accounts for some feminists theories which actually attempt to define and destroy the sex/gender. He concludes that gender is a conceptual tool which is gained through hegemony. The feminist theory on the other hand relates sex or gender to as biological, anatomical, or physiological body in relation to the body genes.The feminist the theory therefore defines, Maleness and femaleness as a form of sexual category taps the behavioral manifestation of a traditionally based, ethnically shared fantasy about male and female biologics, and by this sex and gender are not subjectively linked (Gatens, 1996). This indicates that the connection between the female body and femininity is not arbitrary in the same way the symptom is not arbitrary related to its etiology. Personal identity is a gendered identity that is understood to be absolutely separate from ones bodily sex (Jackson, 1998). At the birth of children their social characters are seen as the same but only come to differ with time as the male and female child grow.
According to an interview conducted by Walsh, Gaten it confirms to his augment that sex is wrongly viewed as an exclusively natural and thus unchangeable category he stipulates that there are no neutral bodies (Gatens, 2004). In addition, Socialization process has been found to act on neutral and passive bodies which have high chances of leading to behaviorism in any human being and is more likely to occur in animals than human beings. Therefore, this signifies that the male transsexual experience of female identify if expected to be different a female who is therefore not transsexual. According to the author, human being view on sex is based on biological understanding which seems to be historical and cultural ideologies.
According to the empirical study conducted by Gatens (2004), he argues that sex and gender are allied with distinction between the biological and the social factors. This therefore implies that the body and mind are key areas when it comes to human decisions making since they normally reinforce implementation of uncritical dualisms. As earlier stated the body should not be treated as a neutral, biological ground on which female and male identities are socially inscribed, and to take to account of the fact our understanding of the body is already shaped and differentiated by the imaginary (Bordo, 1992). If thinking is essentially embodied and if we think somehow reflects our bodies as we imagine them, what metaphysical model will capture this insight and at the same time accommodate sexual difference.
As a body of men from which women excluded, but as a body composed of differing parts. Women supposedly conserve energy (being anabolic) and this makes them submissive, conventional, slothful, unstable and impassive in politics. The masculine nature of men motivates their energy, eagerness, passion thus giving them a taste of politics and social matters.Sex and gender are allied with the distinctions between the biological and the social, and the body and the mind, in a way that reinforces these uncritical dualisms. Bodily difference between men and women will ensure that there are differences between their minds. This does change with the way people imagine themselves and the world in which they live. Gatens says that a rational polity will take account of the differences between citizens which shape their ways of striving to preserve themselves. It has been argued that masculine and feminine forms of behavior are not arbitrary inscriptions on an indifferent consciousness which is joined to an indifferent body. To speak of acquiring a particular gender and its intimate relation to biology as lived in a social and historical context. It has been argued also that masculinity and femininity do not differ with regard to the sexes in terms of quantity only, but also qualitatively (Gatens, 2004). The male transsexual can be understood only if we first understand the genesis of the primitive ego on the other hand female transsexual cannot be symmetrical. The relation of the female infant to the mothers body is not and cannot be problematic in the same way. The female transsexual is much more likely to be a reaction against oppression, that is, against the socially required forfeit of activity that was once enjoyed and socially tolerated. The transsexuals know very clearly that the issue is not one of gender but one of sex.
Conclusion
In conclusion, this dissymmetry between the sexes is reflected in feminist musings on whether women are excluded from certain professions because they are prestigious or whether those professions are prestigious because women are excluded. The implication being that it is not what is done or how it is done but who does it that determines social value. Problem is not how to socialize women to femininity and men to masculinity but how their behaviors will be applied in the interconnection of social connotation and the vaporizing of the male in regard to the female (Haraway, 1991). This type of vaporization is at the core of the representation of relations of sexual difference as relations of superiority and inferiority.
Reference
Bordo S (1992): Postmodern Subjects, Postmodern Bodies Feminist Studies, , Publisher spring.
Gatens, M (1996): The Critique of the Sex/Gender Distinction , Imaginary Bodies: Ethics, Power and Corporeality, London, Routledge.
Gatens, M (2004): Twenty years since A Critique of the Sex/Gender Distinction : a conversation with Moira Gatens. [Interview by Walsh, Mary. ] [online]. Australian Feminist Studies, v. 19, no.4.
Haraway D. (1991): Gender for a Marxist Dictionary: The Sexual Politics of a Word in Simians, Cyborgs and Women, Routledge, New York
Jackson S (1998): Theorising Gender and Sexuality , Stevi Jackson and Jackie Jones, (eds), Contemporary Feminist Theories, Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press.
The terminology of gender inversion was synonymous with the twentieth century where it was believed to be a medical condition. Gender inversion is essentially the internal reversal of traditional roles which in men, is manifested in the form of wearing ladies clothing and exhibiting female demeanor. In women, it is manifested by the adornment of male clothing and taking to male behavior (Devor 15). Individuals who exhibit tendencies believed to be not of their gender are labeled gender inverts by society, whereas those who maintain the social norms associated to their genders are not labeled.
The issue of gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender groups has raised debate about their similarities and differences as well as grouping. It is to this debate that Devor argues that both historically and cross-culturally, transgender people have been the most visible minority among people involved in same-sex sexual practices. As such, transgendered people have been emblematic of homosexuality in the minds of most people. Thus, the concerns of gay, lesbian, bisexual, and queer people are inextricably bound up with those of transgendered people and should be addressed together (16).
Gender has been defined by society as male and female. From birth, people are programmed or nurtured to behave in certain prescribed ways that relate to their respective genders. The idea of gender grows up with us from childhood to adulthood where the norm dictates that in most cases, men are the providers and women the care givers in families and society as a whole. According to Lorber in A World without Gender, a genderless world would provide the opportunity for people to operate without a perpetual glass ceiling thereby allowing them to achieve more as individuals based on their abilities as opposed to a gendered world where there are gender specific jobs and such. This would provide more equality than gender balance where mainly jobs are allocated to both genders to promote affirmative action while still maintaining the limitations provided by gender in society. A genderless world would also allow people to develop relationships with people they care about irrespective of their gender and not be stigmatized by society for their choices in partners.
Johnson defines patriarchy as a system where both men and women are actively involved in promoting inequality in society, whether consciously or sub consciously (12). We all experience the effects of patriarchy in aspects of our lives, whether in support of it or against it. Johnson states that in some cases that the criticism of patriarchy is taken to mean that all men are oppressive and the mention of it, particularly by women is done to make the men feel guilty. In addition he states that sometimes men feel defensive because they identify with patriarchy and its values but do not want to deal with the consequences of doing so and giving up the male privilege, but the defensiveness can also reflect the confusion about the difference between patriarchy as a kind of society and the people who participate in it (28).
The issue of gender rights has been brought to the fore because traditionally they only encompassed those categorized as transgender in the society. Wilchins however argues that even in the most politically active gay communities, gender is discussed as a footnote to create the perception that it only affects a minority in society (19). In her book Queer Theory, Gender Theory: An Instant primer, she highlights the relationship between gender and human rights and how the gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender groups have to recognize the importance of gender as negation of gender rights is the same as negation of human rights because of the liberties given up, most notably, freedom of expression and association.
Hegemonic masculinity prescribes that men should be tough, dominate over others, and should not be afraid of danger (Iacuone 16). This kind of social behavior demands fearlessness from the men in any task, particularly physical, that is undertaken in social settings around fellow men. Iacuone uses the example of a construction worker in Australia taking physical risks by overloading wheelbarrows with heavy concrete slabs to express disregard for their safety to prove a point to his more concerned colleague perceived to be exhibiting elements of feminism (16). He further concludes that hegemonic masculinity encourages men to be strong, display heterosexual prowess, objectify women and engage themselves in dangerous activities and that the stronger man needs to show dominance over weaker men and women (19).
Risman maintains that there is need to understand gender as a social structure thereby allowing us to study the degree to which it is ingrained in all aspects of the society, that is, individual, interactional and institutional(432). Risman also emphasizes the need for more research to enable us to understand all structures of equality that exist alongside gender and race and try to determine their intersection point which will enable us to face the challenges better in the future.
References
Devor, A. Who Are We? Where Sexual Orientation Meets Gender Identity. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Psychiatry (2002): 15-21. Print.
Iacuone, D. Real Men are Tough Guys: Hegemonic Masculinity and Safety in the Construction Industry. The Journal of Men Studies, Vol.13 No.2 (2005): 247-266. Print.
Johnson, A. The Gender Knot. India: Temple University Press, 2005. Print.
Lorber, J. A World Without Gender. Scribd., n.d. Web.
The data below represents population estimates by age group and gender of noncitizens. The data was obtained from the official website of the Abu Dhabi Statistics Centre. The data is quantitative since it is numerical but it has been grouped. The groups are in class intervals of four with the first group having the interval 0-4 years and the last group being above 80 years.
From our analysis, the mean age for both males and females is 33 years with the mode being 27 years and the median class was 30-34 years. The majority of the non-citizens were male while the female population stood at 7.6% of the total. Most of the female population was in the 20-24, 25-29 and 30-34 age brackets. A significant number of the female population was also in the 0-4 and 5-9 age groups. Meanwhile, the majority of the male population was found in the 25-29, 30-34 and 35-39 age brackets. Only 100 females were above 60 years but none was above 65 years. On the other hand, there were 1,100 males in the 60-64 years age group and 200 males in the 65-69 age groups.
As seen in the histograms below, the general population (both male and female) is skewed to the left (negative skew). This skew is influenced by the male population as it the more than the female population. The same outlook is observed on the male non-citizen population histogram. As for the female population, the histogram is skewed to the right (positive skew).
Age group
Midpoint
frequency
Midpoint*frequency
Percent of total frequency
0-4
2
3,300
6,600
1.6%
5-9
7
3,300
23,100
1.6%
10-14
12
2,600
31,200
1.3%
15-19
17
3,500
59,500
1.7%
20-24
22
24,300
534,600
12.1%
25-29
27
46,000
1,242,000
22.9%
30-34
32
38,000
1,216,000
18.9%
35-39
37
29,400
1,087,800
14.6%
40-44
42
22,000
924,000
10.9%
45-49
47
13,600
639,200
6.8%
50-54
52
9,100
473,200
4.5%
55-59
57
4,500
256,500
2.2%
60-64
62
1,200
74,400
0.6%
65-69
67
200
13400
0.1%
70-74
72
0
7200
0%
75-79
77
0
0
0%
80+
0
0
0%
Total
201,000
6,588,700
100%
Mean
33years
mode
25-29years
Median
30-34years
Age group
Male
Female
Percent of total male population
Percent of total female population
0-4
1,700
1,600
0.9%
10.6%
5.0- 9
1,700
1,600
0.9%
10.5%
10- 14.0
1,300
1,300
0.7%
8.6%
15-19
2,400
1,100
1.3%
7.2%
20-24
22,600
1,700
12.2%
11.2%
25-29
43,800
2,200
23.6%
14.5%
30-34
36,100
1,900
19.4%
12.5%
35-39
27,900
1,500
15.0%
9.9%
40-44
21,000
1,000
11.3%
6.6%
45-49
13,000
600
7.0%
3.9%
50-54
8,700
400
4.7%
2.6%
55-59
4,300
200
2.3%
1.3%
60-64
1,100
100
0.6%
0.7%
65-69
200
0
0.1%
0.0%
70-74
0
0
0%
0.0%
75-79
0
0
0%
0.0%
80+
0
0
0%
0.0%
Total
185,800
15,200
100.0%
100%
Reference
National Statistics Center of Abu Dhabi. (2011). Non- Citizen Population Estimates by Age Group and Gender. Web.
In the Buddhist tradition, a persons position in secular society, power, and opportunities often reflect their previous spiritual achievements. Thus, the gods dwell in higher realms than humans because they have reached a corresponding level of spiritual development. The chakravartins and buddhas who live among people also occupy their exceptional position due to their high achievements in this and past lives (Gutschow, 2004). Likewise, being born as a man or as a woman and ones position in this or that society is a manifestation of karma, a consequence of ones deeds in past lives. There are limitations for women: a woman in Buddhism faces five insurmountable obstacles (Paudel & Dong, 2017). She cannot become a celestial king Brahma, a Sakra, a king Mara, a chakravartin, or a Buddha.
In the most general case in Buddhism, karma refers to the natural law of the connection between a persons actions in physical, speech, and mental form and their future life and future rebirth. The Buddhist practice of merit accumulation suggests that women are triply inferior and incapable of attaining enlightenment (Gutschow, 2004). Their lesser store of merit from past lives explains why they suffer in this life and why they have less opportunity to improve their prospects in the next life. It has led many women to see their lives as a heavy burden due to bad karma in past lives.
Restrictions regularly do good deeds, result in women being reborn as women. Females can attain a state of awakening, but some traditions say that full enlightenment and the Buddha state are unattainable (Gutschow, 2004). Only a body with sufficient virtue is recognized as the perfect sex a man (Paudel & Dong, 2017). Furthermore, attainment of the state of the arahant is only possible with the complete renunciation of sexuality and the gender traits of women, that is, becoming male by cultural behavior and image.
Merit is a result of all virtue, central to the concepts of morality and activity. It is in natural connection with the idea of karma because it refers to a singular approach to life. Only a persons ability to become aware of his future reality will allow him to act. In the gender aspect, women prevail because they can accumulate merit more effectively. Monks believe that women should make an effort to get merit and later be reborn as men (Paudel & Dong, 2017). This fact has led to the view that a womans essence is not seen as a whole organism but only as a lower or preceding stage. Many female devotees feel that their bodies are impure and they cannot become Buddha (Paudel & Dong, 2017). In most cases, women are seen as dependent bodies needing protection from parents or husbands because they are considered weak
To be reborn, a woman needs to attain enlightenment and change consciousness to become a man. Buddhism has made the female body an object that lacks the ideals and fortitude to make a perfect being like a man (Gutschow, 2004). To be reborn as a man is the main goal for a woman, for which an immeasurable amount of merit must be obtained (Paudel & Dong, 2017). Without them, a woman will have to go through the female life repeatedly until she receives enlightenment. Buddhism teaches that suffering causes people to become too attached to a non-existent inner self. Despite this, gender has become the ultimate organizing principle of traditional Buddhist institutional life.
References
Edmondson, M. (2007). Buddha realms [Film]. New York, NY: Filmmakers Library.
Gutschow, K. (2004). Being a Buddhist nun. Harvard University Press.
Paudel, A. & Dong, Q. (2017). The discrimination of women in Buddhism: An ethical analysis. Open Access Library Journal, 4, 1-18. Web.
Inequalities between men and women turn out to be one of the most controversial topics to discuss in any forum. There are many powerful literary characters which help us to understand the essence of these differences, and one of them is Mrs. Hale in Susan Glaspells Trifles.
In this play, the character of Mrs. Hale helps the reader look at gender differences and consider whether the characteristics by which genders are differentiated are legitimate. Mrs. Hale proves that there are situations that benefit from evaluation from different perspectives, and a female point of view may be not just of equal importance but in fact in some circumstances more important, than the male.
At the beginning of the play, the role of Mrs. Hale is portrayed as insignificant. Her presence in the room is dismissed by the men and the stage directions The women have come in slowly, and stand close to the door. (Glaspell 668). The authority and domination of the men is evident. The women characters have no lines until well into the fourth page of the play. Male domination is made evident by an off handed comment made by Mr. Hale. I was going to see if I cant get John Wright to go in with me on a party telephone.
I thought maybe if I went to the house and talked about it before his wife, though I didnt know as what this wife wanted made much difference to John. (668) Although Mr. Hale charges that women are used to worrying over trifles. (670), it quickly becomes evident to the reader that, albeit a gross generality, the natural attention to detail, instinct, intuition, sympathy and empathy possessed by women will be a critical factor is revealing what really happened at the Wright farm.
We discover, only through Mrs. Hales keen observations and extrapolation of meaning through the use of her instinct and intuition, that there are many pieces of evidence in the house to confirm the murderer, the motives and perhaps even the justification.
She finds the broken birdcage and with her intimate knowledge of the vibrant Minnie Foster She used to wear pretty cloths and be lively, one of the town girls singing in the choir. (672) and the cold John Wright I stayed away because it werent cheerful &Wright out to work all day, and no company when he did come in. &he was a hard man& (675), she pieces together a credible mosaic of circumstances that brings into focus for the reader what likely happened at the Wright farm.
In fact, the songbird in the play is one of the most captivating symbols for the feminine. Mrs. Wright could be seen as a songbird in a cage created by her husband from which she could never escape, except through death. In her case the death of her captor.
Its only fitting that Mrs. Hale can intuitively see this connection even though she may not express it in those exact terms. This ability is something that is quite possibly outside the realm and possibility of a stereotypical male thought process, certainly a typical patriarchal male of the time.
Works Cited
Glaspell, Susan. Trifles. Backpack Literature: An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama. Ed. X.J. Kennedy & Dana Gioia. New York: Pearson Longman, 2006. 570 583.