Category: Gender

Introduction

For a long time, society has been subjected to universally standard natural settings, which tent to follow a certain path. The society naturally construes gender to be either male or female and any other type of gender is viewed as an abnormality, especially in conservative societies.

At the same time, sexuality and sexual practices tend to take the same path, which is presumably a natural path that dictates sexual attraction to be between two opposite genders. Society has played a major role in demarcating the gender and sexual spheres by attaching moral issues and ethics to the two elements, thus making rules that seem to flow naturally from one generation to the other.

Within its religions touching, this trend has been a trigger to society having teachings on the supposed gender and sexuality paths that people are meant to follow, as long as members of the society subscribe to the given religion. At the same time, society plays a big role in defining gendered bodies by creating unwritten rules that instruct or create expectations regarding persons of different genders and how they should carry themselves.

How Societies Construct Gender Identities

Society is a powerful tool of influence that makes and shapes the thoughts and practices of its people. Naturally, two main genders define society and these gender lines the society has set its foundations on. Society’s definition of gender naturally hinges on genitalia, especially where the genitals are normal.

From the moment a child is born, the child’s gender is a subject to the genitals that the child carries, which can be either male or female. From the first day, a baby born of a certain gender will be identified by it and the baby will be named accordingly (Eugenides, 2003). The naming of persons in society points to the sex of the individual with the names for men being distinct from those for women.

Initially, gender identities were constructed through the dress code with a clear distinction of each gender’s dressings (Marienberg, 2013). Allocation of tasks and duties in society formed part of this construct as the society allocated duties justifiably according to gender. The Jewish society was very strict in following this order and it would be viewed as prejudicial when a member of the opposite sex were found doing what is considered to be a role for the opposite sex.

Though gender should naturally be either male or female, other genders do not fall within this description, and thus it is difficult for society to accept them.

There is always confusion when a mixed gender orientation arises in a single person whereby such a person either has both genitals, like hermaphrodites or has opposite genitalia for their body. To society, what is contrary to general expectations is usually referred to as a disorder, an abnormality, and a sort of lameness. Society views such cases in a prejudiced manner as they are beneath the society’s norms.

To this extent, members of a family are known to try to straighten the gender identity of one of their own through procedures like surgeries. The influence of society on gender constructs cannot be ignored as other than adjusting an individual to its correct gender, the society can cause confusion by influencing individuals to take on a gender identity that is not theirs. This move underscores the aspect of gender identity disorder.

How Societies Construct Sexual Practices

Different societies have different influences on the constructs of sexual practices, which vary from how liberal the society is to how conservative it may be. Liberal societies have liberal sexual practices that permit individuals to indulge in sexual activities and practices as they please. On the other hand, conservative societies are cautious about handling sexual practices in society and they tend to follow a strict order.

In most cases, these societies have a revered purpose for sexual activities and practices and thus they have set aside important intended purposes for sexual practices. The contemporary society is divided into urban and rural communities, which have a disparity in the different practices that they engage in. In the urban society, people tend to be more liberal and open with their sexual practices than in the rural settings.

This aspect can be attributed to the view that the urban population is usually cosmopolitan in nature, thus not bound to observe traditional sexual practices. On the other hand, Christian communities and Jewish communities approach the matter of sexual practices in a strict manner. These two communities advocate for chastity and they paint sex as a tool for procreation than a tool for pleasure (Marienberg, 2013).

The question that arises and what is still a matter of debate is, “what counts as sex.” Different people have different sexual orientations, which are mostly a deviation from the traditionally accepted norms about sexual practices. This perception is informed by the society that people live in, and the ethical values attached to sexual practices (Phyllis, 2013).

The members of the gay and lesbian communities have perpetuated sexual practices like homosexuality and they have come out strongly to create awareness and justify why it is normal to be a gay or a lesbian. They have also gone into an overdrive to recruit new members and fight for their rights. The media too has been influential in setting the pace for sexual practices by putting forward new trends in society by breaking sexual practices barriers and further liberalizing what were once conservative sexual practices.

How Society Constructs Gendered Bodies

Gender defines the body that a certain gender is expected to have. Men are expected to have strong bodies full of muscles. The expectations of society from specific gender lead to the development of gendered bodies. In Muslim societies, girls are supposed to cover all parts of their bodies as per the teachings of the Quran.

This aspect shapes the women to walk in a certain manner that makes them take a certain posture that can be described as gendered. Society shapes gendered bodies by creating expectations that each gender is supposed to follow. Men in an Africa are supposed to walk with a certain gait that showed the embodiment of bravery in the man (Brettell & Sargent, 2012).

Men in society are supposed to exude confidence and be strong in all areas of life and this stereotype, as an expectation from society, drives them to behave in a certain way in all that they do. The definition of beauty in society sets the steps that lead to a construction of gendered bodies. This definition as displayed on catwalks influences women to ape the new trends by walking the way the women on the catwalks walk because that is what is considered as beautiful.

Individual careers too shape gendered bodies because depending on the work that an individual does, people tend to take certain body shapes and movements. Military personnel have been trained to walk with a certain gait and they are supposed to keep their bodies in a certain shape as a requirement. Women in society are expected to sit with their legs closed and in most cases with their hands held together (Brettell & Sargent, 2012).

Society describes this aspect as decent sitting for a woman and it leads the woman to occupy little space. Men, on the other hand, are allowed to sit more freely as compared to women. A man is not supposed to walk like a woman because it is not manly while a woman is not supposed to walk like a man because it is not womanly. These are some of the societal constructs on gendered bodies.

Conclusion

Society as a whole has a tremendous influence on gender identities, sexual practices, and gendered bodies. The society that one lives in underscores the environment that shapes the comprehensive constructs that draw members of the society towards certain ways of doing things. The societal influence is significant to the extent that it creates a uniform-like structure that silently dictates how people should approach certain issues in society.

Reference List

Brettell, C., & Sargent, C. (2012). Gender in Cross-Cultural Perspective (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Eugenides, J. (2003). Middlesex: A Novel. New York, NY: Picador

Marienberg, E. (2013). Traditional Jewish Sexual Practices and their Possible Impact

on Jewish Fertility and Demography. Harvard Theological Review, 106(3), 243-287.

Phyllis, G. (2013). Safe sex Talk: Negotiating Safe Sex Practices in Heterosexual Relations. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 42(2), 309-318.

Introduction

Doing household chores is undoubtedly an essential aspect of every person’s lifestyle. Even though different families may have different approaches to the distribution of household responsibilities, it is possible to identify general trends that affect the vast majority of the population. Traditional gender roles significantly impact the distribution of household chores in married couples and even the way of life of single people. The culture of equality has flattened the picture significantly in recent times, but statistics indicate that tangible differences still exist today.

Discussion

Childcare is the most revealing among gender-asymmetric household chores. Historically, this occupation is perceived as more “feminine”, which often causes the problem of insufficient attention to children from their fathers. Women in Estonia devote one and a half times more time to childcare than men. However, it is more about average values, this difference is not critical and tends to decrease. Other gender stereotypes that try to define the role of women include cooking and cleaning. The data indicate that despite the smaller absolute values, the skew here is precisely the same as for childcare. At the same time, gender stereotypes define repair and construction as “male occupations”, which is why men devote one and a half times more hours to them than women. Despite the fact that these gender differences are not significant, men in general spend slightly less time on household chores.

Conclusion

There are gender differences in the distribution of household chores in Estonia. The reason for this asymmetry is the traditional idea about gender roles: cleaning, cooking, and childcare are seen as “women’s” jobs, while construction and renovations are seen as “men’s.” The differences are not critical and tend to decrease, which indicates a high level of development of a culture of equality.

Femininity and Masculinity as Social Constructs: Joanna Russ’s “When It Changed” as a Depiction of Gender Inequality in Society

Throughout history, there have been conversations about gender and gender differences. Certain roles are ascribed to men and women, and the majority of people consider these roles to be rules. However, there are also those who believe that it is wrong to assign some functions to females and other functions to males. Even with enormous progress in technology, science, and society, it must be doubted “very much that sexual equality has been reestablished on Earth” (Russ 7). In Russ’s short story, femininity on Whileaway develops in a cultural environment that enables women to choose the roles they wish and inspires them to feel free from gender prejudices.

For many centuries, women have been considered to be destined to look after their families, children, and husbands, while men are viewed as strong, powerful, and independent bread-winners. Despite the reconsideration of traditional duties for men and women, there are still many biases associated with gender. Because of inequality, it is complicated for women to have success in politics, law, engineering, and other such careers.

Meanwhile, men continue to be treated as invulnerable, which makes it very difficult for them to seek emotional and social support. Russ’s story depicts opposition to the traditional division of gender roles. Women living on Whileaway do not divide chores into men’s and women’s tasks because after a plague had killed all men there, only the female population remained. Thus, the range of characteristics of the planet’s inhabitants includes all features pertaining to both genders. Some women are “very fair, very shy, always painfully blushing” (Russ 2). Others can give “a cold, level, venomous look” (Russ 2) and have muscles “like metal bars” (Russ 6). Because of the particular environment on the planet, it seems evident that gender is a construct created by society.

On Whileaway, the development of femininity has been affected by the cultural environment. Women living on this planet had no choice but to share all kinds of duties without considering any of them too easy or too difficult. They even created a method of reproducing without men through the process of “merging of ova” (Russ 4). Because there is no role division, everyone is equal, and every citizen can do what she prefers. The only regret the narrator mentions is that “artists can practice full-time only in old age” (Russ 3). Still, as far as the other spheres of these women’s lives is concerned, they are quite satisfied with what they have.

Thus, when several male astronauts arrive from Earth, the population of Whileaway is not happy and feels anxious. The primary reason is that the visitors do not even consider the planet to be normal, saying that that “kind of society is unnatural” (Russ 5). It can be seen that while the femininity of Whileaway’s people has been influenced by the cultural context, the masculinity of the visitors is governed by biology.

A biased attitude toward the division of gender roles is evident in almost everything the visitors say. The intonation of one man’s question, “Where are all the people?” makes it clear to the narrator that he means “men” (Russ 3).

This is the first and probably most blatant indication of the visitors’ inability to treat women as equals, even though the men continuously mention that gender equality has been achieved on Earth. The biological government of astronauts’ masculinity is demonstrated in many other cases. For instance, when one of them says, “You’ve adapted amazingly,” referring to the absence of men, the narrator is surprised that the visitor regards living without men as a tremendous loss (Russ 4).

Another example of biological rather than cultural impact on the astronauts’ masculinity is their comment about the marriages of Whileaway’s citizens. A man says that a couple consisting of two women is “a good economic arrangement” because they both work and take care of children (Russ 5). These and other instances demonstrate that the visitors’ masculinity is driven only by biology, and they cannot understand how women managed to survive without men for such a long time.

Russ’s “When It Changed” is an impressive depiction of inequality between the genders based on biological characteristics. Whereas females on Whileaway are driven by cultural environment, the visitors are governed by biology. Numerous instances of men’s deprecation of women signify that equality between the genders has not yet been attained. The author demonstrates that the world could be more harmonious if there are no prejudices and when people’s functions are not divided into men’s and women’s roles.

Work Cited

Russ, Joanna. When It Changed. 1972. Web.

Introduction

Issues concerning gender are a major source of debate in high schools especially because it is a significant stage of development in someone’s life. My narration is derived from a strange experience during my final year in high school. This experience is based on the topic of gender-bending which in the end proved to be a learning experience of, to say the least bizarre. Gender bender is used to refer to a person who goes against society’s normal roles performed by a certain gender. Some functions or roles are in different societies considered to be performed exclusively by a particular gender. Take for instance changing a vehicle’s tire, an activity considered to be masculine, and a man’s job. Another outright example of a gender bender is that of George Alan O’Dowd, a London blue-eyed soul musician who embodied both concepts of gender in being masculine and at the same time feminine.

In many ways, gender-bending is considered a sign of social activism. This is especially done to respond to overtures in assumptions and generalizations in issues related to gender. Some people and especially feminist activists feel that societal norms generalize roles played by either males or females. These roles according to society are assigned automatically by the virtue of one being born either as a female or a male. They therefore more or less seek to prove to society that those boundaries set by particular communities can be overcome with much ease should the community take them as ‘normal’. The gender bender’s activities though are not taken as normal occurrences in most societies and are usually an issue of public awe and debate. Gender benders feel that roles assigned to them by their respective societies are not only limiting but also inaccurate and give an incomplete and biased description of them. Some assume a transsexual nature and go further to change their ‘gender’ or sex through surgery or hormone therapy. Some may identify themselves as two-spirit, a characteristic mainly found in Native Americans who assume mixed gender roles such as doing the work of both female and male genders. Whereas some are born intersexual, others identify themselves as the third gender. This term is used to refer to people who are considered to be neither male nor female. They are capable of swapping their genders comfortably between male and female.

Gender-bending in high school

As I had indicated earlier, I was involved in an activity that may rightly be considered as a case of gender-bending. I am a male of five foot nine who many would consider having a very masculine and heavy built. I have always deemed some roles that are assigned by society to different genders as not only misplaced and misleading but also limiting. Gender roles and functions sometimes greatly defer from one society to another. This may be about race, ethnic community, religion among other world group generalizations. For instance, among the east African Maasai people, homes or houses are built by women. Construction work among other communities is usually an activity restricted to the male gender. Among the Masaai, men erecting houses is not only considered strange but also bizarre. Doesn’t this mean that societies limit themselves to what this or the other gender might do or is capable of doing? If Nigerians or Muslims can wear robes or dress-like attire, why can’t westerners do the same and see nothing strange in that? This may in a way have prompted me to become a cheerleader of the football team. My familiar role was not as a cheerleader but an active role in football as a quarterback or another position in the team owing to my masculine built.

I would ask myself before I decided to join the cheerleading squad why there isn’t a parallel to this kind of group that involves the males. I also wondered why the cheerleaders are exclusively female. Maybe they ought to be a combination of both males and females. One unique aspect of this cheerleading affair is that people like them because of the spectacle they display owing to their beauty and dressing mode. It was intriguing to me why the male counterparts cannot take this role even though they are well capable of displaying such spectacle and maybe doing a better job. I was well aware that my undertaking will raise debate and controversy among my peers and my family as well. It was a bold move that even I was wary about and sometimes thought in deep about the need or relevance of doing so. I however embarked on it mainly because of the adventure I thought I would derive from my gender-bending escapade.

Initially, I never told anyone what I planned to do. The first person to know was my clothes designer who I directed to make my cheerleading costume which of course had to be a bit different from the normal girls’ costume. This may appear as shy of gender bending activity since I was supposed to wear a normal girls’ cheerleading costume. Anyway, I went ahead and ordered the designer to make my costume according to my specifications. The first impression taken by the designer was that of a bad joke and he started to chuckle only later to let out a full outburst maybe after his reflection of me in a cheerleading team dawned on him. He gave me this bizarre look after he realized I was serious and it took quite a moment to convince him to go ahead and design my costume.

When I informed the teacher in charge of cheerleading that I wanted to join her team, she too thought of this as a joke and gladly welcomed me. I watched the cheerleaders in action fervently and learned all their moves and dances. I practiced all the moves at home and thought that I was good enough or even better than some of them. Up to this moment, nobody knew of my bold plan apart from the designer who until that particular moment was only making my costume solely because I had paid for it. I timed my debut in the cheerleading arena to coincide with a very important game against the local high school arch-rival. When the day came I went to the teacher in charge of the cheerleading team and showed her my costume and told her I was serious about what I had told her. I cannot correctly describe the impression that was written all over her face. She kept silent for about three minutes and later started probing me on my motive, capability, and whether I was aware of the consequences of my weird undertaking. I told her not to worry because everything will be okay.

I had a fair share of popularity among the girls in the cheerleading team and they were very excited when the teacher told them that I wanted to join them. The reaction on the football field was a mixture of awe, outright outburst, sneer, and a variety of other responses. I didn’t miss a single move and this I think led to a certain degree of admiration from the girls as well as my friends. I enjoyed the cheerleading immensely and wished I had done it all my life. I however did not do any other cheerleading after that game. What I learned though from this experience is never to limit myself from doing some things simply because society does not consider them to be meant for a certain gender.

This interesting article has three critical features, namely, there is criticism on gender, feminism, and gay and lesbian. The description in this article is profound and very enthusiastic to any reader. This is because the apt language used is perfect and the brevity in vivid description correlates well with the notable examples cited in the article.

Let us look at the gender critic. The author in this article brings forth the different critic of masculine and feminine genders. The article starts by describing that both masculine and feminine are socially aligned and constructed. The determining of sex, that is, male or female, is determined in a different way. The article suggests that male or female is determined by simple biological and anatomical structures. However, gender is different, because it is culturally determined. Therefore, from the above description, matters to do with gender characterization are ideally determined and conditioned by social fabrics.

In addition, the properties and functioning attributes of masculine and feminine are also determined by society. In generalized research, the article cites different criticism on gender by focusing on society and brings out different instances of feminism, gay and lesbian. Apparently, a researcher may look at the characteristics of the lifestyle of the people in the 1890s and critically analyze the matters stated above. Hence, gender criticism on sexuality seems to incorporate matters which are farfetched than merely focusing on masculinity, femininity, heterosexuality, and homosexuality. Whereas, gender criticism may be contentious because there is biological alignment in the argument by most of the proponents who criticize gender. Therefore, lets us examine the different criticism discussed in the article.

Feminist criticism can be analyzed by focusing on literary excerpts that try to highlight the position of women in society. Marxist critics can analyze “The Story of an Hour” and look at what impedes women’s potential. A potential that would make them be at the same pace as men. Many feminists have analyzed literature writings by the lives led by the characters in the works and their respective writers. Special focus is put on how culture affects the difference in writing between men and women. In addition, feminist criticism on literature comes from different angles, e.g., their criticism may focus on history, psychology, sociology, and linguistic to decipher foremost issues affecting gender. A feminist critical approach on “The Story of an Hour” highlights the psychological aspects of marriage. Aesthetic feelings about the subject are evoked by Mrs. Mallard, who is married to Brentley. Chopin’s story highlights the different perspectives on male egoism. The woman in the story is referred to by the husband’s name which denotes “male”. The ‘weaknesses’ of the role of women are contradicted by the doctor’s suggestion about her ailment and death (Meyer 1549).

The last part of the article highlights gays and lesbians. As stated earlier, the main defining aspect of such a critical perspective is determined by the cultures of a society. The main argument of a critic is to look at the same literature “The Story of an Hour” and depict Mrs. Mallard differently. That is, one can say that Mrs. Mallard is focusing on her homosexual life by presuming the death of her husband. That is, to be free from her heterosexual life. The argument can be generalized to be a chance for venturing forth for a new nature of homosexuality. Mrs. Mallard’s self will be free and have a new life that is different.

Work Cited

Meyer, Michael. The Compact Bedford Introduction to Literature; Reading, Thinking and Writing. New York, NY: McGraw Hill, 2007. Print.

Introduction

Myths and stereotypes are passed on from one generation to the other. In literature, adverts, culture, traditions, and interactions with other people, nationalized myths and stereotypes are made known. Stereotyping refers to the act of attributing some characteristics to an individual because of his or her membership to a certain group. For example, it becomes a stereotype when one believes that Asian students perform very well in math or if it gives the description of how girls and boys are supposed to be. Myths, on the other hand, refer to stories that have a meaning in a community. They exist in each and every community. Myths may contain some truth. Myths and stereotypes are important in transmitting national identity through stereotypes and myths people develop mental images that may be known all over the world. Myths have the power to a times control our lives. They neither have a specific time for their occurrence nor a specific place that they occur in (Lim, 2006).

Myths vary; there are myths that give an account of how the earth came into existence, myths explaining how human life came into existence, and others that talk of different heroes. There are many myths that are in existence in various cultures today. These myths have been in existence since the beginning of life in the world and are present in all cultures. Myths and stereotypes are related and they have both negative and positive impacts on human life. Stereotypes try to give an explanation of the occurrence of certain behaviors and experiences in life.

Gender

One major area that has been influenced by myths and stereotypes is Gender. People in various cultures tend to believe that that there are some differences that are there between males and females in society and hence the term opposite sexes. To them, an individual’s gender predicts his or her capability and the likes of that person. Hence if a person is a boy or a girl people presume that they know almost everything about them and there is no need to question them. This statement is not correct as having the knowledge of an individual’s sex may only give more biological information of the person but it cannot reveal other personal details of that person (Baker, 2002).

In the educational sector, there is a myth that details the performance of girls in math and science subjects. It assumes that real women perform poorly in mathematics since they are qualitative while men perform well because of their quantitative nature. Hence the performance of students in various levels of learning was highly influenced by these myths. Girls who have the thought that Math can only be done by males; do not enroll in the subject while those who enroll with the same idea in mind do not perform well. As a result, girls do not take up careers related to math like engineering and physical sciences.

Perpetrators

The perpetrators of this myth are both society and scientists. Society considers women to be the weaker sex and science and mathematics as tough subjects. Hence when girls fail in this subject it is not seen as a weakness. Biologists on the other hand came up with the idea that there exists a sex gene related to math. According to their findings, the male has the hormones that are linked with math performance. Parents have used this assumption in judging their children in schools. They have lower expectations of girls in math and science while on the other hand, they have high expectations for boys taking the same subjects. Educators use these results to give an explanation for their gender bias nature in the classrooms. Biology has been used as a tool to explain the fewer numbers of girls in math and science classes (Skaine, 1996).

Myths in the modern world

These myths and stereotypes are still in existence in the modern world. In schools, female students do not perform well in the sciences. Careers that are linked to math are mostly taken by men. This includes engineering and even teaching science subjects. The performance of girls in sciences is not questioned as to that of boys at the same level. Most girls are not encouraged to enroll in the math-related course as they are thought of as not able to tackle those subjects. These myths can be chased in various ways. First, the mention of things that shows that women cannot perform well in math should be stopped. Secondly, we should be ready to challenge people who give negative comments about girls and math.

The other thing is giving both girls and boys examples of women and girls who perform very well in math as a subject and math-related courses. Another solution that can deal with the issue of gender is to create awareness among individuals that there is no evidence of the existence of a gene linked to math and that practice is important in math improvement and the development of science skills among girls. Students should also be given enough time for practice to improve their performance in math and its related subjects. The other solution is to encourage students to study science keenly so as to be able to differentiate facts and opinions (Beiner, 2005).

Conclusion

The need to do away with the stereotypes that are in existence in society is possible in various ways. The major challenge lies with the willingness of various individuals to do away with the stereotypes. It only requires an individual to dedicate time and energy to face the reality and meet with the issue head-on.

References

Baker, J. M. (2002). How homophobia hurts children: nurturing diversity at home, at school, and in the community. New York: Routledge.

Beiner, T. M. (2005). Gender myths versus working realities. New York: NYU Press.

Lim, R. F. (2006). Clinical manual of cultural psychiatry. New York: American Psychiatric Pub.

Skaine, R. (1996).Power and gender: issues in sexual dominance and harassment. New York: McFarland.

The practice of polygamy, or having more than one spouse, has been common in many societies throughout history. Social, political, and economic considerations have justified it. Having more children to help on the farm or finding a financially stable spouse are two examples of purely economic motivations. Alliances with other families may be formed via marriage, and having numerous wives can ensure the smooth transfer of power and wealth in the event of the husband’s untimely death. Many other cultural factors come into play, such as religious or traditional views, ideas about gender roles, and the desire for male kids.

Although polygamy’s effects on gender dynamics are not uniformly negative, the practice is frequently associated with a hierarchical structure in which males have greater influence and women have fewer doors opened to them professionally and socially. The competition among wives for their husband’s time and money in polygamous civilizations may strain relationships between spouses. Furthermore, women in polygynous relationships may have obstacles to gaining an education or stable work and an increased risk of experiencing domestic violence and other types of abuse. While polygamy has been around for a long time, it has usually had a detrimental effect on gender relations, making things worse for women and restricting their options to acceptance or divorce.

Zeitzen, Miriam Koktvedgaard. Polygamy: A Cross-Cultural Analysis. Routledge, 2020.

This book is an ethnography of polygamy that takes a comparative approach to different cultures. Zeitzen focuses on the practice of polygamy both in the past and in modern times. The book discusses the role that polygamy plays in anthropological theory as well as the wide range of socio-cultural contexts in which it is practiced, spanning from the United States and the United Kingdom to Malaysia, India, and various parts of Africa and Tibet. This book discusses topics that are often challenging and contentious for contemporary polygamists, such as bigotry, HIV/AIDS, and women’s independence. It is said that different forms of polygamy, are practiced among the majority of the world’s many religions and civilizations. The astounding variety, plasticity, and adaptability of polygamy highlight the fact that it is not merely a foreign practice common in non-Western countries; rather, it is also practiced in contemporary communities in the West.

The publisher’s name is Routledge is a worldwide publisher of humanities and social sciences books, journals, and online resources. It was founded in 1836 and is currently a subsidiary of Taylor & Francis Group, one of the world’s top academic content publishers. Routledge is well-known for producing high-quality research and teaching resources in a variety of fields. The writer is a Miriam Koktvedgaard Zeitzen is a social anthropologist and professor from Denmark. Her work on polygamy, gender relations, and Islamic law and culture has earned her global recognition.

This book would be useful for the research on the polygamy as it provides an unbiased overview of the phenomenon and wide variety of its expressions and implications. It is essential for the cultural review of the polygamy, comparison of cultural perceptions and the ways to approach the subject positively as opposed to the typically conservative perceptions. An important feature of Zeitzen’s work is its multidisciplinary approach, which draws from anthropology, history, sociology, and law, among others.

Naseer, Sabila, et al. “Causes and Consequences of Polygamy: An Understanding of Coping Strategies by Co-Wives in Polygamous Marriage.” Asean Journal of Psychiatry, vol. 22, no. 9, 2021, Web.

The research studied the origins of polygamy, its effects, and women’s coping techniques for dealing with relationships amongst co-wives. Utilized was an exploratory qualitative approach. Eleven polygamous women who agreed to an in-depth interview provided data. The research was done in 2017 with the institution’s and polygamous women’s agreement (Naseer et al. 1). The majority of women have agreed for their husbands to have co-wives. The reasons cited included infertility or having only female offspring, and familial pressure from in-laws in order to avoid the shame of divorce (Naseer et al. 1). As possible hazards of polygamy, the spouse’s envy, sadness, and loneliness owing to injustice were investigated. Among the benefits of polygamy were the sharing of domestic tasks and childrearing. Polygamous women’s coping mechanisms have included religious faith, accepting their destiny, and compromising with their co-wives.

The journal is a peer-reviewed medical journal devoted to the field of psychiatry published by the ASEAN Federation of Psychiatry and Mental Health. It offers a venue for the diffusion of psychiatric and mental health care-related research, knowledge, and information in the ASEAN area. Sabila Naseer is a professor at the University of Punjab’s Institute of Applied Psychology in Lahore, Pakistan. The researchers have produced several articles and scholarly studies on polygamy and gender relations.

This is a qualitative study of the causes and consequences of polygamy. Consequently, it allows for an in-depth overview of the topic from the interviews conducted by the researchers. Since the scope of the research is limited to 11 samples from Pakistan it can be used for comparison with other sources. Moreover, the research focuses on the key aspects that serve as the motivation for the existence of group marriages in the country.

Hasan, Hamka, et al. “Polygamy: Uncovering the Effect of Patriarchal Ideology on Gender-Biased Interpretation.” HTS Teologiese Studies / Theological Studies, vol. 78, no. 4, 2022, Web.

This article examines the creation of patriarchal interpretation of polygamy in a gender-biased interpretation, as well as its causes and effects. This research is qualitative and applies a content analysis methodology. In-depth knowledge on this topic is also obtained via interviews with key academics. The goal of study is a complete collection of eleven Indonesian-authored exegeses of the Quran, known as tafsir. Through polygamy, women have been exploited, according to this research. The results indicate that biased gender interpretation, particularly due to patriarchal mentality, had a higher influence on Quranic interpretation. This research indicated that the reinterpretation of Quranic verses dealing specifically with gender problems should be reinforced in line with justice and humanistic principles.

The researchers are qualified professors of theological studies who have published articles related to the sociological, psychological influences of the religion. It was published in HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies — a peer-reviewed academic journal that focuses on theology and religious studies. The journal is managed by the Faculty of Theology at the University of the Western Cape in South Africa. The journal is aimed at researchers, scholars, students, and practitioners in the field of theology and religious studies, and it covers a wide range of topics, including biblical studies, systematic theology, ethics, history of Christianity, philosophy of religion, and the study of religion in Africa.

This article is an essential piece which is integral for understanding of modern polygamy practices in Indonesia and its negative implications. It will be used to discuss the role of Quran and religion in general within polygamic relationships. In addition, it strengthens the argument against such relationship practices and serves for better understanding of strategies to exploit religion for establishment of patriarchal hierarchy.

André, Pierre, and Yannick Dupraz. “Education and Polygamy: Evidence from Cameroon.” Journal of Development Economics, 2023, p. 103068., Web.

This research set out to investigate whether or not declining polygamy in Africa may be attributed to the spread of secular education. Researchers looked at a burst of post-colonial Cameroonian public school development. Using difference-in-differences and event-study criteria, the authors demonstrate that the introduction of schools has led to an escalation in both male and female polygamy. To determine why educated women were more likely to be in a polygamous partnership, they estimated a structural model of marriage. It was discovered that marriage to educated men, who are more likely to be polygamists than marriage to illiterate men, is the primary estimated pathway, not a predilection for polygamy per se.

Pierre André is a professor working in CY Cergy Paris University in the department of Economics and Management. The corresponding author is Yannick Dupraz e,ployed in University College Dublin. Both researchers focus on the publishing of articles in the field of economics and education. The Journal of Development Economics is a leading peer-reviewed academic journal that covers the field of development economics. It is published by Elsevier, globally recognized publisher of scholarly materials, and provides a platform for the dissemination of high-quality research and analysis on the economics of development.

This research can be used to discuss the effect of education as the way to limit or discontinue polygamy relationships and associated negative effects. Although it might be seen that within the developing nations such method may not be applicable. Thus, it may serve as a counterargument to the counter-intuitivist nature of polygamy.

Kramer, Stephanie. “Polygamy Is Rare around the World and Mostly Confined to a Few Regions.” Pew Research Center, Pew Research Center, Web.

The article discusses the rarity of polygamy and recent trends surrounding the topic. According to Kramer, in the United States, having multiple spousal relationships under the same roof was made illegal in 1882. In spite of the fact that cohabitating with several partners is seldom prosecuted in today’s society, it is illegal to be married if you are already legally married to someone else in every state. In February, Utah lawmakers enacted a measure making polygamy a minor offense punishable by fines but not prison time for adults. The author provides a summary of a 2019 analysis by the Pew Research Center that looked at household structures across 130 nations and territories, including the prevalence of polygamous households.

Stephanie Kramer is a highly skilled researcher working at Pew Research Center, with a focus on religion. She is knowledgeable in the field of global religious demographics and the psychological aspects of religion. Kramer has contributed to numerous reports produced by Pew Research Center, including The Changing Global Religious Landscape, Religion and Living Arrangements Around the World, Europe’s Growing Muslim Population, and The Age Gap in Religion Around the World, as well as other scholarly articles. She has received both a doctoral and a master’s degree in social and personality psychology from the University of Oregon.

This article would be used to investigate common trends in surrounding the topic of polygamy. It is essential for statistical analysis of the key indexes related to the issue.

Sinai, Mirit, and Ora Peleg. “Marital Interactions and Experiences of Women Living in Polygamy: An Exploratory Study.” International Journal of Psychology, vol. 56, no. 3, 2020, pp. 361–377., Web.

The research delves into the examination of the interactions and experiences of female Bedouins residing in polygamous households in Israel. A mixed-method approach was adopted in a two-phased study. Bedouin women in polygamous and monogamous marriages were compared for their levels of self and marital satisfaction. The results suggest that in polygamous homes, the I-position and fusion with others contribute favorably to marital pleasure, but emotional disconnection and the number of children at home contribute adversely. Among monogamous women, however, marital contentment was solely correlated adversely with emotional distance. Surprisingly, in polygamous marriages, a woman’s happiness was more likely to increase if she fused with her husband’s biological family. Moreover, study involved in-depth analysis of the authentic voices and experiences of 18 senior wives. The results showed that these women had significant emotional and physiological responses to their husbands’ marriage to another woman. It was found that for most of these women, particularly those who married at a young age, living in a polygamous family negatively impacted their marital satisfaction

Mirit Sinai and Ora Peleg are researchers, academics, and authors in the field of psychology and sociology. They are affiliated with a Max Stern Yezreel Academic College, Israel. The International Journal of Psychology is a peer-reviewed academic journal that publishes research articles and reviews in the field of psychology. It covers a wide range of topics within psychology, including cognition, perception, development, personality, social psychology, and more. The journal is aimed at an international audience of psychologists, researchers, and other professionals in the field. The articles published in the International Journal of Psychology are rigorously reviewed and are expected to be of high quality and of significant contribution to the field of psychology. The articles should also be well-written, clearly structured, and accessible to a broad readership.

This study will be used to provide valuable insights into the experiences and interactions of Bedouin women living in polygynous households in Israel. This information can be used to compare and contrast with other cultures that practice polygamy, thereby advancing the understanding of the phenomenon. The study’s use of a mixed-method approach, including both quantitative and qualitative data, provides a more comprehensive view of the topic.

Works Cited

André, Pierre, and Yannick Dupraz. “Education and Polygamy: Evidence from Cameroon.” Journal of Development Economics, 2023, p. 103068., Web.

Hasan, Hamka, et al. “Polygamy: Uncovering the Effect of Patriarchal Ideology on Gender-Biased Interpretation.” HTS Teologiese Studies / Theological Studies, vol. 78, no. 4, 2022, Web.

Kramer, Stephanie. “Polygamy Is Rare around the World and Mostly Confined to a Few Regions.” Pew Research Center, Pew Research Center, Web.

Naseer, Sabila, et al. “Causes and Consequences of Polygamy: An Understanding of Coping Strategies by Co-Wives in Polygamous Marriage.” Asean Journal of Psychiatry, vol. 22, no. 9, 2021, Web.

Sinai, Mirit, and Ora Peleg. “Marital Interactions and Experiences of Women Living in Polygamy: An Exploratory Study.” International Journal of Psychology, vol. 56, no. 3, 2020, pp. 361–377., Web.

Zeitzen, Miriam Koktvedgaard. Polygamy: A Cross-Cultural Analysis. Routledge, 2020.

Literature that deals with the issue of gender reversal has grown significantly over the past years. The theme of gender reversal has frequently occurred in ancient texts but with varying significance. The understanding of gender reversal depends on the concept of gender culture in various societies. This is due to the fact that it is the society’s culture that informs the individual on the collective behavior of their specific gender. According to Sabrina Petra, in chapter one of the book, gender reversal is defined as any change that may bring a person closer to the opposite gender. The definition and view of gender reversal are very broad and satisfactory, since changes talked about include social behavior, work, clothing, mannerisms, speech, self-designation or ideology.

The book discusses gender reversal, and how it has been used to maintain social order. In Indian societies, females were allowed to change their gender to male in an instance where the family could not manage to give birth to a male child. This in my view did not help in dealing with society’s social problem but just postponed the problems. These societies were, therefore, not able to deal with the pressures of genders sharing the same roles.

They preferred females changing to male to enable them to carry out roles such as hunting to provide food for their families. Such societies would be better in dealing with the changes in social order, rather than people who change their genders, which is a very important aspect of self identification. This problems is still actual in modern times where female children are seen as less important than male children. It not only happens in India, but also in most African communities. In some African communities, giving birth to several girls with no male in the family line was seen as a curse. These societies viewed women as lower beings than men, and this denied them many opportunities. Gender reversal should, therefore, not be used as a way to take care of this. Women should not have to change their genders to be able to perform some tasks. Society should be the first to change.

Gender reversal is also discussed as a way of social mobility. This part, however, talks mostly of women who cross-dressed to take up male careers in army and piracy, for example. This can be viewed as society being too rigid in defining the roles of males and females in society where people, especially women, had to go to these extents. Gender should never to be a criterion to judge who can do a certain job and who cannot.

While males may be physically stronger compared to females, there are also females who are strong enough to do tasks that are usually associated with men. Society should try as much as it can to accept both genders and not use the gender factor to limit individuals. Restricting opportunities to individuals, as society did in the Middle Ages only, leads to under utilization of the society’s potential. The restrictions and limitations that gender had placed on these women pushed most of them to the point of cross-dressing to perform tasks of the other gender (Wasiak n. p.)

Transgenderism is another topic of debate. Critics of transgenderism, such as Judith Shapiro and Thomas Kando accuse transsexuals of lack of originality and view transsexuals as conformists to gender definitions. In reality, transsexuals are very opposite to this, they do not conform to society’s definition of gender. Transsexuals go against the right wing’s favored unchangerbility of sex; their dressing style is a mixture from both genders, even the duties they perform are a combination of some of the stereotypical male and stereotypical female roles. (Field n. p.) This strikes at the heart of the rigid system that the right winger’s try to impose on society. Transsexuals are, therefore, among the most authentic dissidents in a liberal society.

All in all, this chapter does a good job in introducing gender reversal and gender culture to a reader who may not even be conversant with this area of study. It represents gender reversal in a different way, and even shows the role it has been playing in society since ancient times till now.

Works Cited

Field, Kimmie. A Synopsis of Transsexualism. 2005. Web.

Wasiak, Kjersti. Changing Gender Ideologies in New England from 1600s to 1800s. 2007. Web.

Introduction

Feminists and gender experts generally agree that, at birth, there is no femininity or masculinity. It is through early gender socialization that infants become engendered according to their sex (Scott and Jackson 41). Gender is defined as “a social symbolic construction that expresses the meaning a society confers on biological sex” (Wood 320). From an early age, boys and girls learn different gender-specific roles in their environment as taught by parents, siblings or caregivers.

Lorber observes that “parents produce gendered children through the toys they buy… they also encourage them to play in a gender-appropriate way – girls with dolls, boys with action figures” (61). Thus, parents influence early gender socialization by controlling “the patterns of gendered behavior, which, not only become part of a child’s identity as a boy or a girl but also become embodied” (Lorber 63). Besides, parents, the media, peers and school also influence early gender socialization.

It is evident that gender socialization is intertwined with culture. In patriarchal societies, “society is organized around certain kinds of social relationships and ideas” (Johnson 78) that seem to favor men. However, this “does not mean that all men – each and every one of them – are oppressive people” (Johnson 76).

Rather, it is the social system that breeds social oppression and male dominance that characterize patriarchy. It is through understanding the larger social system that society can identify the positive gender roles that can promote gender equity and reduce oppression. This paper reviews the arguments for and against early gender socialization, patriarchy and its effects, and the effect of engendered society on gender roles and performance.

Patriarchy

Gender identity plays a big role in social stratification in many cultures including the American society. Typically, a patriarchal ‘system’ assigns males and females distinct heterosexual roles, a practice, which serves to perpetuate male dominance.

However, Johnson holds a different view; he views patriarchy as a system that “includes cultural ideas about men and women, the web of relationships that structure social life, and the unequal distribution of rewards and resources that underlies oppression” (84). He encourages society to view patriarchy as a system that all people participate in, not as an embodiment of masculinity.

From an early age children are taught, via explicit or subtle means, to conform to societal gender constructs (either feminine or masculine) in their behavior, looks and actions. Dworkin views this as a cultural product where “women live in fairy tales as magical figures, as beauty, danger, innocence, malice, and greed” (32). Culture creates distinctive and appealing identities through fairy tales – the wicked witch, the beautiful princess, the heroic prince – to define who we are” (Dworkin 32).

Therefore, patriarchy is intertwined with cultural norms, gender roles and identities in a given society. In many societies, social inequalities are attributed to patriarchy. This implies that, in such societies, more men than women occupy powerful positions and well-paying jobs in business, law and government. In light of this, Johnson defines patriarchy as “male-dominated, male-centered, and male-identified” (84).

A male dominated society places men in dominant and influential positions, a practice that increases social inequality in the society. Such a society is often organized around social control, with men, through oppression and threats of violence, exerting control over women, who need male protection and supervision. A patriarchal society is male identified when most socially valued attributes and personal qualities are associated with men while devalued qualities and roles are associated with women.

This explains why patriarchies feel threatened by movements related to class, race or sexuality/gender. A patriarchal society is also male-centered. In such a society, men and boys are the center of attention while women are pushed to the periphery. Moreover, men and masculine roles are the center of focus or public attention in patriarchal societies.

Allan Johnson’s definition of the term patriarchy dispels common misconceptions surrounding oppression. He contends that society erroneously associates patriarchy with males, which often leads to the conclusion that men are oppressive. However, he argues that patriarchy is “about standards of feminine beauty and masculine toughness, images of feminine vulnerability and masculine protectiveness, of older men coupled with young women, of elderly women alone” (84).

It is the patriarchal “system that encourages men to value women primarily in terms of their ability to meet men’s needs and desires and to support men’s self-images as potent and in control” (96). Thus, people should learn to distinguish between the individual male and the patriarchal system.

It is by recognizing this difference that people can begin to address the actual causes of gender violence and social inequality. In view of this, bias based on gender, race or social class is not oppression per se, but “the sum of individual failings on the part of blacks, women, and the poor, who lack the right stuff to compete successfully with whites, men, and others who know how to make something of themselves” (76).

Thus, to eliminate social inequality, it is important that people understand the misconceptions surrounding patriarchy. Patriarchy revolves around social relationships and structures, which may limit an individual to some extent. It is worth noting that, through his argument, Johnson’s gives a new perspective on patriarchy, whereby he portrays men not as villainous as commonly portrayed by gender many movements.

The social norms define how people act or behave, which explains why people make the decisions they make in a patriarchal context. Johnson observes that the symbols in our culture “make up the patriarchal culture” (84), which, in turn, “affect the structure of social life” (87). Thus, it is our culture that creates power relations and gender roles, which then shape people’s behavior and values in patriarchal societies.

Collins/Anderson

Today’s dynamic society requires people to recognize that gender is closely intertwined with other social aspects in “a matrix” of social domination. In modern societies, gender, race and economic class shape the issues of inequality and power relations. Also, social identity is largely organized around social domination, stratification and oppression. Therefore, in order to reconstruct the role of race, class and gender in society, it is important to examine them in the context of power relations.

Sociologists, Andersen and Collins, have developed a framework for understanding these social categories. First, they propose that the three categories are not absolute as they are constructs of social interaction (76). Second, the social categories create binary social groups, not social identities. This means that individuals can either be male or female, poor or wealthy, etc. It is through these power-based groupings that power relations are played out in the society.

A third concept in Andersen and Collins’ framework is that the three categories, besides directly defining group identities, their effects result in distinct social structures in the society. In this way, they contribute indirectly to identity formation. The fourth element of this framework relates to the fact that the three categories affect social interactions, social institutions and each group’s consciousness in the society. Based on this framework, it is easier for people to understand the significance of the three categories on gender socialization.

In the modern American society, it is often thought that people are no longer classist, racist and/or feminist. It is generally believed that a person’s gender, class or race does not disadvantage him or her in the society. However, Andersen and Collins argue that these social groupings are still significant as “the system of privilege and inequality (by race, class and gender) is less visible to those who are more privileged” (78).

That is why women complain about male dominance while men believe that patriarchy does not exist. It shows that the American society tends towards the status quo, which favors the groups in power. In contrast, the other groups/categories are marginalized, making them victims of social injustice.

The dominant forms of knowledge help perpetuate this trend by stating that racism, sexism and classism does not exist in the modern society (Scott and Jackson 67). It is no wonder social inequality continues to persist in modern societies. Therefore, an understanding the role of gender, class and race in power relations would help unravel the issue of social domination.

Andersen and Collins note that the three categories affect social domination, which then influence “social interactions, access to power and group consciousness” (77). It is clear that the individual categories do not work in isolation, but rather their combined effects help define an individual’s social experience. Therefore, oppression, in power relations, is a product of the interconnections between the social groups in the society.

On her part, Dworkin, unlike other sociologists and gender experts, criticizes female oppression, pornography and sexual violence in her analysis of fiction books. In her work, entitled “Woman Hating”, she explores gender socialization in fairy tales and sexist writings.

She argues that cultural symbols and images are some of the way power-based gender relations are established and maintained in the society. To illustrate how cultural stereotypes are created, Dworkin writes that fairy tale characters “Cinderella, Sleeping Beauty, and Snow-white and Rapunzel – all are characterized by passivity, beauty, innocence and victimization… they never think, act, initiate, confront, resist, challenge, feel, care, or question” (42).

From a social perspective, only good women have these attributes. Also, in fairy tales, females “are characterized by passivity, beauty, innocence, and victimization” (42). The same trend occurs in gender roles, whereby from an early age “culture predetermines who we are, how we behave, what we are willing to know, what we are able to feel” (35). Thus, culture has shaped women’s behavior and actions to conform to ‘acceptable’ social standards. They have to do what is deemed ‘good’ in the eyes of men and society.

Because of this, “women strive for passivity, because they want to be good” (48). It is the same ingrained mentality that “convinces women that they are bad, the bad need to be punished and destroyed, so that they become good” (48). The women, therefore, view oppression and male dominance as acceptable in the society. Dworkin’s arguments echo similar arguments made in many masculinity and feminine studies.

Scott and Jackson state that, in most societies, gender roles are fixed right from birth with each role viewed as a discrete and pure trait (51). People create a set of masculine and feminine traits, which they attribute to a particular gender (male or female trait). For example, being tough is considered a male trait, whereas being sensitive or caring is a female trait. In this regard, the traits or values are portrayed as mutually exclusive and nobody can possess both the male and female traits.

Lorber on Gender Socialization

Lorber holds the view that gender is a construct of human interaction, hence, like culture, relies on sustained social interactions. Lorber notes that gender socialization is created early in life.

From birth, children’s perceptions regarding masculinity and femininity are largely shaped by the body images they see. Even at birth, infants are perceived differently: “little boys have strong grips and hearty howls… and little girls have dainty fingers and gentle cries” (61). According to Lorber, parents create socially gendered children through the play toys they give them.

Parents buy action figures and Barbie dolls for their boys and girls respectively. They even encourage the kids to use the toys in ways they consider to be socially acceptable. In this way, younger children learn to act and behave in gender-appropriate ways. It also plays a role in shaping the children’s gender identity early in life. Lorber argues that parents influence early gender socialization through the naming of their newborn baby, mode of care and dress.

The children’s interactions with same-sex and opposite-sex siblings and relatives shape their self-identity in the context of gender. It is their cognitive development that allows children to identify and apply their actions in gender-specific ways and avoid inappropriate behaviors.

With regard to early gender roles, Lorber observes that the young children “perform of gender roles in ways that constitute them as two separate, opposed groups” (67), a trend, which is reinforced by “the adults’ approval of children’s performance of difference” (68).

The children interpret the adults’ approval of their gender-specific actions as an inherent difference that exists between male and female. Referring to the gendered roles he observed in children’s games, “Barbie Girls vs. Sea Monsters” Lorber observes that, in gender relations, the gender boundaries are clearly marked such that children have to “affirm their commitment to difference” (68) from an early age in their personal interactions.

Lorber regards gender as a social platform for assigning social statuses, responsibilities and behaviors. It is through early gender socialization that a social stratification system is created resulting to social inequalities that continues throughout one’s life. The gender socialization process creates distinct ways of differentiating a “male” from a “female”.

The early social interactions, children learn roles and behaviors expected of their gender, a trend that continues well into their adulthood. It is through social encounters that human beings learn to behave and act in a gender-appropriate manner and to object to differing gender norms.

Gender-based expectations or behaviors are enforced by peers, the media and other social platforms. Lorber notes that, “in sports, extreme body modification, in particular, steroid use to build muscle masses” (72) is a common trend among the youth because this action is considered a standard of excellence in sports. Thus, daily human interactions in sports build gender-based expectations for both male and female bodies.

The gender socialization process institutionalizes gender roles creating gender-stratified relations. Lorber’s argument that early gender socialization through play toys and body modification emphasizes the need for people to realize that gender constructs are products of human interactions shaped by culture and individual perceptions.

Boys and girls usually engage “in sports to emulate professional athletes who use extreme body modification, in particular, steroid use to build muscle mass” (71). Therefore, coaches and parents should focus on improving the children’s behavior patterns, taking into account their personality differences, rather than creating distinct gender roles and behaviors for their children.

Works Cited

Andersen, Margaret and Collins, Patricia. Race, Class, & Gender: An Anthology. New York: Cengage Learning, 2007. Print.

Dworkin, Andrea. Woman Hating. New York: Penguin Group, 1974. Print.

Johnson, Allan. Gender Knot: Unraveling Our Patriarchal Legacy. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2005. Print.

Lorber, Judith. Gender inequality: Feminist theories and politics. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press, 2009. Print.

Scott, Sue and Jackson, Stevi. Theorizing Sexuality Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 2007. Print.

Wood, Julia. Gendered lives: Communication, gender, and culture. Boston: Wadsworth, 2009. Print.

Introduction

A body is a material human organism that has a close and complex connection with gender. In modern society, it is customary to separate women and men, in a relationship with which feminist communities began to be actively formed. People are used to talking about sex and gender in different ways.

Discussion

Therefore, they talk about women and imply that they should have beautiful, slim bodies and be ready for the birth of a child. Men must be strong and have an excellent physique to achieve success in work. Concerning women, a beautiful picture should always be formed, and men are expected to be able to provide for a family. The problem is that women are often subjected to the stereotypical view that men are more efficient and are much more likely to achieve business success. Men’s achievements are considered a reference, and it is for such successes that women should strive for (Grosz, n.d.). Gender plays a significant role as well as the body since it is the female body that is considered adapted to childbirth and the male body to work.

The body and gender are inextricably linked through the fact that gender refers to the body and how people use it. This was the main reason for the formation of a society of feminists who fought for gender equality. According to Grosz (n.d.), equality can be achieved because women will minimize their needs and interests, that is, they will give up motherhood. Equality can be accepted in families, but this equality cannot be recognized at the level of sexual relations since the peculiarity of the female body is conditioned by the need for reproduction. Nevertheless, despite this, women have the right to equality and exclusion of special attention to the so-called gender.

The problem is that women’s struggle for equality is in an uncertain position. To consider the female sex equal to the male, it is necessary to abandon the feminine essence. That is, the biological characteristics of the female body should not be taken into account, as well as female biologism, which predetermines care, empathy, and support (Grosz, n.d.). Furthermore, the concept of femininity will also have to be avoided because it is not peculiar to men. In the other case, it is necessary to accept gender differences and agree with the patriarchal way of society.

Conclusion

In addition to essentialism, biologism, and naturalism are often studied in the issues of gender, especially concerning women. Biologism emphasizes social and cultural factors that are based on the fact that the goal of women is reproduction and upbringing. This puts the female essence in a specific framework and limits them in their activities compared to men. Naturalism defines nature and also determines the particular purpose of the female body (Grosz, n.d.). Despite essentialism and its offshoots in the form of biologism and naturalism, feminists fight for equality because women have the same intelligence and abilities as men. Other data of both sexes are also almost similar, which demonstrates that both sexes have potential.

Reference

Grosz, E. (n.d.). Sexual difference and the problem of essentialism. Center for Cultural Studies.