The main difference with regard to various gender theories is how they explain the gendered differences in behaviors characteristic for both sexes. When applied to the issue of behavioral problems in males, different theories find their causes in different sources. Biological determinism would explain behavioral issues in male students through the concept of male nature as inherently and naturally competitive, aggressive, and even violent (Tilling, 2013). However, this essentialist theory is at odds with the now well-established understanding that, while some people are predisposed toward delinquency, social influences are a far more prominent cause thereof (Delcea et al., 2019). In contrast to biological determinism, the social construction of gender theory posits that people enact gendered behaviors as they learn them from others and internalize gender norms dominant in their cultures (Tilling, 2013). This approach would explain the correlation between the male sex and behavioral problems through Western cultures’ promotion of aggressive notions of masculinity, going as far as to encourage bullying (Rosen and Nofziger, 2019). In short, the crucial difference between gender theories explaining behavioral problems in males is where they look for answers.
Knowing about and understanding these gender theories is obviously relevant for teaching in more ways than one. First and foremost, it is nigh impossible to efficiently address behavioral problems without understanding their cause. Secondly, and also importantly, gender theories that are long out of favor in the scientific community may still hold strong sway over the public. An example would be the mythopoetic men’s movement that draws heavily upon biological determinism despite all criticisms of the latter (Tilling, 2013). As such, better knowledge of gender theories is also crucial for the understanding of the ways in which people can rationalize their behaviors.
References
Delcea, C., Muller-Fabian, A., Radu, C.-C., Perju-Dumbravă, D. (2019). Romanian Journal of Legal Medicine, 27, 366-372.
Rosen, N. L., & Nofziger, S. (2019). Boys, bullying, and gender roles: How hegemonic masculinity shapes bullying behavior. Gender Issues, 36, 295–318.
Tilling, J. Resilience and gender development for at-risk adolescent males: Psychosocial intervention program development. Nova Publishers, 2013.
The main topic of the first chapter in Kang et al.’s (2017) book is the advent of the feminist movement and its crucial impact on the development of other movements linked to civil rights and different improvements related to the quality of life. The thesis of Chapter 1 is that the ability to recognize the complexity of the current world and capitalize on the notions of equality and partnership could help people achieve more in the field of gender and sexuality studies.
Kang et al. (2017) introduce the readers to multiple concepts related to gender studies such as lived experiences, identity issues, social constructionism, intersectionality, and the structures of power. The authors start by stating that many populations are marginalized based on their unique characteristics. Kang et al. (2017) list the many feminist schools and thoroughly explain that the idea behind this ideology is not to degrade men but to help the community recognize the fact that many women are perceived incorrectly. The authors carefully outline the issue of identity as well, making it easier to understand how female struggles contribute to the lack of a higher quality of life across different societies. Ultimately, Kang et al. (2017) take social structures and dissect them to explain the need for increased visibility for women and altered structures of power.
The four main points that can be found in Chapter 1 are as follows:
There may be numerous challenges related to how women could address the fact that “knowledge is shaped by the political and social context in which it is made” (Kang et al., 2017, p. 7);
Not all women are the same in terms of their thinking, behaviors, and ideas, which makes it clear that the notion of “global sisterhood” is surreal (Kang et al., 2017, p. 14);
There is a need for “change based on the concerted efforts of individuals, social movements and social institutions change” (Kang et al., 2017, p. 19);
“Existing inequalities are neither inevitable nor immutable” (Kang et al., 2017, p. 22).
Kang et al. (2017) utilized the meta-analysis methodology and addressed numerous sources of literature, developing a thorough argument based on existing evidence. The most viable weakness of the introductory chapter is that it did not include any real-life experience to reinforce the ideas present in books and articles dwelling on the issue. Nevertheless, the strength of this chapter is that it gets the readers acquainted with the complex subjects easily and helps them follow the key argument on why women’s rights movements exist. Chapter 1 is a perfect introduction for a book that touches upon a rather sensitive subject from different perspectives. I believe that Chapter 1 is the epitome of why one would want to gain more insight into the complexity of the modern world and help all people live peacefully, evading any injustice.
Chapter 5
Chapter 5 of Kang et al.’s (2017) book dwells on the development of feminist movements over time and explains how and why they became important for human history. The chapter consists of four subsections and features numerous links to how every feminist movement is centered around the concept of praxis. The thesis of Chapter 5 is that the feminist movement continually aims to communicate with politicians and other decision-making bodies to deepen their commitment to assisting women in terms of achieving equality and fair treatment.
The chapter starts with a brief explanation of why feminist movements became essential for women and men who struggled with their identity and place in society. The first feminist movements, for example, were outlined as developing the “cult of true womanhood” (Kang et al., 2017, p. 107). Another subsection dwelled on the movements that took place during the 20th century, making it evident that females were affected strongly by the majority of activities that took place during that time. The civil rights movement and transnational feminism were also discussed by Kang et al. (2017). Therefore, the authors draw the line at the end of Chapter 5 and summarize the overall impact of social justice and feminist movements.
The four main points that can be found in Chapter 5 are as follows:
“Feminist movements have generated, made possible, and nurtured feminist theories and feminist academic knowledge” (Kang et al., 2017, p. 105);
“Certain social actors with power can construct the story and possibly misrepresent actors with less power and social movements” (Kang et al., 2017, p. 108);
“Inequality also inspires coalitional activism that brings people together across race, class, gender, and sexual identity lines” (Kang et al., 2017, p. 117);
“The emphasis on coalitional politics and making connections between several movements is another crucial contribution of feminist activism and scholarship” (Kang et al., p. 123).
Kang et al. (2017) systematized the majority of their findings to present a decent conclusion. The key strength here is that the chapter focuses on how feminist movements could improve the state of affairs while also outlining the potential areas of practice for non-feminist bodies. The core weakness of Chapter 5 is its inability to answer many questions that the authors themselves had posed at the beginning of the book. Regardless, it is a valuable source that provides readers with the perfect amount of information required to motivate them to act. I think that Chapter 5 is a vibrant mix of personal attitudes, evidence, and future feminist agenda.
Essay II
Chapter 2
The topic of Chapter 2 is the presence of constructions of difference and the necessity to challenge existing binary systems. The thesis of the chapter is that certain understandings typical of different genders are often erroneous and should be altered to an extent where dichotomies would become obsolete.
Kang et al. (2017) dwell on the systems of gender and sexuality to outline the socialization process and long-standing relationships between genders. Also, the authors touch upon the subjects of transgender people and intersex characteristics. Chapter 2 is an in-depth review of social and psychological sources of the impact that develop sexualities and either maintain or erode masculinities. The issues of class and race are also reviewed by Kang et al. (2017) to help the readers gain a better understanding of how inequalities continue to grow. As a concluding paragraph, the authors chose to list several viable alternatives to the binary systems.
The four main points that can be found in Chapter 2 are as follows:
The problem with the society is that “ideas of men and women being complete opposites invite simplistic comparisons that rely on stereotypes” (Kang et al., 2017, p. 34);
Existing conventional behaviors “are reproduced in part through socialization processes” (Kang et al., 2017, p. 36);
The fact that “the culturally dominant binary model fails to accurately encapsulate the wide variety of sexual and gender lived experiences” makes it harder for unconventional individuals to find their place in the society (Kang et al., 2017, p. 41);
Irrespective of how a person behaves within any hypothetical group or society, “our experience of gender is always shaped by our race, class, and other identities” (Kang et al., 2017, p. 52).
When completing Chapter 2, the authors collected certain quantitative data to make their arguments more resilient and redefine the field of gender studies by proving that several long-standing conceptions have to dissolve. The essential strength of the current chapter is that it provides readers with an extensive amount of information that could be processed with the help of critical thought. It may easily alter one’s opinion regarding the subject and make them more open-minded than before. The key weakness of Chapter 2, on the other hand, is an excessive focus on the role of class in the process of gender role establishment. Instead of it, Kang et al. (2017) could have addressed the preconceptions related to race, culture, and societal peculiarities.
A thorough overview of Chapter 2 makes it safe to say that Kang et al. (2017) possess an extensive knowledge base that allows them to share their race- and class-related arguments with the readers. Even though there are numerous notions that require explanations or clarifications, the authors never fail to support their claims with evidence and break down their argument into smaller portions in order for the readers to grasp the meaning and read between the lines. The suggestion would be to expand the section with alternatives to binary systems to aid the readers in terms of addressing the complexity of the contemporary world.
To my mind, Chapter 2 is an accurate representation of the modern society because it features numerous links to how socioeconomic factors force certain individuals to engage in specific behaviors that are not characteristic of people of other races or even community backgrounds.
Chapter 3
The topic of Chapter 3 is the presence of definite institutions, cultures, and structures that are either directly or indirectly linked to feminist movements and gender studies. The thesis of this chapter is that socialization is one of the essential sources of influence that should be considered when outlining the behavioral and cultural norms for younger generations.
Kang et al. (2017) discuss the notion of social structures in rich detail and make it evident that monolithic entities similar to movements, institutions, and formations may either strengthen or reduce the dynamism of the society. They also dwell on the ideology behind the concept of “family” and establish the incredible influence of family background on one’s view of the world. Another factor was the media, and Kang et al. (2017) stated that the majority of insights shared via social media and corporation-run sources tend to be deceitful. The authors discussed the value of actions completed in the areas of medicine, health, and correctional systems. Overall, Chapter 3 is a thorough overview of external factors that destroy diversity and make it harder to approach marginalized populations.
The four main points that can be found in Chapter 3 are as follows:
One of the biggest issues with modern society is that “mainstream institutions often privilege and reward the dominant culture” (Kang et al., 2017, p. 60);
Many modern societies fail to recognize the inherent value of families because masculinity is equated with “breadwinning” and femininity is perceived as the essential trait of “homemaking” (Kang et al., 2017, p. 66);
Irrespective of the massive challenges existing in the field, “media consumers from different standpoints can and do modify and reject the intended meanings of media” (Kang et al., 2017, p. 70);
“Institutions have an ideological facet—they are not only shaped by a particular cultural-historical period but also society is shaped and impacted by their interests, as well” (Kang et al., 2017, p. 82).
The methodology for the current chapter included a meta-analysis of the literature and an inquisitive case study that touched upon the lives of marginalized individuals and offered the readers several crucial insights into why institutions across the US represent a threat for the non-binary strategies and populations. The key strength of Chapter 3 is that Kang et al. (2017) back up their controversial claims with evidence and make sure that the readers realize the issues that are inherent in the legislation, policies, and even society. The weakness, on the other hand, is that Kang et al. (2017) pay too much attention to how different populations are marginalized on different levels instead of suggesting the possible ways of overcoming the issues.
Chapter 3 of Kang et al.’s (2017) book is a strong claim regarding the value that individuals not addressed by classical dichotomies could bring to society. Not only do the authors discuss the challenges that are characteristic of the “sidelined,” but develop an extensive argument on why these populations should receive increased assistance from the majority of external sources that address the needs of the perceived superior populations much more often. Personally, I believe Chapter 3 to be the most important out of the whole book because it treats diversity and equal opportunities with the necessary respect and sheds enough light on why culture and societal structures matter.
Essay III
The topic of Chapter 4 is the role of gender in the global economy. Kang et al. (2017) addressed the process of how gender contributes to the development of new jobs and innovation of their more common counterparts. The majority of ideas shared by Kang et al. (2017) revolve around the topic and appeal to readers via real-life examples. The thesis focused on the idea that multinational corporations would not be able to survive without the input of a diverse workforce, which also means that sexualized and racialized differences could bring several advantages to the table instead of hindering the US economy. This thesis is also reinforced in Chapter 5, where Kang et al. (2017) dwell on how the possible improvements in the economy could help minority populations overcome the challenge of remaining invisible even when actively promoting specific values.
In order to contribute to a detailed discussion of the thesis, Kang et al. (2017) outlined the role that marginalized populations played during the era of the strongest “glass ceilings” that averted women from taking on top positions in their companies. The authors of the book also dwelled on the existence of gender- and race-based limitations that forced the general community to display discriminating behaviors and disregard the matter of diversity as a whole. Kang et al. (2017) touched upon the issues of sexualization and racialization when discoursing the US welfare state and the process of feminizing poverty across the country. The authors put a special emphasis on the roles that many members of marginalized populations missed (or could not reach) due to the numerous prejudices and diversity-related problems. The global economy maintains a specific relationship with gendered, sexualized, and racialized types of labor, forcing many representatives of minority populations to quit and find jobs that fit the common societal image that had been polished during past years.
The four main points that can be found in Chapter 3 are as follows:
As the authors stated in their book, “women are stereotyped as having natural caring instincts, and, if these instincts come naturally, there is no reason to pay well (or pay at all) for this work.” (Kang et al., 2017, p. 92);
The lack of diversity and fair interpersonal relationships leads to a situation where “most individuals who receive welfare are stigmatized and construed as undeserving, while the corporations that receive subsidies are seen as entitled to these” (Kang et al., 2017, p. 94);
Globalization is one of the most beneficial contemporary concepts in terms of business and production because it “makes it possible for social change activists in different countries to communicate with each other, and for people, information, and products to cross borders, with benefits for some and costs to others” (Kang et al., 2017, p. 96);
The bigger issue is that gendered, sexualized, and racialized differences “characterize the globalized labor market” and make it harder for the policymakers and governments to close the gap in work and pay (Kang et al., 2017, p. 101).
Chapter 4 features a strong meta-analysis of existing literature that is converted into a set of claims that support the idea that many existing jobs are overly sexualized and racialized to satisfy the modern stereotypes and respond to the interests of the contemporary community. Even though the chapter does not feature a lot of statistical data, the authors adequately support their claims with real-life examples (or even examples from mass media and movies). The level of meticulousness with which Kang et al. (2017) collected and presented the data shows that they are well versed in the subject and have the capability of engaging the readers in the process of critical thinking.
While Kang et al. (2017) provide the readers with a great deal of vital information, the key weakness that can be pointed out is the lack of information regarding how minority populations from other countries mitigate the effects of prejudices and whether their experience could be utilized to overcome similar issues across the US. Another issue with Chapter 4 is that it draws the least attention to emotional labor, as Kang et al. (2017) choose to dwell on welfare and globalization instead. Even though these topics are also crucial, there has to be more background on why women are considered to be significantly less suitable for white-collar jobs than men with similar talents. Nevertheless, the strength of the book under review is that Kang et al. (2017) set up a powerful argument that perfectly reflects the needs of marginalized populations and makes it clear why the efforts of social change activists are so important to the modern economy. One more strong point is the authors’ ability to take on the experience collected throughout the 20th century and link it to the evidence that has been published by many reputable sources during the 21st century.
Based on the information presented in Chapter 4, it may be concluded that the world currently faces numerous challenges related to the process of coping with the effects of racialized, sexualized, and gender-induced thoughts, behaviors, and ideas. Even though Kang et al. (2017) acknowledge the need to address the gaps that exist in the up-to-date economy, they do not provide readers with any advice on how to mediate the negative effect of biased attitudes displayed by most community members across the country. There is a definite call to action at the end of Chapter 4 that engages the readers in the opportunity to close the majority of gaps with improved policymaking and new movements that would take on the areas of labor, feminism, and gender equality. Nevertheless, these problems are not going to disappear instantaneously, forcing social activists and the government to work together and achieve mutually pleasant outcomes. Chapter 4 is not the last section of the book, but it sets the tone for improved motivation and engagement, empowering the readers to become a part of the proposed change.
According to what I have learned studying Chapter 4, I would like to state that the role of globalization should not be underestimated because it serves as one of the most powerful unification instruments. Many social activists focused on labor inequalities could be interested in learning about the strongest suits of globalization to help the world get rid of pink- and white-collar divisions and provide all people with equal job opportunities irrespective of their sexuality, race, or gender. Under the condition where policymakers can consider all the factors mentioned above, there would be more room for the development of positive workplace environments where achievements or performance and not personal peculiarities would be appreciated more.
Reference
Kang, M., Lessard, D., Heston, L., & Nordmarken, S. (2017). Introduction to women, gender, sexuality studies. Independent.
Bell talk of the daughter who enjoyed dressing as a hero, particularly male champions. Bell says that there are several feminine superheroes available for them to choose from when dressing up. However, masculine superhero goods are very accessible but not feminine. Doctrines are imparted to the community through public pedagogy, which is how people master processes and have knowledge of others and the world (Qian & Fan, 2019). Disney made a fortune from the female dolls and clothing they produced initially, and the company was afraid to observe their initial Disney princesses lose through the universal pedagogy. Bell noted that toys and clothing from the upcoming movies were marketed to the prominent male heroes, in contrast to the female characters.
Bell claims that businesses are telling young ladies they will always be left behind, regardless of their accomplishments. For example, a black widow exits a speeding flight on an electric-powered Harley Davidson motorbike, as depicted in the Avengers action set Cycle Blast Quinjet (Qian & Fan, 2019). However, unlike in the film, Captain America was on the motorcycle in the action figure collection instead of the black widow because the company believes that no lady would purchase the movie. Society should make characters of all sexes and races diverse physical features since most champions or heroines are slimmer than typical individuals.
HeForShe Movement
The purpose of the movement was to encourage several men and boys to support gender balance. Watson supported the involvement of men in conversations and in the campaign to fight and better the lives of women and girls worldwide. The movement promotes a sense of unity that males and females must collaborate to tackle what Watson refers to as a civil rights matter (Qian & Fan, 2019). For significant transformation to occur, males must likewise free themselves from the constraints of their sex roles. The assumption that men and women are two opposed beings with opposed ideals is neither enlightened nor constructive.
Question
Why is it crucial to consider gender issues when designing and implementing programs?
Reference
Qian, Y., & Fan, W. (2019). Men and women at work: Occupational gender composition and affective well-being in the United States. Journal of Happiness Studies, 20(7), 2077-2099.
This paper highlights key issues that emerge from a case study, discussing gender gap issues in the education sector. Additionally, in this paper, the role that leaders and leadership play in addressing gender issues in the education sector will be examined. This area of the analysis will draw on experiences related to the use of the transformative leadership style in promoting reform in the education sector and the role that educational leadership plays in influencing its effectiveness in addressing the aforementioned gender gap issues. The last section of the assignment suggests a strategy that could be formulated to address the issues mentioned above.
Key Issues Presented in the Case Study
Gender Performance Gap
Stemming from the successes of gender equality initiatives, a new view emerged in the case study where girls were considered to be “winning” at the expense of boys (Banet-Weiser, Gill and Rottenberg, 2020). This issue was originally mentioned in the text, but it has recently been more pronounced in several academic research articles, such as that authored by Herd et al. (2019). It alludes to the notion that feminist ideologies have permeated the education system and have been allowed to affect almost all aspects of operation at the expense of boys’ interests (Ringrose, 2007). This current discourse pitting the sexes against each other stems from academic achievement measures showing that girls are registering a superior performance compared to boys.
The argument that girls are winning at the expense of boys is central to the case study. Phipps (2017) frames the problem around the theoretical agenda of laddish masculinity, which has been witnessed in many western societies, including the UK. The author argues that there is a feminist influence in education that can be traced to consumerist neoliberal ideologies about gender stereotypes, which should be compared with a counter-movement of neoconservative backlash against it (Phipps, 2017). It is advancing the idea that girls should not be seen to be winning against their male counterparts in the “battle of the sexes” because it undermines equality (Morton, Muchiri and Swiss, 2020). Therefore, the main argument advanced in this discussion is that one gender should not be seen to be winning at the expense of another. In this regard, the main point of contention between proponents and critics of feminism is the loss of educational quality experience for boys.
Gender Norms
Another key issue discussed in the case study is gender norms in society and their effects on educational performance. These norms define deeply embedded expectations placed on both boys and girls about behaviors that are considered gender-appropriate. These expectations are often promoted and safeguarded by parents, teachers, and peers (Wilkinson and Andersson, 2019). They influence students’ major beliefs, aspirations, and goals because the general expectation is that they should perform tasks or engage in activities that are suitable for their respective genders (Jacob et al., 2020). These inclinations also include gender stereotypes and educational preferences imposed on them, especially concerning subject selection and identification of preferred college majors. These influences have a far-reaching impact on the lives of students because colleges often track their preferred subject areas and use them as a basis for identifying majors, which eventually end up being their careers. By extension, this practice contributes to gender stereotypes in society.
The same issue is discussed in the operational environment where the strengths of each gender are played off against the weaknesses of the other to strengthen collective academic performance. For example, the practice of pairing boys and girls was seen as an effective way of improving the behaviors of boys because girls were deemed relatively better behaved (Bongiorno et al., 2020). Similarly, it was expected that students would better focus on their studies if the genders were mixed because boys rarely chatted with girls during idle class time. From the case study, the role of gender mixing in the classroom setting and its influence on academic performance was not only seen as a negative trait but also a tool for strengthening competition. For example, setting both boys and girls at odds with one another was deemed an effective way of achieving this outcome.
The role of gender norms in influencing the behaviors of boys and girls were also seen in the manner tasks were assigned to both sets of students. Particularly, it was mentioned that girls were commonly assigned roles that involved tidying the classroom among other cleaning duties considered to stem from society’s traditional definition of the roles of women. Comparatively, boys were assigned roles that involved moving tables and chairs, which were also consistent with traditional roles of men in society – men are seen as being more physically powerful than women, thereby handling jobs that involve physical strength.
The role of gender norms in influencing the learning experiences of both boys and girls was also visible in how students chose their favorite subjects. Statistics suggested that girls were more drawn to the language and drama-related subjects compared to their male counterparts who were inclined to do mathematics and science-related subjects (Cascella, Williams and Pampaka, 2021). These outcomes show that subject choice was also gender-specific.
Sexual Harassment and Violence
Sexual harassment and violence also emerged as one of the major issues mentioned in the case study. It refers to how both men and women are encouraged to exhibit certain behavioral traits that are considered dominant or cool (Steiner, 2019). It is a trend that is also defined by misogyny and sexual jokes that are meant to undermine the seriousness of the matter, such that anyone who raises concern about it is seen as a “mood killer” or lacks a sense of humor (Låftman et al., 2021). This issue has been presented in the case study to define student-teacher relationships.
The relationship between teachers and students has been explored by researchers, such as Robinson (2000), Gråstén and Kokkonen (2020) who have highlighted the same issue within the framework of the power balance between both parties. The traditional understanding of power dynamics between both parties is that teachers have more power than students and consequently have a higher likelihood of bullying or harassing them. However, this assumption has been challenged with findings that show that teachers are increasingly getting bullied or sexually harassed by their students. These findings challenge the traditional understanding of gender relationships in the educational setting because the researcher mentioned the existence of sexual harassment claims among female teachers who felt harassed by their male students (Odeyemi et al., 2016). Overall, their findings indicated that sexual harassment occurs in various forms and should not be confined to the traditional understanding of power dynamics where teachers are the aggressors.
Trans-Student Experiences
The experiences of students who do not conform to their gender role assignment and expectations also emerged as another core issue in the case study. This issue was noted among students whose behaviors or conduct defies the binary understanding of gender norms. It stems from a system of genderism, which strives to promote gender normativity in the education setting. Those who do not conform to the same standard are ostracized or forced to undergo humiliation or discrimination (Hines, 2020). Therefore, contemporary cultural norms enforce gendered stereotypes along the binary line of male and female roles, thereby failing to recognize alternative forms of gendered relations. The experiences of transgender students in the educational setting have been evaluated from multiple perspectives. However, the relationship between these students and their teachers is of notable interest to this study because of the role that the latter play in determining their students’ education outcomes.
Minority groups of students such as gays and lesbians have been noted to be under immense pressure to conform to mainstream ideologies, which may cause significant levels of stress among them (Lacono, 2019). Craig, Austin and Huang (2018) say that most of these students have difficulties coping with such pressures and may choose to exhibit avoidance behaviors. Evidence of such behaviors has been highlighted by researchers, such as Whitaker, Shapiro and Shields (2016) who have mentioned its efficacy in reducing suicide rates among lesbian and gay students. Additionally, a section of students often uses humor and relaxing emotional cues to deal with the stress (Craig, Austin and Huang, 2018).
Role of Leadership
The gap in performance between boys and girls has been highlighted in the field of educational leadership. Ringrose (2007) says that this gap is characterized by the rapid increase in the success of girls in various educational activities at the expense of boys whose performance is waning. The shift in performance represents a post-feminist society where the successes of girls are pitted against those of their male counterparts. This practice was once seen to be progressive because of its potential to promote competition but, recently, it has started to be retrogressive because of the growing wave of anti-feminist sentiments associated with the success of one gender in the educational setting (Banet-Weiser, Gill and Rottenberg, 2020). Particularly, there is a growing wave of resentment against education policies that are seen to aggressively promote the “female agenda” at the expense of all other interests.
Leadership plays a critical role in helping people and organizations to achieve their individual or collective goals. This is why the concept refers to the ability to guide or influence people or organizations to achieve their goals. Leadership can play a critical role in minimizing the gender gap highlighted in the current case study because the roles assigned to both boys and girls often vary across contexts, time, and cultures. For example, in the case study, the current school uniform policy is that boys are dressed in blue while girls in pink. This was not always the case because color identities were reversed in the early 1900s whereby boys were dressed in pink and girls in blue (Ross and Cereda, 2020). The rationale for doing so was premised on the understanding that the blue color was appropriate for girls because it was paler and more dainty compared to pink. This example shows that gender associations and identities vary across time and generations. Leadership will play a critical role in navigating some of these differences and help students make sense of them today.
One of the most important points to note in this gender gap debate is the existence of a fluid understanding of gender roles among sections of the student population. This concept involves students defying traditional gender stereotypes to venture into interests or fields considered a preserve of one gender. For example, in the current case study, there is evidence of boys wanting to engage in art-related subjects, despite it being considered a preserve of girls. There was also evidence of girls wanting to participate in mathematics and science-related subjects, despite them being considered a preserve of boys.
The impact of gender stereotypes on student performance is also explored in the case study because biases have been observed to affect people’s judgment of gender roles and identities. For example, boys who were seen to engage in activities that were deemed to be feminine were characterized as “gay.” Similarly, assumptions about gender roles also had an impact on students’ acceptance of sports or social groups. For example, despite having an interest in playing football, male members of the school team did not allow some girls to become members because they were deemed “incapable” to handle the task.
The gender gap issue mentioned in the case study stems from a discussion that has focused on analyzing male-female differences. Part of the problem has been attributed to rigid models that are still being used to define gender roles and relationships. Indeed, contemporary developmental sciences are increasingly favoring the use of a more gender-fluid understanding of male and female differences (Fine et al., 2013). However, this has not always been the case with scholars developing different subsets of theories to explain both male and female relationships in the educational setting (Davis, 2008). For example, the feminist theory has been proved to be a successful model for analyzing female attitudes in educational and work contexts. Its success has been linked to the intersectionality of the concept, which makes it ambiguous and fluid to the extent that its application in the educational context is unclear and unpredictable (Bell et al., 2019). However, intersectionality continues to be a core tenet of the theory and a major reason why it has been linked to its success.
The intersectionality of feminism theories has been used to criticize groups of researchers who have used the narrow prism of gender differences to explain differences in educational performance between boys and girls (Guillard, 2019; Vachhani and Pullen, 2019). Notably, the models fail to recognize the role of race and class in influencing their performance. Race and class have been observed to have a stronger impact on student performance more than gender itself (Lahtinen, Sirniö and Martikainen, 2020). This is a failure in leadership because all variables should be accounted for when evaluating student performance.
Leadership could influence how different sexes interact with one another through school-based interventions. This statement is supported by researchers, such as Hines (2020), who note that most government-funded schools in the UK are being increasingly becoming diverse with the influx of minority populations from other communities. However, issues affecting how students interact within the school setting are complicated and may stretch far beyond the boundary of what can be done within the educational setting. This is because sex is a socially constructed concept and, much like race, it can be varied based on the style of leadership adopted within a school setting. Therefore, schools today could be regarded as key sites for the construction and regulation of gender identities in the educational setting and by extension the social context. Such interventions play a critical role in influencing the environment that students learn and minimize chances of gender conflict.
The role of leadership in minimizing inequities has also been highlighted by researchers who have pointed out its importance in educational reform. For example, Lee (2020) highlighted its importance in cementing the leadership competencies of a UK-based school leadership program involving gay and lesbian community groups in the school. The groups were operating under a bigger umbrella body of school leadership known as the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender (LGBT) School Leadership Program. Lee (2020) argued that authentic leadership plays a critical role in influencing educational outcomes because it helps institutions to promote diversity, integrate inclusion in their schools, and promote social justice by challenging the status quo (Lee, 2020). These initiatives could be effective in providing mentorship and training support activities to those involved.
Strategies that can be adopted
The origin of the gender debate between boys and girls stemmed from discussions about the importance of promoting equality and inclusivity in the education setting (Bragg et al., 2018). Characterized by the growing impact of marketization, globalization, and economic insecurity, educational policy outcomes started to reflect this trend with the ultimate aim being the minimization of gender performance gaps (Ringrose, 2007). Over time, the movement towards creating a gender-neutral educational environment has seen the loss of gender privileges in the learning environment.
Typically, this outcome has led to the development of a new social system known as laddism, which creates new forms of order based upon other identifiable attributes of society that includes both men and women, such as social classes or educational groups, which alienate groups from one another but using non-gender-specific criteria (Phipps, 2017). The emergence of these systems means that there is a need to understand how these new social systems are influenced by traditionally gendered norms and how they work towards reproducing the same systems even as they are reinvented for improved gender relations.
Given that there are different leadership styles available for use in various educational settings, the transformative leadership approach is significant to use in the current case study because of its ability to prepare students to be individually successful, thoughtful, and caring at the same time (Shields, 2017). This type of leadership is important in an educational setting struggling to promote gender diversity while maintaining the core attributes of each sex that make it unique. Notably, the transformative leadership approach would help students from both genders to maximize their competencies while being considerate about the differences in abilities and interests associated with each gender.
The transformative leadership approach is specifically suited to addressing the gender divide between boys and girls because it highlights the role of the culture of power in influencing student learning outcomes (Shields, 2017). In other words, this leadership style can break systemic barriers that prevent schools from achieving gender equality. A transformative leader will also see to it that the interests of disadvantaged or minority groups are addressed in a non-judgmental manner. The aim is to promote the inclusion of different student groups in the learning process. By adopting this leadership style, transformative leaders would be challenging the dominant school of thought on educational leadership and minimize deficit thinking (Valencia, 1997; Shields, 2017). At the same time, they would be using their power and influence to address difficult issues affecting equality policies by forcing people to have the same difficult conversations.
The strategies that are highlighted in this section of the report are adopted from the recommendations of Anderson, Boyle, and Deppeler (2014) on addressing diversity in government-funded schools. The authors highlight the importance of change reform, which is equally needed to address the gender gap issues highlighted in the case study (Anderson, Boyle and Deppeler, 2014). This plan is premised on the need to redistribute resources to disadvantaged student populations. The second component of the plan involves the recognition of value differences between male and female student populations.
Although these measures are likely to improve the way educators measure performance across the gender divide, it is important to recognize the difficulty of implementing such a proposal given the tight controls governing the education system. In this environment, there are high levels of resistance and accountability required of teachers, especially when making performance improvements in the learning environment. Overall, the recommendations provided in this report are aimed at improving the qualitative experiences of both girls and boys in the educational setting.
Conclusion
The main issues presented in the case study center on gender gap issues and their effects on the learning experiences of both boys and girls in the educational setting. Particularly, the case study describes how schools have become gendered spaces, characterized by differences in the performance between both sexes, gendered norms in the class setting, the disciplinary divide between girls and boys, experiences of transgender students in a rigid, conformist learning environment, as well as sexual harassment and violence against female teachers. To address these issues, there is need to engage in change reform through transformative leadership.
Reference List
Anderson, J., Boyle, C. and Deppeler, J. (2014). The ecology of inclusive education: reconceptualising Bronfenbrenner. London: Sense Publishers.
Banet-Weiser, S., Gill, R. and Rottenberg, C. (2020) ‘Postfeminism, popular feminism and neoliberal feminism? Sarah Banet-Weiser, Rosalind Gill and Catherine Rottenberg in conversation’, Feminist Theory, 21(1), pp. 3-24.
Bell, E. et al. (2019) ‘Time’s up! Feminist theory and activism meets organization studies’, Human Relations, 72(1), pp. 4-22.
Bongiorno, R. et al. (2020) ‘Why women are blamed for being sexually harassed: the effects of empathy for female victims and male perpetrators’, Psychology of Women Quarterly, 44(1), pp. 11-27.
Bragg, S. et al. (2018) ‘More than boy, girl, male, female’: exploring young people’s views on gender diversity within and beyond school contexts’, Sex Education, 18(4), pp. 420-434.
Cascella, C., Williams, J. S. and Pampaka, M. (2021) ‘Gender differences in mathematics outcomes at different levels of locality to inform policy and practice’, European Educational Research Journal, 5(2), pp. 231-243.
Craig, S. L., Austin, A. and Huang, Y. (2018) Being humorous and seeking diversion: promoting healthy coping skills among LGBTQ and youth’, Journal of Gay and Lesbian Mental Health, 22(1), pp. 20-35.
Davis, K. (2008) ‘Intersectionality as buzzword: a sociology of science perspective on what makes a feminist theory successful’, Feminist Theory, 9(1), pp. 67-85.
Fine, C., et al. (2013). ‘Plasticity, plasticity, plasticity…and the rigid problem of sex’, Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 17(11), pp. 550-560.
Gråstén, A. and Kokkonen, M. (2020) ‘Associations between teacher- and student-directed sexual and physical violence in physical education’, Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 7(2), pp. 1-19.
Guillard, J. (2019) ‘A feminist manifesto for education, Miriam E. David’, Feminist Theory, 20(1), pp. 113-114.
Herd, P. et al. (2019) ‘Genes, gender inequality, and educational attainment’, American Sociological Review, 84(6), pp. 1069-1098.
Hines, S. (2020) ‘Sex wars and (trans) gender panics: identity and body politics in contemporary UK feminism’, The Sociological Review, 68(4), pp. 699-717.
Jacob, M. et al. (2020) ‘Secondary school subjects and gendered STEM enrollment in higher education in Germany, Ireland, and Scotland’, International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 61(1), pp. 59-78.
Lacono, G. (2019) ‘An affirmative mindfulness approach for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer youth mental health’, Clinical Social Work Journal, 47(2), pp. 156-166.
Låftman, S. B. et al. (2021) ‘Sexual jokes at school and psychological complaints: student- and class-level associations’, Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 49(3), pp. 285-291.
Lahtinen, H., Sirniö, O. and Martikainen, P. (2020) ‘Social class and the risk of unemployment: trends, gender differences and the contribution of education’, Acta Sociologica, 63(3), pp. 303-321.
Lee, C. (2020) ‘Courageous leaders: promoting and supporting diversity in school leadership development’, Management in Education, 34(1), pp. 5-15.
Morton, S. E., Muchiri, J. and Swiss, L. (2020) ‘Which feminism(s)? For whom? Intersectionality in Canada’s feminist international assistance policy’, International Journal, 75(3), pp. 329-348.
Odeyemi, K. et al. (2016) ‘Sexual violence among out-of-school female adolescents in Lagos, Nigeria’, SAGE Open, 6(1), pp. 112-117.
Phipps, A. (2017) ‘(Re)theorising laddish masculinities in higher education’, Gender and Education, 29(7), pp. 815-830.
Ringrose, J. (2007) ‘Successful girls? Complicating post‐feminist, neoliberal discourses of educational achievement and gender equality’, Gender and Education, 19(4), pp. 471-489.
Robinson, K. (2000) ‘”Great Tits, Miss!” The silencing of malestudents’ sexual harassment of female teachers in secondary schools: a focus on gendered authority’, Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 21(1), pp. 75-90.
Ross, J. and Cereda, A. (2020) Masculinity/femininty: re-framing a fragmented debate. New York, NY: BRILL.
Shields, C. (2017) Transformative Leadership in education: equitable and socially just change in an uncertain and complex world. London: Routledge.
Steiner, L. (2019) ‘Addressing sexual harassment in journalism education’, Journalism, 20(1), pp. 118-121.
Vachhani, S. J. and Pullen, A. (2019) ‘Ethics, politics and feminist organizing: writing feminist infrapolitics and affective solidarity into everyday sexism’, Human Relations, 72(1), pp. 23-47.
Valencia, R. R. (1997) The evolution of deficit thinking: educational thought and practice. London: The Falmer Press.
Whitaker, K., Shapiro, V. and Shields, J. (2016) ‘School-based protective factors related to suicide for lesbian, gay, and bisexual adolescents’, Journal of Adolescent Health, 58(1), pp. 63-68.
Wilkinson, R. and Andersson, M. A. (2019) ‘Adolescent socioeconomic status and parent-child emotional bonds: reexamining gender differences in mental well-being during young adulthood’, Society and Mental Health, 9(1), pp. 95-110.
The issues of race and gender inequality have been topical for centuries, and they caused a large number of conflicts throughout history. These issues were the focus of attention in numerous studies, attempting to determine whether there are scientific grounds for such disputes. The purpose of this paper is to analyze race and gender as social constructs that are not justified by any scientific evidence.
Nowadays, genetics has become a discipline of vital importance for science. Ever since the beginning of DNA research, humanity has hoped to find the answers to fundamental questions. Race and gender identity have been the issues that were at the center of the debate around whether there is a genetic component to it. The views on that matter have shifted significantly across history, as science evolved, and more profound research was conducted.
As recently as two centuries ago, the scientific society was divided into two large groups. According to Tallbear (2013), polygenists believed that each race had a separate origin, while monogenists saw all races as one human species. The first point of view had more support, but the science of that period was entangled with popular stereotypes, which is reflected in the work of Louis Agassiz and Samuel Morton, prominent polygenists. The former described Native Americans as exclusively proud and courageous people, while the latter described people of African origin as submissive (Tallbear, 2013). However, the science at that time was not sufficiently advanced to conduct research that would be profound enough to present evidence for such statements. According to Tallbear (2013), it was a widespread belief at the time that the brains of different species were different, those of Europeans being larger, “without adjusting for age, sex, body size, or nutritional status” (p. 35). The existence of genes was unknown at that time, so blood served as the main symbol of cultural and racial differences. Tallbear (2013) writes that, when the blood types were discovered in 1900, they were first seen as indicative of race, but this theory was quickly debunked, once it was confirmed that all races possessed all three blood types. The research shows that there are no inherent genetic features of a particular race.
Similar to race, gender identity issues have also been researched within the framework of nature-society opposition. It is often claimed that men and women are inherently different. According to evolutionary psychologists, they are driven by different factors when considering a potential marriage. For example, women “place more value than men on good financial prospects” of a future partner (McKinnon & Silverman, 2005, p. 118). McKinnon and Silverman (2005) argue that this tendency comes not from inherent natural factors but from a gendered division of labor, in which, in all societies, men and women are embedded (p. 118). In other words, each gender is assigned a predetermined role from a social tradition, which, in turn, shapes the minds of men and women and their preferences. Therefore, this influence comes from the outside rather than from within.
All in all, the issue of “nature-versus-nurture” has been discussed for centuries. As science became more advanced, the role of the social framework was regarded as more important. At the same time, there has been little to no evidence to support the idea that racial and gender differences are embedded in human DNA. So, race and gender can be considered social constructs to a large extent, meaning that genetics-wise, all humans are the same and equal.
References
McKinnon, S. & Silverman, S. (Eds.). (2005). Complexities. Beyond nature and nurture. The University of Chicago Press.
Tallbear, K. (2013). Native American DNA: Tribal belonging and the false promise of genetic Science. The University of Minnesota Press.
Inequalities in various aspects of social and economic life, and the question of overcoming them, are increasingly the subject of political decisions and the subject of academic research and papers. In addition to social justice and human rights values, they emphasize the importance of equal opportunity as a condition for social cohesion and social inclusion. This also applies to health inequalities, which have received considerable attention from the World Health Organization over the last decade.
In this essay, I would like to discuss gender inequalities in health care, as it is an issue of personal interest to me. I do not like hearing how girls are not advised to go into medicine because it is a “serious men’s job” or people do not take nursing jobs seriously and think they are too easy. Various gender inequalities in healthcare area occur in all countries. Inequalities are caused not only by living conditions but also by socio-cultural factors (values, norms, stereotypes) that shape the position of both sexes in society and people’s thinking and behavior about health.
Massive discrimination against women in the healthcare sector worsens the quality of care for people because of the deteriorating working conditions for this group of employees. This is because nurses and doctors who experience discrimination and unfair treatment are unable to provide appropriate care. This factor nullifies attempts to ensure the highest possible level of health for all people. I believe that society must stop discriminating against women in doctors’ posts and that the problem is severe enough to warrant a lot of media attention. In this way, society will ensure decent working conditions for women doctors and, hence, proper treatment for the population.
In the article “The influence of peers during adolescence: Does homophobic name-calling by peers change gender identity?” the authors claim that negative name-calling among peers can lead to a change in gender identity. Firstly, this is because negative experiences with peers of the same sex result in the need to identify with peers of the opposite sex. Secondly, during the period of growing up, the adolescents’ identity is not yet fully established. Therefore, they are constantly re-evaluating whether the identity formation is going in the right direction. DeLay et al. (2018) recognize that homophobia can be directed at homosexual and heterosexual adolescents. This is presumably because the purpose of victimization is to hurt someone’s feelings, not point out real flaws.
Gender identity development is a critical stage in developing a personality occurring during adolescence (DeLay et al., 2018). Since homophobic name-calling is a form of victimization, this practice should be frowned upon or banned in schools. Ioverno et al. (2021) note that “bullying GNCV may represent a defensive reaction to demonstrate bullies’ gender conformity” (p. 215). Therefore, work with bullies should be carried out competently and with the participation of a psychologist.
Interestingly, Ioverno et al. (2021) highlight how this statement is especially true for male bullies. That is because their “own gender conformity can affect the selection of victims based on their gender conformity” (p. 216). It is critical to understand this mirror interaction to resolve the issues of gender victimization. Equally important, victimization of adolescents, including LGB, trans, and heterosexual high school students may lead to “anxiety, depression, and substance use disorders, especially among sexual and gender minority youth” (Valido et al., p. 602). This is another valuable observation that indicates the need for concomitant prevention practices of substance abuse among adolescents. No less important, substance abuse should be perceived as the consequence of psychological problems.
References
DeLay, D., Lynn Martin, C., Cook, R. E., & Hanish, L. D. (2018). The influence of peers during adolescence: does homophobic name-calling by peers change gender identity? Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 47(3), 636-649.
Ioverno, S., DeLay, D., Martin, C. L., & Hanish, L. D. (2021). Who engages in gender bullying? The role of homophobic name-calling, gender pressure, and gender conformity. Educational Researcher, 50(4), 215-224.
Valido, A., Rivas-Koehl, M., Espelage, D. L., Robinson, L. E., Kuehl, T., Mintz, S., & Wyman, P. A. (2021). Protective factors of homophobic name-calling and sexual violence perpetration and victimization among LGB, trans, and heterosexual high school students. School Mental Health, 13(3), 602-615.
There is much debate surrounding the treatment of transgender individuals in Samoa. Some people argue that they should be given the same rights and respect as everyone else, while others claim that their unique lifestyle is an abomination against God. The essay will mainly focus on Fafafines, Hijras, and Berdaches, their treatment, and their social and religious societal roles in Samoa. The discussion around the third gender is critical because it highlights how people experience their gender identity.
Treatment of Hijras, Berdaches, and Fa’afafines differs substantially from one another. Hijras, for example, are often considered to be cursed or polluted and are often rejected by society. On the other hand, Berdaches are more accepted in certain cultures (Claire, 2002). In some cases, they may be considered to be holy or magical. Contrarily, Fa’afafines are the most received of all transgender groups. They are considered a vital part of Samoan culture and are typically tolerated by society.
Hijras, Berdaches, and Fa’afafines are all treated quite differently in their respective societies. However, there are some similarities in how they are treated. For example, all three groups are often considered sacred or spiritual (Hossain & Hamedi, 2012). Hijras and Berdaches are often associated with Hinduism or Native American religions, while Fa’afafines are considered a part of Samoan culture. Another similarity is that all three groups are often considered intermediate between males and females. Hijras and Berdaches are seen as masculine, while Fa’afafines are deemed more feminine.
Berdaches were an essential part of many Native American tribes. They held a particular social role that was both respected and honored. Berdaches were often transgender and played a vital role for the tribe as healers, seers, and spirit mediums (Trexler, 2002). They were seen as a bridge between the spiritual and physical worlds and were often consulted for advice on matters of healing and prophecy. On the religious functions, Berdaches were considered spiritual leaders and seen as having a powerful connection to the spirit world and were often called upon to perform religious ceremonies. They were thought to have unique insight into the natural world and were often consulted for healing. Many tribes believed that Berdaches had the power to heal physical and emotional wounds.
The Hijras play a critical social role in India; for example, Hijras are seen as a third gender and often play a ceremonial role in weddings and other religious ceremonies. They are thought to have special powers, and many believe they can bless or curse someone depending on their mood (Claire, 2002). The Hijras play a significant religious role in the Hindu faith. They are considered representatives of the goddess Bahuchara Mata; because of this, they are often called upon to bless newborn babies and couples about to get married. They often perform ceremonies to honor the goddess Lakshmi and believe they can communicate with the spirits of nature.
Fa’afafines are often considered to be the guardians of Samoan culture and tradition. They are responsible for passing down the oral history of their families and communities and the customs and rituals that make Samoan culture unique. They often work in the education system, teaching young children in schools and kindergartens (Trexler, 2002). Additionally, the Fa’afafines perform religious roles; they are considered blessed by the gods. They possess spiritual powers to help them connect with the spiritual realm. They are often called on to perform religious ceremonies and rituals. They can act as intermediaries between the living and the dead and are often called upon to help grieving families.
In conclusion, it is essential to remember that there is no one way to be transgender and that transgender people have existed in every culture throughout history. In Samoa, Fa’afafines are accepted and celebrated, while Hijras and Berdaches are not always treated equally in other cultures. It is essential to be aware of the differences and be respectful of all cultures. There is no right way to identify as a member of the third gender. Some people might identify as transgender, while others might use a different term altogether.
References
Claire, M. (2002). Comments: Marie-Claire Villeval. Fafafines of Samoa. Web.
Hossain, A. M. M., & Hamedi. (2012). Fafafines of Samoa. Beyond Emasculation: Being Muslim and Becoming Hijra in South Asia, 9(2), 495–513. Web.
Trexler, R. C. (2002). Fafafines of Samoa. Speculum, 77(1), 614–636. Web.
Life expectancy statistics show that females generally live longer than males. This indicator has variations in African and Asian countries, where medical, epidemiological, and social factors affect women’s access to care and quality services. In general, the main reason for gender differences in terms of life expectancy is hormonal variations and susceptibility to chronic diseases. Thus, women outlive men due to body characteristics and fatal disease prevalence.
Women live longer than men in most countries of the world, including the United States. The central reason for this disparity is the peculiarity of hormonal effects, in which females are more resistant to inflammatory and infectious processes (Austad & Fischer, 2016). As known, these triggers affect health status and, accordingly, chronic diseases and life expectancy. Resistance to infection and inflammation provides various immune perspectives in which women are more susceptible to therapy and desired health outcomes.
Men have a more beneficial life expectancy in some countries. It is worth noting that there is no single assessment system that shows the reasons for gender differences in a particular region or population in general. Sociocultural traditions, which have historical roots, is one of the reasons for men to outlive women. It was noted that the patriarchal model of society, female stigmatization, and inequality in access to health services in African and Asian countries lead to poorer women’s health and reduced life expectancy (Crimmins et al., 2019). Thus, gender differences are rooted in quality and access to care and the social background in which males and females form specific behavioral patterns.
Life expectancy depends on chronic diseases and the socio-cultural habits of a particular community. Women live longer than men because they are less susceptible to infections due to hormone resistance. On the other hand, the patriarchal model and medical inequalities affect women’s health around the world, which significantly impairs their quality of life. Thus, gender inequalities result from a variety of biological and social factors that affect the position of males and females in the medical field.
I want to elaborate on the topic of gender role expectations and introduce myself at this time in my life. Women nowadays are fighting the pressure to adhere to stereotypical gender practices and questioning a large number of beliefs they have adopted. I attempt to fight the enforced gender standards and live according to my own scenario as I identify with this contemporary deconstruction of women.
The movement of feminism is of particular importance in my life. As an advocacy, feminism has played a significant role in numerous global social movements as a source of activism, including those for women’s suffrage, personal liberty, reproductive liberation, and empowerment (McLaughlin & Aikman, 2019). I aspire to ensure equitable chances for other young women and men like me as I strive to become a successful, empowered, and independent woman. According to the expectations of their conventional roles, women should prioritize relationships over professional success (Corey et al., 2018). From this point of view, women are expected to preserve relationships, not compete or try to advance. My perception, however, significantly differs from this conventional role expectation since I think women shouldn’t be expected to abandon their careers or personal development in order to be in a relationship. In my opinion, the majority of conventional gender expectations are detrimental rather than helpful. Reduced job goals, balancing several duties, and ambiguity about sexuality are some issues brought on by the typical female roles.
Gender stereotypes are predetermined, simplistic ideas about what is proper and typical for individuals in a certain society in accordance with their biological sex. Another widely held belief is that women should be empathetic, communicative, and caring. Women’s progress was, until recently, determined by the males in their lives. Namely, women’s function was defined by their status in male life (Corey et al., 2018). Although I consider myself an empathic, compassionate woman, I think this benchmark should apply to all individuals, not being a particular gender role expectation. Rather than living in men’s shadows, the task for women and men is to collaborate in redefining what they desire to be in order to have meaningful interactions.
I recognize that gender equality is today more feasible than it ever was. Nevertheless, that hasn’t happened yet, and regardless of age, gender prejudice persists to a great extent. For instance, several boards have been reluctant to alter their largely male makeup, and only a little more than 20% of board positions in Russell 3000 businesses were occupied by women in 2019 (Halliday et al., 2020). The idea of androgyny is the merging of normal male and female behavioral traits and actions in one individual, which is a viable alternative to restrictive gender norms. According to Corey et al. (2018), we all release both male and female hormones and share both feminine and masculine personality characteristics. Therefore, I think we have a right to be free from discrimination and inequality in every context, gaining independence in our gender identities by developing unique views and expectations. At this stage of life, I work to accomplish gender-role transcendence, which entails moving past the fixed femininity to arrive at a personal combination that permits flexible actions in a range of circumstances.
References
Corey, G., Corey, M., & Muratori, M. (2018). I never knew I had a choice: Explorations in self-growth. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.