To begin with, power distance is widely recognized as a measurement of power and wealth hierarchy among individuals in settings of different types. However, Hofstede (2011) identifies it as an influence on people who are exposed to the notion. To be more exact, power distance affects not only those on top but less powerful as well. Thus, this index determines the extent to which individuals accept the inequity of power distribution among them and colleagues. Still, it seems crucial to note that people might experience the term due to various types of differences, such as ethnicity, gender, culture, and status.
Furthermore, Hofstede (2011) identifies six dimensions that lead to cultures distinguishing; however, the most crucial ones remain power distance index and gender. Consequently, cultural relativism might decrease the significance of the notion in any setting. For instance, according to Hofstede (2011), power distance can be perceived as the dimension of culture and, therefore, can be eradicated by promoting cultural relativism. To be more precise, working environments may be positively alternated if people accept the viewpoint that they cannot judge or criticize people of other communities.
As a result, countries have different indexes of power distance which considerably influences the economy and society on the whole. To be more particular, an average power distance measurement across the globe is 59.31, which is relatively high (Clearly Cultural, 2021). In other words, it means that most countries display an apparent existence of power and wealth hierarchy among residents. For instance, the United States of America has an index of 40, lower than the average standard around the world (Clearly Cultural, 2021).
Therefore, Americans still experience a social inequity in considerable amount; however, it is still less notable than in other communities. Nevertheless, if people start respecting those who surround them, no matter their culture, the United States will less likely gravitate to the world standard of power distance. On the contrary, Americans might finally reach a small index and achieve equal rights of every individual as a member of an organization or institution. Otherwise, less powerful members might experience disadvantages and express negativity toward those higher in the hierarchy of power and wealth. Overall, it might lead to a decrease in productivity and efficiency of individuals in working settings in general.
A Feminine Future?
The cultural interpretation of gender roles considerably affects leadership and the operations of non-governmental organizations on the whole. Notably, individuals are treated differently, which creates discrimination in the working settings as, according to Hofstede (2011), males are expected to be assertive and demanding while women are considered more modest and tender. As a result, such stereotypical perception of a member’s gender identifies two types of leadership: masculine and feminine. Due to the growing popularity of feminism, it is fair to claim that the world is heading toward a more feminine approach in business.
Therefore, since it focuses on maintaining healthy relationships between colleagues and members of organizations, institutions’ operations are bound to be more effective. Furthermore, such an approach is based on increasing quality of life and presenting opportunities to individuals no matter what their gender is. Consequently, female leader figures might reach more reputation and recognition among staff because of their attitude to workers and responsibilities in general.
Another critical point is that a feminine approach seems more effective since women focus on the quality of life and not just money and accomplishment as men. Therefore, in marketplace competition, they focus not just on the outcome of the work, but the possibility of the negative effect effort might have on staff and their health. Consequently, people might be more engaged and motivated to produce a fruitful result in such a working environment as their relationships with managers and people from the top might be more close and sincere. Overall, it appears effective in organizational competitive strategies since workers value respect and a decent attitude towards them from managers and supervisors.
Gender is the socially constructed characteristics of women, men, girls, and boys such as norms, behaviors, and roles associated with being a woman, man, girl, or boy, as well as relationships with one another. It is different from sex (the biological and physiological characteristics of females, males, and intersex people including reproductive organs and hormones). A person’s gender identity refers to their internal and individual experience that may not necessarily correspond to their designated sex or physiology at birth (“World Health Organization,” n.d.). Diversity is reflected in how personalities and groups understand, exploit, and communicate their gender. The concept of gender identity is due to a combination of inherent and extrinsic or environmental factors (Ghosh, 2020). It manifests within society through observable factors such as behavior and appearance (Ghosh, 2020). Therefore, it is true that without critical scrutiny of individual choices, society will never be able to fully address the harmful systemic impact of gender.
Many cultures have stereotypes about gender; in most cases, people confuse gender with the biological sex of an individual. In contrast, it is how people identify internally and express that interior distinction externally (Zambon, 2020). Gender is shaped by individual choice, self-perception, social interactions with other people, and the environment (Zambon, 2020). Some may opt not to associate with any gender while others could relate with several genders. This means, that only individuals themselves can decide what their gender is. This essay, thus, affirms the question that “Without critical scrutiny of individual choices, we will never be able to fully address the harmful systemic impact of gender.” The paper will focus on the harmful systematic impact of gender due lack of understanding of individual choices. It will discuss negative societal norms, gender roles, inequalities, and health issues and their effects on gender.
Societal Norms
Globally, many societies are guided by gender ethics that classify what is considered appropriate as responsibilities for females on one hand, and males on the other. Several societies have gender stereotypes that oftentimes value girls and women less compared to boys and men (“Plan International,” 2022). This is because many societies still view gender in terms of one being either a man or a woman without allowing people to make their choices. The consequence is the negative effect of inflexible traditions and roles, which limits the freedom and expression of girls and women. It further escalates the level of violence and harassment of women with limited opportunities how to live freely.
On the other hand, boys and men are affected because ideas about what some societies mean to be a man push them to behave in a constrained manner that could harm their well-being. Behavioral norms that associates males with masculinity inspire the negative habit of boys to continue intolerance and inequality against girls (“Plan International,” 2022). This has continuously led to circumstances in which individuals are handled differently because they are either males or females rather than their capabilities.
Harmful Gender Norms
Girls and women in some societies around the world do not get opportunities to independently decide for themselves what is good. Instead, they are confined at home to carry out their traditional societal-defined roles in household chores and other positions of girls in society (“Save the Children,” 2022). Their voices are undermined and they are denied the opportunity to choose the kind of life they would like to live. The women are not allowed to be independent and are forced to conform to what society allows as the norm.
Further, many people in the world have not come to terms with and accepted the idea of having transgender individuals among them. There is cultural stereotype and discrimination against transgender people in many parts of the world (Alston, 2018). The prejudices about gays for instance lead people to fear being around those who have chosen to go public about changes in their gender identities. For example, females fear trans women in their spaces places because they feel vulnerable but there is no evidence that they are harmful (Alston, 2018). Transgender communities have been facing hate because of their gender identity (Alston, 2018). This should change to allow individuals who want to self-declare the gender in which they choose to live, without the need for medical evidence or proof. Humanity should allow transgender persons to select how they want to reveal themselves to others and how they want the world to view them. This may include their mannerisms, clothing styles, names, and pronoun choices, to name a few.
Gender Roles
The conventional gender roles in many communities expect males and females to behave, talk, wear clothes, and express themselves according to their biological sex. For example, females are generally required to dress in classical feminine ways and be respectful, accommodating, and caring. These are deeply rooted thinking that explains what defines males and females (“Cliffs Notes,” n.d.). Over the years parents, teachers, peers, movies, television, music, books, and religious teachers have been used to explain the roles throughout individuals’ lives (“Cliffs Notes,” n.d.). These agents are influential and they impact people’s gender roles right from their infancy stages because they view and treat female and male children differently (“Cliffs Notes,” n.d.). For example, parents, do so because they too passed through the same process when they were children (“Cliffs Notes,” n.d.). Traditionally, fathers teach boys how to be strong, and build things; and mothers teach girls how to cook, sew, and do other house chores (“Cliffs Notes,” n.d.). The children are then expected to adopt culturally accepted traditional roles and this is passed from parents to their children and future generations.
Globally, things are changing very fast, traditional gender roles are no longer making sense to so many people. From susceptibility to metrosexuality, the understanding of gender is progressing (Landsberg, 2020). People must normalize using gender-neutral terms when referring to other diverse individuals (Landsberg, 2020). Societies must embrace these changes and allow flexibility and acceptance when it comes to individuals choosing their lifestyles, how they want to appear in public and their mode of dressing.
Gender Inequalities
Gender inequality is prejudice based on gender or sexual orientation and it could cause some individuals routinely privilege other others. The unequal treatment of individuals who have chosen to identify with a particular gender normally is a result of biological, psychological, or cultural norms prevalent in society (Fahy, 2022). Women and girls most likely are the ones who experience the worst negative gender discrimination. In some instances they do not get access to education, are treated lowly in society, and have restricted freedom to make decisions about their personal life (Fahy, 2022). Additionally, females receive low wages for the work they do, they experience high levels of violence and harassment. Globally, gender-related inequality negatively impacts the economy, education, health, and life expectancy of individuals, and these realities are discussed below.
Poverty
In several countries women represent the majority of the population, however, cultural norms of many societies in the world do not allow women for example to own property. These make women in the world’s largest demography who are poor. Females are the biggest agricultural labor in the globe and they produce between 60% and 80% of food (Fahy, 2022). In contrast, they have limited access to the materials they need and even the food they generate (Fahy, 2022). Inequality and discrimination have pushed many women into extreme poverty despite them being their real drivers of production. The entire world, families, institutions, organizations, and governments must change their views about the female gender to boost their stakes as important stakeholders.
Gender Discrimination at the Workplace
There is still a big gap in terms of gender inequality in employment or workplaces despite attempts by several organizations to bridge the difference. For example, females constitute about 65% of the world’s working hours but they only earn 10% of global income per year (Fahy, 2022). They continuously render services as unpaid domestic and care workers which limit their capacities to participate in meaningful paid jobs (Fahy, 2022). In addition, data available reveals that in 2020, only 47 females of working age were active in the labor market against 74% of males (Fahy, 2022). This gender gap has been relatively low and consistent since 1995 (Fahy, 2022). Another case example of why people should start viewing social constructs about gender without prejudice.
Gender-Based Violence
Gender-Based Violence is harmful acts directed at an individual based on their gender identity. It is rooted in gender inequality, the abuse of power, and harmful norms. This violation of human rights could happen in the forms such as physical, sexual, mental, or economic harm inflicted on a person because of their gender (UNICEF, 2022). It may also include a risk of violence, intimidation, and denial of independence, both in public and private (UNICEF, 2022). In many cultures, females have less control over their bodies, decisions, and resources (UNICEF, 2022). Across the globe, some traditions condone violence by men as a way of controlling women and this enhances gender inequality and sustains gender-based violence (UNICEF, 2022). It can occur through an abusive relationship, early marriage, female genital mutilation, commercial sex exploitation, and prejudice due to someone’s sexual orientation.
Violence can affect everybody regardless of their locality, social and economic background, ethnicity, beliefs, sexuality, or personhood. At the face value, females are at the most risk, however, males and transgender minorities also experience gender-based violence (Ott, 2021). This vice is prevalent in the world because of systematic gender inequalities that have disempowered women, transgender, and other minorities (Ott, 2021). Due to the discrimination, their voices have been stifled to the extent that their stories and plights are not heard leading to the violation of their human rights. This vice is also prolonged because of a lack of justice, inadequacy of resources, or a lack of remunerative opportunities (Ott, 2021). The violence can happen in private, by roadsides, in markets, and even in transit camps. Additionally, it could involve street harassment such as groping, whistling, unwarranted attention in public, and rape.
Effect of Gender Prejudice on Individuals’ Health
Gender discrimination is aided by sexism, prejudice based on sex, or gender identity. In some countries, sexism devalues and makes women look like lesser humans compared to men (Villines, 2021). For this reason, that gender is more about how an individual feels, than their biological traits. Those genders such as women, gays, homosexuals, lesbians, trans, and other gender-expansive people who the social norms deem less valuable are discriminated against.
Impact of Gender Discrimination on Mental Health
This prejudice results in stress which has a direct impact on the mental health of the victims. Likewise, it could cause anxiety and psychological trauma to individuals facing such kinds of discrimination. A study reported by Zawn Villines (2021) indicates that women who encountered gender discrimination in the past year had higher scores on depression screening tools. Further, females suffered higher rates of mental illnesses including anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, and eating disorders, and were 1-5 times more likely to attempt suicide compared to males (Villines, 2021). In contrast, the article reports that some researchers have found a reduction in gender variations in the rates of mental disorders in cultures where there are equalities in terms of gender identity (Villines, 2021). This demonstrates the fact that gender inequality and prejudices necessitate mental issues among the victims.
There is also evidence that gender imbalance is a risk element for gender-based violence. It was reported in the article 30% of females in the world, have experienced either physical or sexual or both violence at some point in their lives (Villines, 2021). The estimates of gender-based violence are even higher at 47% among trans persons and greater among transgender ethnic minorities (Villines, 2021). These experiences can lead to mental health conditions and other complications that are traumatic.
Impact of Gender Prejudice on Physical Health
Gender prejudice has a direct and incidental impact on physical health including illnesses, disorders, poor living conditions, and injuries and death. There is proof that females who normally encounter discrimination like sexual intimidation at work mostly report poor physical health (Villines, 2021). Stress as a result of gender prejudice could contribute to several chronic diseases such as pain, high blood pressure, and diabetes. Victims could develop poor living conditions and have little or no access to the essentials they need to survive. For instance, in the United States, the gender gap in pay confines women to earn less compared to men, and it is even lesser for females of color doing the same job (Villines, 2021). This reduces the victims’ capabilities to afford food, safe housing, and health insurance leading them to stress (Villines, 20121). Discrimination sometimes has a direct impact on female genital mutilation for younger girls below the age of 15 years oftentimes leads to deaths (Villines, 2021). Girls who survive the practice usually experience extreme pain, bleeding, diseases, and prolonged sexual health problems.
Conclusion
Gender is the socially constructed characteristics of individuals such as norms, behaviors, roles, and relationships with one another. The gender identity of a person is usually revealed internally and may not match their biological sex at birth. However, many societies oftentimes have stereotypes about gender and confuse it with the biological sex of a male or a female. It should not be so because gender is shaped by individual choice, self-perception, and social interactions. Some persons may choose not to identify with any gender while others could identify as transgender, thus, only individuals themselves can decide what their gender is.
Globally, many cultures are influenced by traditional beliefs that categorize what society deems appropriate for girls, boys, women, and men. This over the years has led to a harmful systemic impact on the victims because their choices are suppressed and prejudiced by cultural norms. The traditions in several societies do not accord women the opportunity to independently decide for themselves what is good. Their voices are undermined, they are denied control over their lives, and are forced to conform to what society considers suitable.
Further, conventional cultures still do not accept transgender individuals who have been facing hate, discrimination, and profiling because they decided to go public about their gender choices. This is because the typical gender roles in society expect men and women to act, speak, dress, groom, and conduct themselves based on their biological sex distinctions at birth. It has led to inequalities based on gender or sexual orientation leading to poverty, gender-based violence, employment discrimination, physical and mental health problems for the victims; injuries, and even deaths. This should change to allow individuals who want to self-declare the gender with which they choose to identify with, and to express themselves externally, to do so freely without fear.
Perhaps, humans’ inbuilt capacity to symbolize is related to the fact that text, music, images, and related symbols permeate almost all human activities. This inhabitation of symbols in human spheres has resulted in the ubiquity of content and the development of the ability to examine it. Gender content analysis systematically examines the roles of both men and women as portrayed in various art forms. In the past, women were limited to playing housewife roles while most careers were a preserve of men. Most drama series and Nick Toon have been at the forefront in portraying various aspects of traditional and non-traditional patterns of behavior among men and women. This paper discusses the gendered messages revealed after fifteen minutes of watching the Rug Rats, How to Get Away with Murder, and the Olympics Games and examines the extent to which traditional or modern patterns of conduct are portrayed for men and women.
The Extent to which Men and Women Play Traditional Gender Roles
After watching the Rug Rats, I have discovered that Nick Toon gave much strength to the traditional gender roles. The female gender appears to have fewer dominant roles than men. For example, when Angelica takes all the babies under her boot, it indicates that it is a woman’s responsibility to take care of the child (Kerkhoven et al., 2016). On the other hand, non-traditional ways of conduct are shown through Angelica, who dominates all the others in the group. Angelica’s taking of the babies from Timmy demonstrates her taking control of the situation, which is a non-traditional female behavior pattern. The non-traditional ways of the male fashion of conduct are demonstrated by Timmy, who allows Angelica to have authority over him. Fifteen minutes of watching the How to Get Away with Murder drama series reveals that women are subjected to housewife roles. At the same time, men possess the power and authority to do whatever they want. In the past, men had luxurious professions while women could only work as nurses or secretaries.
The more Powerful Man and Woman
Fifteen minutes of viewing the Rug Rats, College Basketball, and How to Get Away with Murder reveals that men are depicted to be more powerful than women. In considering How to Get Away with Murder drama series, women are depicted to possess low ranked professions while men have high ranked careers (Kerkhoven et al., 2016). The issue of man is intensely expressed across sports, drama series, and children’s cartoons. In the Rug Rats, Timmy, a male character, uses his male chauvinism to exploit his peers’ power. However, in sports, women tend to be given a selection of softer games than their male counterparts.
The One More likely to Rescue
I watched the Rug Rats for fifteen minutes and determined that the women are the most likely to rescue. The women have shown dominance over the males in their groups. For example, when Angelica takes the babies to her boot, it is evident that she cares. In the How to Get Away with Murder drama series, the woman is depicted as the most likely to help (Kerkhoven et al., 2016). In the case of Analisa, she tries all she can to rescue Dwight Halpern from his fraud charges. After watching the Olympic Games for fifteen minutes, men appear to be considered better suited to the physically demanding nature of the sport; hence, men are depicted as more likely to rescue. Moreover, women are despised for participating in the Olympics, a majorly masculine event.
A Case of Contradiction to the Larger Pattern
In the How to Get Away with Murder TV series, Viola Davis shows non-traditional women’s superiority through her outstanding acting skills, which demonstrate power and authority. Fifteen minutes of watching the Olympic Games sports event shows that women traditionally tend to support soft games and short races while men participate in long-distance races and challenging games. However, several women are shown to participate in long-distance races and other physically strenuous games, including Olympic weightlifting. This trend contradicts the traditional norms, where most of these games were generally reserved for men.
The Message Conveyed to both Genders
After viewing the Rug Rats, Olympic Games, and How to Get Away with Murder, I have found out that they all advocate for responsibility by both genders in handling situations. Both men and women have been shown the importance of doing their roles. The shows, however, advocate for unlimited roles where men and women are challenged to look a step further outside their everyday responsibilities by trying those of the other gender.
Impact on the 12-Year-Old Self-Esteem
As a twelve-year-old teen, watching this content would significantly boost my self-esteem. I would start viewing the woman I am about to become as superior and more engaging than the traditionally timid pattern of behavior that society expects of women. The way women are despised in Get Away with Murder gives me the hunger to continue fighting for my position in society. I would also fight for women’s recognition and equality in the professional field.
Conclusion
Art plays a significant role in expressing the traditional and non-traditional roles of men and women in society. After watching the Rug Rats, How to Get Away with Murder, and the Olympics, I have determined that gender roles have been expressed in every concept. For example, in the Olympic Games, men are seen as superior to women. Women are restricted from participating in long-distance races and other more physically strenuous sporting activities. In the How to Get Away with Murder drama series, women are only allowed to have less-ranked careers such as secretarial positions while men hold the top-ranked professions. In Rug Rats, both men and women are seen to take gender roles. Angelica wants to take care of the babies because she is a woman, and Timmy also uses his chauvinism to demonstrate power and authority over his peers. Men and women should be allowed to express their opinions and feelings without being limited by gender.
Reference
Kerkhoven, A. H., Russo, P., Land-Zandstra, A. M., Saxena, A., & Rodenburg, F. J. (2016). Gender stereotypes in science education resources: A visual content analysis. PloS One, 11(11), e0165037. Web.
Gender expectations established during early childhood significantly influence health and wellbeing in later adolescence and even adulthood. This may lead to stereotypical attitudes towards girls and even unequal access to resources, promoting gender inequality. Gender norms, which portray men as dominant and strong, may discourage them from expressing their emotions. The rigid gender expectations make it impossible for them to get help when needed, leading to poor mental health and even higher suicide rates compared to girls. Traditional gender expectations are detrimental to the health and wellbeing of both adolescent girls and boys.
Causes of Australia’s High Rates of Suicide
I believe that the high suicide rates in Australia may be caused by several factors, among them mental illnesses. According to research, about 4.8 million Australians suffer from mental disorders, with the most affected group being individuals aged 15-24 years (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2020). This suggests that the prevalence of mental disorders among a significant population in the country may cause increased suicide rates. Such predominance of mental illnesses may explain why mood disorders, such as depression, were connected to 40.3% of all suicide deaths in Australia in 2020 (Australia Bureau of Statistics, 2021). In many cases, individuals with psychological disorders often experience negative and distorted thinking that makes them feel they cannot cope with their challenges, thus opting for a quick end. They may also experience a low sense of self-worth and hopelessness and a belief that bad things will happen to them in the future. Such feelings may be overwhelming, resulting in emotional distress and causing the individuals to attempt suicide to end the anguish.
Alcohol and substance abuse may be the leading causes of suicide in Australia. Approximately 29.3% of all suicide deaths in Australia in 2020 were linked to substance abuse (Australia Bureau of Statistics, 2021). The use of alcohol and other substances lowers individuals’ inhibitions, predisposing them to risky behaviors like acting on suicidal thoughts (Esang & Ahmed, 2018). Similarly, I believe that the use or misuse of alcohol or drugs may lead to impulsivity and impaired judgment. This implies that individuals under the influence of alcohol or other drugs are not in their rational minds and hence can act recklessly, causing self-harm. Therefore, alcohol and substance misuse predisposes individuals to suicide because they impair a person’s rationality.
Stressful life events are key contributors to suicide among Australians. Individuals experiencing bereavement, divorce, or separation have an increased risk of suicide due to the amounting stress (Buchman-Schmitt et al., 2017). Additionally, other factors such as unemployment, work stress, exposure to violence, and physical diseases may act as triggers for suicide, particularly among vulnerable people. For instance, in 2020, the unemployment rate in Australia increased to 6.2% especially following the Covid-19 pandemic (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2020). Such widespread unemployment is bound to cause feelings of hopelessness among individuals, especially if they cannot provide for their families. Such emotions may make them feel unworthy and helpless, leading to suicidal behaviors. It is important to note that stressful life events are not limited to adults only but also to adolescents. The social stressors among adolescents may be due to challenges adapting to new physical and emotional changes, parental discord, exposure to violence or suicide, or parental neglect (Hill et al., 2020). Such factors may cause significant stress to the adolescents resulting in suicide because many young people may be reluctant to request help.
How Future Practice Could Address Some of the Social Causes of Suicide Risk
I believe that counseling can be fundamental in addressing mental health disorders, substance abuse, and diverse stressful life events. Different therapeutic approaches have proven effective in addressing these risk factors, thus reducing the risk of suicide. In this case, cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is one of the most effective methods to help individuals suffering from mental health illnesses overcome their negative thinking patterns and establish effective coping mechanisms (Luo et al., 2020). CBT may also be used among individuals experiencing stressful life events such as bereavement, divorce, unemployment, and work stress. I firmly believe that talking to a counselor about one’s problems like separation or unemployment may relieve some stress, thus lowering the risk of suicide. Similarly, counselors can motivate their clients to cope with their problems or find alternative solutions. Therefore, different therapeutic methods can help individuals navigate life issues, such as unemployment, thus lowering suicide risk.
Alcohol and substance abuse can also be addressed through counseling. Addiction predisposes individuals to negative thoughts, impulsivity, and depression, increasing their susceptibility to suicide. Nevertheless, I think that various behavioral therapies, whether individual, family, or group therapy, can be used to solve the underlying causes of the addiction, whether mental disorders, genetics, or history of abuse (Ray et al., 2020). In addition, the affected individual may be referred to rehab services to overcome their substance use disorders (SUD). Thus, different counseling approaches combined with rehab and other treatment techniques may help address different SUDs hence lowering the risk of suicide.
Australia has been experiencing high rates of suicide, particularly among the youth. The major contributors to suicide include mental disorders, alcohol and substance abuse, and stressful life events, such as unemployment, divorce, work stress, grief, and exposure to violence. I believe that CBT is effective in lessening the risk of suicide. This is because it assists individuals in overcoming their negative thinking patterns and adopting positive thinking and better coping mechanisms. Therefore, therapy is fundamental in countering suicidal thoughts, which reduces the risk of suicide.
The Challenges for Adolescents Who Resist the Gender Expectations of Their Parents
I believe parents influence impressions of what it means to be a girl or boy by placing stiff gender norms on children from a tender age. These gender roles are intended to shape and influence children’s beliefs and behaviors for social acceptance. For this reason, the onset of puberty is usually followed by significant sanctions and increased pressure to conform to hegemonic sex-based roles and identities. Adolescents resisting or defying the gender expectations of their parents may be ostracized or punished for violating those values. A report shows that restricting boys’ and girls’ behaviors is key in defining masculine and feminine identities (Basu et al., 2017). Therefore, as they enter adolescence, especially girls, modesty is imparted as a desirable norm.
In this context, some of the major manifestations of defiance may involve girls displaying masculine behavior, such as gender inappropriate clothing. Adolescent boys who behave like girls may also face disapproval, stigmatization, ridicule, or exclusion (Coffey & Kanai, 2019). These negative sanctions on behavior may increase the risk of suicide and substance abuse and reduce the life expectancy compared to girls, particularly if they are trying to challenge masculine norms. Therefore, it is evident that parents need adolescents to conform to instilled gender expectations, and those who violate these values are severely punished, stigmatized, or excluded.
Gender expectations impact children or adolescents in a variety of ways. Young people may experience mental health problems as they try to conform to gender norms to fit in and gain social status. Gender practices enforced by the separation of young children when they reach puberty leads to significant health problems, including depression, violence, and victimization (Saewyc, 2021). For example, gender values portraying men as strong may discourage them from sharing their emotional problems because they are told not to show weakness from an early age. As a result, this makes it impossible for them to get help when needed, leading to poor mental health and even higher suicide rates compared to girls (Blum et al., 2017). This contributes to major mental health challenges because men usually resort to violence to cope with their problems.
During puberty, adolescent girls and boys are usually segregated into their expected responsibilities and gender roles in many societies. Young girls are usually assigned more household chores with less freedom to have leisure and interact with other sexes. On the other hand, young boys tend to have fewer tasks and more space to socialize or play. These unequal gender expectations and norms have uneven health risks for both genders.
Girls are usually left more vulnerable to reproductive and sexual health risks. This might explain why 27% of adolescent girls are married by 18 years, while 11% are already mothers (Mmari et al., 2021). Conversely, boys are more likely to experience mental illnesses, such as behavioral disorders and drug abuse, than their female counterparts (Mmari et al., 2021). The social contexts in which adolescents are nurtured significantly determine their health and wellbeing. For example, unequal gender values have been linked with an increased agency or decision-making for boys and a lower agency for girls (Saewyc, 2021). These traditions are typically used to justify violence against women. This is because norms often dictate that males are dominant and controlling while their counterparts are subservient and depend on them as providers.
These traditions usually promote a culture of abuse, such as sexual harassment and gender-based violence. As a result, adolescent girls are more likely to report depression than boys (Koenig et al., 2021). Poor mental health has lifelong ramifications for economic and educational trajectories. Girls are likely to experience low self-esteem, poor concentration, and even lack of interest, considerably affecting their self-image, confidence, and academic performance, making it difficult to succeed. Gender expectations negatively impact young girls’ socioeconomic empowerment because these norms influence beliefs or views of the appropriate roles females and males should play at home or in society. This might explain why most adolescent girls are less educated and may also have low employment, property-owning opportunities, and access to healthcare than their counterparts. This implies that girls are more likely to live in poverty than boys and have poor health outcomes. Therefore, unequal gender norms are characterized by limited autonomy, exploitation, and exposure to distress associated with caretaking and household responsibilities that affect girls’ mental health and wellbeing more than boys.
Conclusion
Gender expectations negatively impact the health and wellbeing of both adolescent boys and girls worldwide. Although these traditions favor boys, they are also affected because they are discouraged from expressing their feelings. Consequently, gender values often lead to damaging behaviors, such as drug abuse, to manage these opposing impulses. Men may be reluctant to seek help leading to depression and high suicide rates, and even physical aggression against women. I believe CBT is the most effective psychological approach for treating behavioral challenges that teenagers who resist the gender expectations of their parents may experience. It is also essential in helping those experiencing mental problems manage their conditions and change how they think and behave.
Coffey, J. & Kanai, A. (2019). Gender and sexualities. In J. Germov & M. Poole (Eds.), Public sociology: An introduction to Australian society (pp. 263-281). Routledge.
Hill, N., Witt, K., Rajaram, G., McGorry, P., & Robinson, J. (2020). Suicide by young Australians, 2006–2015: A cross‐sectional analysis of national coronial data. Medical Journal of Australia, 214(3), 133-139. Web.
Ray, L., Meredith, L., Kiluk, B., Walthers, J., Carroll, K., & Magill, M. (2020). Combined pharmacotherapy and cognitive behavioral therapy for adults with alcohol or substance use disorders. JAMA Network Open, 3(6), e208279. Web.
Saewyc, E. (2021). The next phase of the global early adolescent study: Measuring how gender norms and gender inequality intensify and influence health. Journal of Adolescent Health, 69(1), S1-S2. Web.
Lesbian motherhood does not differ much from traditional motherhood, and becoming a parent allows adults to understand their moral significance and develop new values. When a lesbian couple enters motherhood, society starts to see them more as parents but not as a couple. At the same time, lesbian mothers face more difficulties than heterosexual mothers, though motherhood in both cases is similar. Lesbians are often considered sexually profligate people who are not capable of self-sacrifice (Lewin 465). However, when people see a lesbian couple whose attitude towards their children is the same as the one in heterosexual couples, they may change their attitude towards lesbian motherhood.
Lesbian and gay parenthood are quite similar since they both give homosexual couples an opportunity to gain more respect and acceptance from society. Though lesbian motherhood and gay fatherhood are plain in terms of society’s attitude towards them, there are several differences in their perception. Gay fathers are seen as self-indulgent and selfish people who have an extravagant manner of expressing themselves (Lewin 468). Moreover, gay fathers are often suspected of inappropriate sexual behavior, which may become the reason for their children having AIDS in the future (Lewin 469). The article by Ellen Lewin refutes these myths, clearly showing that lesbian and gay parenthood do not differ from traditional heterosexual parenthood.
Gender is actively performed and created through the use of language where the typically male and female manners of expression are distinguished. Thus, male language often expresses the power and authority they possess, especially in front of other males. However, when speaking to women, males tend to occupy the position of fathers who talk to their children (Kiesling 265). It happens because women are usually perceived inferior to men, and the latter should explain everything to them and protect them as fathers usually do.
Transgender, nonbinary, and intersex people always faced negative judgment and oppression from society, expressed in many different ways. Throughout the previous century, transgender people were perceived as canvases for medical experiments instead of getting access to hormones and surgery (Gill-Peterson). Even now, people tend to treat people relying on their biological sex though society has become more tolerant towards transgender, nonbinary, and intersex people. However, the significant changes are impossible when people are assessed by their biological sex but not by their true personalities.
Works Cited
Gill-Peterson, Julian. “Trans Kids in the US Were Seeking Treatment Decades before Today’s Political Battles over Access to Health Care.” The Conversation, 2021.
Kiesling, Scott R. “’Now I GottaWatch What I Say’: Shifting Constructions of Masculinity in Discourse.” Gender in Cross-cultural Perspective, Routledge, 2017, pp. 254-270.
Lewin, Ellen. “Resignation and Refusal: The Moral Calculus of Lesbian and Gay Parenthood in the United States.” Gender in Cross-cultural Perspective, Routledge, 2017, pp.463-474.
The issue of race, class and gender plays a very important role in Los Angeles because particular race, class and gender are structured by particular economic power. Such role has been seen in Los Angeles like the time the upper middle class declined to support such public needs like schools, parks and even libraries among others (Smith).
Particular race plays an important role in determining ones state in the society and how it is used in determining public policies (Sanchez, 240). For instance, some form of classification according to race was necessary to meet the terms of the record keeping requirement in the federal government as well as facilitating different programs. Thus the category of the race continues to shape the society in present. A person’s race in Los Angeles would determine what privilege a person has. For instance whites were privileged in different aspects such as special provisions, gaining of visas as well as service in private and public places. This made the city of Los Angeles to be known as the city of the white (McIntosh, 14).
The issue of social class has also played an important role in Los Angeles. The people of the high class or the rich who were mainly white determined the economic structure and process of Los Angeles (Zweig, 12). The racial dynamics are the main determinants of the relationship according to class thus bringing about class identities. Different people of different race saw themselves more superior than others, like the blacks were seen mostly as the low class or poor race, and they were unable to have any impact on the economic structure and process of Los Angeles. Thus class played an important role in economic determination as well as historical change in Los Angeles.
The issue of gender has also shaped Los Angeles. Gender differences have had an impact both in the political and economic spheres. Gender has been seen as the main business of politics. Men were favored more than women in political issues and views. Thus the political organization determined much on the social organization meaning that the ways women are viewed in the political way determine the way they are treated socially. In Los Angeles in the 20th century, women had no voice in whatever matter that was concerned with economy, social welfare and even political ideology, thus men were the most dominate persons in different aspects of the city (Scott, 105).
Conclusion
The social class of an individual also has an impact on what he or she does or says. Those of the high class or so called the rich determined the way the economical process will be. They were more privileged in different aspects of the economic growth from policy determination to implementation of these policies that affects the economy. Those in the lower class or the poor had no voice. The political ideology was also determined mainly by the race, class and gender. Those who were in particular race like the white, class like the rich and gender like the men determined the impact on political issues which furthermore had impact on the economic welfare of Los Angeles.
Work Cited
McIntosh, Peggy. White Privilege: Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack. Wellesley: Wellesley College Center for Research on Women, 1988.
Sánchez, George J. Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture, and Identity in Chicano Los Angeles, 1900-1945. New York: Oxford University Press US, 1995.
Scott, Joan, W. Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis. American Historical Association, 1986.wasdc
The school, especially its middle and high stages, is a unique and paradoxical setting for the social upbringing of young people. It is the stage where one makes critical socialization decisions, many of which are almost impossible to reverse psychologically in adulthood. Yet it is also a demo version of many social interactions and processes, the full version of which one will face fully in their later years. Either way, the school’s sociological properties make it a diverse setting for observation and research by psychologists and gender studies experts. Risman and Seale are among the researchers who decided to investigate the gender aspect of societal upbringing in boys and girls at the American middle school (570). Their central conclusion is that “boys need a kind of “feminist revolution” of their own” (Risman and Seale 590). I think one way to achieve this is to deconstruct traditional boy behavior or conventional young masculinity. It would make conventional forms of boyish behavior and so-called ones socially equal and culturally neutral and free the usually teased young males from peers’ judgment and ridicule.
From my perspective, the needed deconstruction of boys’ masculinity can be done in the same way that feminist revolutions have been carried out. Here I mean a two-pronged approach that includes internal promotion and education of a given male subpopulation about the forms of male behaviors and ways of expressing them, and external activism about contemporary male needs and issues of traditional masculinity. It would require the support and cooperation of influential male figures such as fathers, teachers, and male celebrities.
Boys would experience the most significant impact from a hypothetical revolution in the culture of masculinity. Global gender change would not eliminate traditional masculinity, hyper-masculinity, and “toughness” (Risman and Seale 573). Instead, I believe it would make them not the only forms of publicly accepted and proper male behavior. I see it as boys and men adopting some feminine societal mannerisms and traits. They would start to compete with girls and women in their exclusive fields. According to Risman and Seale, these are looks and bodies now (589). The masculinity revolution would be a cultural driver for further gender emancipation for girls.
Work Cited
Risman, Barbara J., and Elizabeth Seale. “Betwixt and Be Tween: Gender Contradictions among Middle Schoolers.” Families as They Really are, edited by Barbara J. Risman and Virginia Rutter, W. W. Norton, 2015, pp. 570-592.
Gender imbalances occur in multiple industries, an issue that is widely discussed due to the difficulties of creating a more diversified workforce. However, despite the fact that specific limitations have been addressed based on the premises of equal pay and hiring practices, high-paying and prestigious positions are still mainly represented by white males. While there are multiple positions that are overrepresented by females, such as academic settings, care provision, and administrative jobs, prestigious and high-paying positions such as CEOs and senior executives are almost always males. The topic that arises is whether feminists are to be concerned with the aforementioned imbalance. Based on existing evidence, the limitation requires attention since such a pattern illustrates the societal difficulties women meet when aiming for high-paying positions.
A Contrast in Negotiation Approaches
It is certain that the lack of women’s representation in high-paying jobs is a complex issue that highlights the societal challenges and lack of opportunities that are gender-based. Namely, the imbalance is to be a concern for feminists because it highlights a type of inequality and discrimination that persists in other areas of life besides the professional one. According to Sandberg (2010), one of the concerns that ultimately prevents women from aiming for such jobs is the lack of desire to negotiate and believe in their own strengths. Thus, women are less likely to ask for a raise, a higher organizational position, or an adequate employment contract. The factors that impact such findings may be related to the fact that women have been taught to be more modest and quiet and not be outspoken in regards to their skills and success. Thus, one of the reasons why the feminist movement is to address the lack of women CEOs is because it shows that there are still differences in the ways men and women view and navigate the workforce.
The Concept of “Woman Work”
As mentioned prior, despite the changes in hiring practices, the stigma of certain jobs or positions within an organization is still based on gender. According to Jaffe (2016), breaking out of the “woman work” stereotype is one of the aims of the feminist agenda. Based on the fact that high-paid jobs are rarely represented by both genders and are more of a monolith, the notion illustrates that women are still considered unfit for such roles. This also highlights a reason why feminists are to be concerned with the precedent, namely, the presence of intrinsic societal views which do not allow for women to be seen as influential CEOs, senior executives, and major stakeholders or corporations.
Unfair Labor Division and Work-Life Balance
One of the reasons why women are misrepresented in certain areas of the workforce is the additional duties they have in their day-to-day life. Evidently, managing a work-life balance is difficult as taking care of children and chores are things that are rarely equally divided among heterosexual partners. Thus, women often manage to work full-time and take care of the additional responsibilities, while men do not have the same tasks to attend to. The inequality of work and family lives is described as one of the limitations preventing women from succeeding in their careers (Saul, 2012). Moreover, the imbalanced divisions of the house labor division give men more opportunities to attend to their work tasks even outside working hours, creating an unfair precedent in which one gender has more options to advance in their professional setting (Brooks, 2021). Another circumstance that has to be a concern for feminists in regards to a lack of representation in high-paid jobs is the psychological aspect of such aims. Women who focus on their careers are still considered betrayers of such values as family and marriage (Hooks, 2013). As a result, motivation to advance in professional life decreases since the results may include further stigmatization, blame, and criticism from other members of the community in which the woman operates.
Feminists have to be concerned with this aspect because any gender-based stigma correlating with decisions in the professional life limit all women from pursuing their dream careers. It does not only involve those aiming for high-paying positions but can affect all gender minorities regardless of the industry, employment objectives, or wage. Thus, such aspects that limit individuals from advancing in their work lives are examples of a societal problem affecting women in general, which is why the issue is so complex.
Conclusion
Women face difficulties achieving high success in their careers not because of a lack of skills, knowledge, or experience but because external factors impact their ability to do so. A lack of belief in themselves, gender-based job divisions, an imbalanced share of house labor, and stigmatization of those prioritizing careers create circumstances in which prestigious positions are mainly represented by men. Since the challenge portrays complex gender inequality issues, feminists have to be fully motivated to combat such significant statistical differences in representation. The concern is not only to be related to the lack of women who achieve such professional success but to the general inequality that is exemplified in multiple areas of society, including the aforementioned one.
Providing new opportunities, autonomy and economic benefits is significant to the delivery on all the strategic policies of Majlis Al-Shura. While evidences reveal that organizations that promote increased equality among the employees in terms of both new prospect and benefits, there is not only increased efficiency in service delivery but also enhanced livelihood (Buvinic, Gupta, Casabonne & Verwimp, 2013; Castillejo, 2011). Addressing gender issues and empowering women remains significant in addressing most of the administrative challenges facing the organization (Kapiszewski, 2006). Institutional developments in both public and private establishments are more pertinent and sustainable when both genders are allowed to contribute fully as identical actors (Puechguirbal, 2012). Similarly, the progress plans of major institutions can only be achieved when both genders are allowed to take part fully in their design and implementation as equal actors (Melander, 2005).
Yet, despite increasing evidence that women’s improved capabilities and welfare are strongly linked to the developed and improved performance in the public institutions, gender inequalities continue to be inordinately large in public institutions particularly in countries within the Arab world (Aba-Namay, 2008). At present, with few expectations, women working in administrative positions in public institutions fare worse compared to the male counterparts for which data are available (Smith, 2007). If such women have an equal opportunity to the productive outputs, increased responsibilities, participation and independence, the estimates is that the performance of the institution would increase by 20 – 30%, which in turn would increase the governance performance by 2.5% to 4% in both national and local levels (Javed, 2004).
Since its establishment Majlis Al-Shura has made little efforts in allowing women to be part of its establishment until 2013 when women were allowed to take up to around thirty seats (Toumi, 2012; Al Mulhim, 2013). Since then the institution has increased its efforts in overcoming gender issues and empowering women as a strong foundation for its future work and expected improved performance (Al Mulhim, 2013). As indicated, dealing with issues re issues related to women empowerment remains critical to the implementation and achievement of the strategies that have been put established. Consequently, the Majlis Al-Shura will remain at the forefront in working on gender issues in the context of empowering women through education and offering increased opportunities (Al Mulhim, 2013). However cultural orientations and religious belief systems provide new opportunities and greater challenges towards this effort (Smith, 2007).
Therefore, the problem being investigated is the lack of understanding of the impact of empowering women in their administrative roles in order to contribute to the overall performance of Majlis Al-Shura. Even though vast information concerning women empowerment are available and recognition that offering more places in the leadership position is highly needed, no one in the leadership and decision-making organs of the state seems to understand the effects of providing women with more opportunities, autonomy and participation in decision-making processes (Toumi, 2012).
The policy on gender equality and women empowerment would remain significant to the achievement of the overarching goals of Majlis Al-Shura especially, its strategic framework of 2013-2017. Allowing women to participate fully in administrative roles and decision-making processes, increase their education, provide more opportunities in terms of employment, increase their independence, raise their income and strengthen their resilience would reinforce Majlis Al-Shura’s position as the leading institution in promoting gender equality for the general economic growth and social development in Saudi Arabia (Javed, 2004; Toumi, 2012; Al Mulhim, 2013). Besides, Majlis Al-Shura’ know-how and accomplishments would remain superior within its wide-ranging course of action in supporting gender equality and providing women with increased opportunities (Toumi, 2012; Al Mulhim, 2013). Pursuing such strategies would enable Majlis Al-Shura to systemize and increase its efforts to narrow down the gaps existing in gender equality and advance both financial and social status of women within the administrative roles.
The Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to examine the effects of empowerment of gender identity, the identity based on conflict and conflict resolution among female administrative employees working at Majlis Al-Shura in Saudi Arabia. In other words, the purpose of the proposed study is to deepen the understanding of the impact of empowering women based on conflict and conflict resolution and strengthening gender equality among female administrative employees working at Majlis Al-Shura. The purpose of the study will be achieved through the following strategic objectives:
To explore the manner in which female employees working in Majlis Al-Shura are empowered
To explore the effects of the empowerment on the performance of the women particularly on the conflict and conflict resolution roles
To examine the effects of women empowerment on the general performance of Majlis Al-Shura in the area of policy formulation, implementation and achievements
The Research Questions and Hypothesis
The purpose of the study will be met through testing the following hypothesis and answering the two questions:
H1: Empowerment has positive impact among female administrative employees working at Majlis Al-Shura
H2: Empowerment has negative impact among female administrative employees working at Majlis Al-Shura
Given the fact that the effects of empowering women working in Majlis Al-Shura is yet to be determined, the proposed study tends to answer the following questions:
RQ1: What is the impact of empowerment among female administrative employees working at Majlis Al-Shura?
RQ2: What are the effects of the empowerment on the general performance of Majlis Al-Shura in the area of policy formulation, implementation and achievements?
Long-Term Objectives
The long-term objective of the proposed study is to provide evidence to guide the policy formulation on women empowerment and gender equality within the public institutions in Saudi Arabia.
Methodology
The study is qualitative in which the data will be collected through a survey. The survey questionnaire will be administered to the sampled participants in order to determine the relationships between the variables being tested. The participants will be selected through a random sampling procedure. The collected data will be analyzed through the application of quantitative approaches and the statistical tools in order to determine the best correlation between the variables.
Sample
The sample for the proposed study will primarily be selected among female employees working in Majlis Al-Shura. The study participants will be selected through random sampling procedure. The random sampling procedure is chosen due to its reduced chances of being bias as well as even representation of the population being targeted.
Sample Size
The expected sample for the proposed study will be ten women working in Majlis Al-Shura. Even though all female employees working in Majlis Al-Shura are deemed viable for this study, only ten will randomly be selected and a survey questionnaire will administered in order to determine the correlation between the variables being investigated.
References
Aba-Namay, R. (2008). The new Saudi representative assembly. Islamic Law and Society, 5(2), 235–265.
Al Mulhim, A. (2013). Saudi stability and royal succession. Arab News. Web.
Buvinic, M., Gupta, M. D., Casabonne, U., & Verwimp, P. (2013). Violent conflict and gender inequality: an overview. The World Bank Research Observer, 28(1), 110-138.
Castillejo, C. (2011). Building a state that works for women: integrating gender into post-conflict state building. Madrid: FRIDE.
Javed, N. (2004). Gender identity and Muslim women: Tool of oppression turned into empowerment. Convergence, 27(2/3), 58-64.
Kapiszewski, A. (2006). Saudi Arabia: Steps toward democratization or reconfiguration of authoritarianism? Journal of African and Asian Studies, 41(5-6), 459–482.
Melander, E. (2005). Gender equality and intrastate armed conflict. International Studies Quarterly, 49, 695–714.
Puechguirbal, N. (2012). The cost of ignoring gender in conflict and post-conflict situations: a feminist perspective. Amsterdam Law Forum, 4(1), 4-19.
Smith, J. I. (2007). Joining the debate. World Forum, 12(9), 60-62
Toumi, H. (2012). 30 women likely to be on Saudi Shura Council. Gulf News (Manama). Web.
The universal appeal of sports and tourism is without doubt. The two activities play a major role in our lives. It is estimated that about 700 million persons took a trip to foreign lands in the year two thousand. In the process they contributed over four hundred and seventy six USD, to the World economy. In a study (Harris, 2005) the choice and focus of tourism has also shifted as from just being a purely leisure activity but also health based activities have been in cooperated into tourism. Sports activities are also being factors that tourists choose when looking for destinations. The two activities are intertwined and one contributes immensely to the other. Many citizens in developed nations in cooperate sports tourism as part of their retinue. Patterns of both activities are hard to trace on a worldwide scale but we can agree that both are very universal. Apart from the economic benefits brought about by the two activities, there are also health and social benefits that accompany them. Members of the society can be kept pre occupied and away from bad vices. As they say that the idle mind is the devils workshop, sports, tourism and other activities related to them are good for the society.
Politics of Gender in Sports and Tourism
In the book by Bull and Weed (2003), Developing countries, there are sports that have been restricted to certain genders. Due to cultural restrictions and repressive laws set by dictatorship regimes, many ladies do not get the chance to compete against each other in certain sports. The issue of gender in sports has always been used to marginalize members of certain sex from enjoying the full benefits that accompanies one, when he/she participates in either of the activities. A good example of discrimination is how ladies are often restricted from wearing certain sports costumes during competitions. It is also due to religious restrictions that ladies can find themselves wearing extra clothing despite of the environmental conditions that they could be suffering from. In a study (Harris, 2005) this applies mostly to Muslim ladies who are always seen their religious clothing even when running or jogging. The issue of gender also plays a part in tourism whereby we also see religious restrictions playing a role in limiting members of a certain sex from enjoying tourism. The synergy between sports and tourism cannot be ignored and hence it requires that gender equality be respected in these two fields. I am happy to note that since the sensitization of gender rights all over the world, we have started to see some flickers of hope through lady athletes and also ladies competing in once men dominated games such as football and rallying. We have also seen men enter participate in tourism activities that were once thought to be connected to ladies. Men these days are becoming fashion tourists.
Case Study
Gender politics especially play a role in the running of both sports and tourist trusts. Even after efforts have been done in order to ensure that gender equality is upheld, the politics of gender has always remained unresolved. The issue of underrepresentation has always been a stumbling block towards women empowerment in sports and tourist activities. At the top of the organizational structure, ladies continue to be left out in making decisions that directly impact on them. The issue also affects those men who convey their masculinity through engaging in either sports or tourist activities that are not socially and widely acceptable. These forms of gender restrictions inhibit the growth of sports and tourism in our countries. Scholars have come up with various solutions in countering the current state of events. This has seen some development or change in culture in some organizations. In the book by Bull and Weed (2003), a study where both men and ladies were tested revealed that both ladies and men participated into the two activities for different reasons. While ladies participated in order to socialize and keep fit, most men used the two activities for purposes of competing against each other. Males perceived that the two activities of sports and tourism or sports tourism, enabled them to practice their leadership skills and express their gender masculinity. As for the females, they perceived that the two activities will enable them to socialize
Conclusion
Members of all genders should be given a chance to engage and to hold equal number of posts in sports and tourism bodies. This will ensure that the politics of gender is reduced and a favorable environment for us to develop the two activities is maintained.
References
Bull, C., Hoose, J. and Weed, M. (2003). An Introduction to Leisure Studies, London: Prentice Hall.
Harris, D. (2005) Key Concepts in Leisure Studies, London: Sage.