Category: Gender

Despite decades of fighting for people’s rights, discrimination remains one of the most topical issues on the agenda of the 21^st-century world. In addition, discrimination nowadays takes a variety of shapes, making both children and adults representing minorities feel insecure. At present, different types of discrimination exist; there is racial profiling, discrimination of sexual minorities, and, finally, ethnic or national discrimination, the most well-known types of profiling. The problem has trickled into a number of spheres, including business and education; however, the idea of discrimination dictating its rules to the realm of science seemed absurd up until recently. Despite the attempts of bringing the principles of equality to work among researchers, some of the academies view certain types of people as unwelcome in the world of science. Among the most common types of discrimination in the world of science, gender profiling takes the first place (Valian, 2014).

The evolution of women’s role in science has gone an admittedly long way and has led to impressive results; while previously, women were literally not allowed into the “holy of the holies” – the world of natural sciences, in the 20^th and the 21^st centuries, a major breakthrough occurred – women finally entered the field of research and gained an opportunity to not only partake in science projects but also be the leaders of ones.

Nevertheless, at present, tangible inequality can be observed in the roles of men and women in science. First and most important, female researchers and scientists are paid less than men, though working equally hard and making a nonetheless significant contribution to the evolution of science. The financial aspect of the problem is emphasized the most frequently and, as a result, is often considered the most efficient argument in the debate regarding the existence of inequality between men and women in science (Charyton et al., 2011).

The problem of gender profiling, however, does not stop at the aforementioned point; not only do women get paid less than men for their research, but their contributions to the development of natural sciences are often belittled. The fact that women win fewer grants than men do can also be related to the effects of gender profiling in research, particularly in natural sciences (Luntz, 2011).

It should be noted that similar tendencies can be observed in other fields of science and humanities as well; the extent of gender profiling, however, is considerably less impressive than the one, which can be observed in natural sciences. For example, recent exploration of the issue has shown that women face better chances for promotion and academic evolution when taking part in researches in social science; the same can be said about the women who have chosen humanities. The difference in treatment of women in natural sciences and humanities, however, not only breaks the stereotypical understanding of the role of women in research but also reinforces it; according to the latest opinion polls, male researchers consider natural sciences the domain of men, whereas the field of social research and humanities was referred to in a rather condescending manner as the female domain (Mershon & Walsh, 2012).

The results give enough reasons for concern. Though women have been provided with a range of chances in becoming full-fledged members of research teams, the only areas that women have gained access so far seem to be restricted by humanities and (occasionally) in social sciences. A range of measures have been undertaken in order to address the problem; however, gender profiling still exists in a number of institutions. As the research carried out by Clayton (2011) shows, “despite enormous gains ensuring equal opportunities for women scientists, there remain stark differences between the numbers of men versus women who reach top positions in science” (Clayton, 2011, para. 6).

The fact that years after a continuous process of addressing the issue, the problem is still in its place, is very disturbing. Women still are a minority in the realm of scientific research, and their rights are infringed on a regular basis. Therefore, the appropriate measures must be undertaken in order to solve the problem and provide women in science with the same rights that men can enjoy.

It would be wrong to claim that nothing is being done to handle the problem of gender profiling in academic institutions and centers for research. Quiet, on the contrary, several programs have been launched to deal with the lack of equality between male and female researchers, particularly in the field of natural sciences. For instance, in 2004, a program, which was supposed to enhance women’s participation in natural sciences, was launched; a decade later, the initiative was repeated, with admittedly satisfying results.

Presupposing that the women, who have already gained some weight in the world of science, should mentor younger women, therefore, helping the latter improve their status and acquire new skills efficiently, the given initiative allows for bringing the rates of chauvinism in the field of natural sciences down. Despite the fact that the initiative has only been launched in the field of medicine, particularly the cancer treatment department, the movement is bound to grow increasingly influential until women are finally recognized for having the same rights for being promoted in research as men do (Young, 2007).

When it comes to identifying the force that has the greatest impact on the rebirth of the feminist movement in natural sciences, the votes are traditionally split between the U.S. government and the scientific community. The choice of the most powerful agent in the given case is very complicated, seeing that the U.S. government members clearly have more power to change the situation, yet the members of the scientific community are capable of shaping the state regulations so that the new rules and regulations could have the maximum effect on the field in question. No matter how powerful the state authorities may possibly be, one should still admit that the scientific community is of much greater power here. Because of the inability to execute a direct control over the scientific establishments, state authorities are barely capable of handling a particular case of women’s rights infringement; as a result, the effects of the regulations issued by the state hinge upon the policy chosen by the scientific community.

Though numerous measures are undertaken regularly in order to eradicate any forms of discrimination from the realm of science, gender profiling still exists and manifests itself in despicable attitude towards female researches, insultingly low wages for women engaged in scientific projects and the notorious “glass ceiling,” which many female employees fail to breakthrough in the process of building their career. In the 21^st century, ignoring the issue will mean defying the basic principles of democracy. Women deserve to be given the same rights as men enjoy in the field of natural sciences. Until female scientists are treated in the same way as male researchers are, the battle for equality must continue.

Reference List

Charyton, C., Elliott, J. O., Rahman, M. A., Woodard, J. L. & DeDios, S. (2011). Gender and science: Women Nobel laureates. Journal of Creative Behavior, 45(3), 203-214. Web.

Clayton, J. (2011). Fix the system, not the women. Science. Web.

Luntz, J. (2011). Gender barriers in science. Australasian Science, 32(6), 22-23. Web.

Mershon, C. & Walsh, D. (2012). Organizing women: Diversifying leadership and addressing discrimination in the political science profession. Web.

Valian, V. (2014). Interests, gender, and science. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 9(2), 225–230. Web.

Young, C. (2007). Women, science, and gender bias. Boston Globe, 1(10), A.15. Web.

Sex and gender are the particular notions which should not be confused. Sex “marks the distinction between women and men as result of the fundamental biological, physical and genetic differences between them” (Narasaiah 37), while gender roles are “set by convention and other social, economic, political and cultural forces” (Narasaiah 37). Therefore, it is possible to conclude that sex is the item which cannot be chosen as people are born with some particular signs which maybe deleted by means of surgeon operations, but it is not preferable. Gender is more flexible item which maybe changed depending on the personal will and social norms. The main idea of the paper is to consider the difference of sex and gender on the basis of the case of David Reimer.

Considering the situation with David Reimer, it is possible to say that a person was offered to live with another sex, but the gender roles in the society could not be changed. Being a girl up to 9 years, David Reimer felt some problems, being “she” he was unable to lead a normal life. However, it is not that easy to shift from one gender to another especially when issue is about changing the sex. Reading the story about David Reimer in the CBC News Online (n.p.), it was obvious that a person felt some problems, it was obvious David Reimer, being a girl experienced some problems which could not be explained.

David Reimer’s father decided to tell the truth? Was he right? It is impossible to answer this question. Everything was done. David Reimer appeared in the situation when he could not find his gender role and social status. He could not even say his sexual orientation as being grown up as a girl with the direction at being with boys David Reimer had to change his attitude to the whole world, but he could no. It was really difficult for him to live even after having understood his male sex and trying to be of the male gender. The reasons of his death are called the inability to live without a twin brother, but this is not the real reason as the suicide. The inability to find out the gender role, people are unable to live in the society.

As for me, I suppose that in the modern world with too much prejudice and the inability of others to understand some gender roles of people sex reassignment of children is inadmissible (Macionis and Gerber 125). Such cases are possible in the world free from prejudice, but considering the political and financial impact of the social situation in the world, the indifference and normal attitude to sex and gender of people will always play an important role. Those children who are submitted to the practice of sex reassignment of children should be carefully treated. The work should be done with professional psychologists.

Thus, it is important to state that the practice of sex reassignment of children is not that spread in our society and it should not be spread as people are not ready for this. Gender roles and sex are very important for them and the chances to lead a normal life with the changed of at least one of the factors is difficult. Even people with different orientation are not accepted in this society, people with changed gender roles. There is nothing to say about the practice of sex reassignment of children.

Works Cited

Narasaiah, Mark Lee. Population and cities. New York: Discovery Publishing House, 2006. Print.

Macionis, John J. and Linda Marie Gerber. Sociology. Stamford: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2009. Print.

CBC News Online. “David Reimer the boy who lived as a girl.” CBC News, 2004. Web.

Socialization from birth by family and community

From a tender age, children realize their identity, either a male or female. This is made possible due to many factors in their environment, including what grown ups in their lives tell them, their interaction with other children, and everyday experiences at shops, school, church, and of course, in their homes. Other factors, like cloth choices made for them, color of items they receive as gifts, and even the shape and model of the gifts, are all factors that perpetuate socialization (Kendall 10). On the other hand, racial bias is introduced to children through their interactions with people in their lives, including parents, friends, neighbors and other children.

Racial bias is an acquired state, brought about by experiences in an every day life. Religion, culture and geographic location also play a key role in the way gender privileges and opportunities are allocated. It is important for our children to understand the race and gender they belong to, however, these “notions” and understanding of self should not be misinterpreted, as well as misunderstood by children as an obstacle and denial of the opportunity to get the best out of their lives because of the gender or racial discrimination (Kendall 10).

Toys and their influence on socialization

Toys are colourful items that are made specifically for children of all ages, to entertain, educate and even build their motor skills. There are diverse types of toys, some made specifically for girls and others for boys. There are also others that can be used by both, boys and girls (Kendall 11). Toys could be black or white, and this brings about racial affiliations which may have adverse effects on the children and their socialization in the long term, depending on how the toys are acquired and communicated to the children. Toys which depict whites as superior and blacks as inferior, socialize the children negatively. They make black children feel inferior to the white children, and this affects their confidence and self-esteem. The white children, on the other hand, are made feel superior and this raises their confidence and self-esteem (Kendall 15).

Toys and gender differentiation

Toys acquisition is one of the ways which can easily form biases and uncall for differentials, in the way young boys and girls are socialized. For example, upon entering a major toys store, one immediately notices that toys have been separated in terms of gender and sometimes even race. Boys’ toys are mostly replicas of big cars, lorries and trains, mostly in dull ‘boyish’ colors, while those for girls would be in bright colors like pink, and consist of dolls and girly stuff (Kendall 17). This forms a perception in the children’s young minds that girls are caretakers, and boys are supposed to explore the outdoors and aim to work with big machines and vehicles.

Frankly speaking, there is nothing wrong with a girl playing with the cars and trucks. Also, there is nothing wrong with a boy picking a doll and dressing it. The only problem is the way this is perceived in the society. Luckily, puzzles, blocks and Lego toys, are all open to use by all genders. It is important to note that toys are very effective tools for learning and socializing children, and should therefore be used appropriately to get the most out of them. Toys displayed in toy stores are either labeled ‘boys’ or ‘girls,’ or they can have a picture of either gender to identify with either boys or girls. Rarely will one find a toy without gender classifications (Kendall 21).

Toys and race affiliation

Majority of toys that are available in the stores are mostly those that reflect the white race. Rarely will one find a toy depicting the African race, and even where they are reflective of the African culture and look, they are minimal in number, and unfortunately, may not be as ‘attractive’ as the others to the young ones. This could be because the children have been socialized to believe that anything of white origin is superior to all others. In other cases, there is a tendency of all concerned, to depict white as better and without blemish, and anything black as not appealing (Kendall 24).

This perception clearly shows that despite advancements in modern technology which has made the world a global village, there still exist elements of racism in the society (Kendall 24). This racial socialization is evident in toys, makes the white children feel and perceive themselves as superior to the black children. On the other hand, the socialization makes black children feel inferior to the white children, and this affects them psychologically, and hinders their success. It also negatively affects their confidence and this makes them less courageous when facing life challenges that they come across (Kendall 25). Since most toy making companies are owned by whites, the blacks have little influence on this, and if this trend is not stopped, racial socialization will continue, despite the high level of interaction and literacy in the modern world (Kendall 25).

Toys: The shopping experience

Shopping in a toy shop was not only an enjoyable exercise, but also one that was quite straightforward, as one could easily tell which section is for girls and which one is for boys stuff. The difficulties of choice come in, in cases where the parent or guardian would like their child to grow up without the adverse effects of belonging to a certain category, but rather as a whole person. In this case, it may take some time to choose an appropriate toy. In the toy store, I came across toys for girls that depicted softness, nurture, care and family like dolls, while those for boys, were of a different nature, depicting strength, hard work and action oriented like trucks, cars, balls and so on.

Toys depicting the white race had positive connotations reflecting beauty and class, while on the contrary, toys depicting the black race were marred with not much interesting characteristics (Kendall 34). This is probably because of the inherent believe that most people still harbor that black people are corrupt, poor, illiterate and inferior. In the toy store, I experienced the abundance of white affiliated toys, while those associating with the black people were few and in between. Segregated toys in terms of different ones for boys and others for girls were also plenty in the store, thereby, socializing the young ones in the line that girls are supposed to play with certain toys and boys with different ones. To help stop gender inequality in the society, this segregation of toys should stop and this will help in socializing children positively (Kendall 34).

Works Cited

Kendall, Diana. Sociology in Our Times. London: Cengage Learning, 2012. Print.

Introduction

Peterkin (2012) explains that the Equal Pay Act of 1963 was enacted to facilitate equality between men and women in terms of their pay. However, to date, there are still certain obstacles that contribute to the huge pay gap between men and women.

Identification of the obstacles to women equality

One of the reasons contributing to a huge pay difference between men and women is the choice of what they study as their college major (Peterkin 2012). Irrespective of the choice of the major, the male graduates earn way more than the female graduates.

Sandberg (2010) gave a presentation at the TEDWomen talk in 2010 and pointed out that women prefer personal fulfillment to professional success. In this case, when we compare the career woman to her male counterpart, there is a difference in that the career women at the same level have children and a husband to take care of while men are not always directly involved in taking care of children. When women indulge in their careers, they forego their opportunity to raise a family, while the male managers have the capacity to excel in their careers and raise a family as well.

The employers and the society also need to make both men and women feel important. Men are pressurized to succeed but this is rarely the case with their female counterparts. The women’s tasks are heavier than those of men considering they have to take care of their families in addition to office responsibilities (Sandberg).

What causes the obstacles?

The women who are given top positions in companies do very little to change the current belief in the society about the best jobs being taken over by men. Bennett observes that the women do not take up their responsibilities in the top positions in fear of being called bossy and therefore they still contribute to the sexism.

Women tend to lean back at the workplace especially if they are considering starting a family. Women should not leave their employment or ignore promotions by making premature decisions which may act as their own limitations to success in future. Sandberg (2010) encourages women to keep working hard to ensure that even when they take a break, they have a job to look forward to when they resume.

Bennett (2010) acknowledges that women are exposed to discriminatory practices that are based on certain beliefs that categorize specific jobs for women, thereby limiting what they can do in an organization. Employers too contribute to the issue of inequality by reserving certain jobs for women and others for men.

Ways of overcoming the obstacles

Peterkin (2013) notes that women should be advised to choose the best majors that will increase their earnings. In addition, women should be willing to be more active in negotiating their salaries. Though this will not entirely create the desired equality effect, a better option would be for the employer to take decisive action. Employers ought to implement policies that facilitate equal pay between men and women.

Women empowerment strategies have contributed to increase in their employment. A good example is when the ‘girl power’ movement began in early 2000 and led to an increase in the rate of employment among women (Bennett 2010). According to Sandberg (2010), women ought to be advised to ‘sit at the table’ and negotiate for what they want even if it is their first salary. Women should learn to attribute their career success to themselves instead of saying that ‘they got lucky’. They should feel they deserve their success, believe in themselves and stop giving excuses of how they need to be supported to get the top job.

Affirmative action in the workplace helps to protect minorities like women against discrimination (Greenberg and Page 123). In the United States, affirmative action was implemented to remove barriers and increase the employment rate of those groups that had been previously discriminated against.

Why today’s young women have a harder time identifying and calling attention to the discrimination they are experiencing

When women succeed, some of the men question whether this is due to their abilities or sexuality (Bennett 2010). Men rarely appreciate that women have worked hard to earn their positions. This happens even as many organizations have implemented laws to eliminate sexual harassment at the workplace and introduced flexi hours to give convenience to the women (Crabtree 2011). Bennett (2010) further notes that women also rank masculine jobs as the highest obstacle to success yet they only choose the low paying jobs which were done by women in the 1960s. In addition, Sandberg (2010) says that managers sometimes do not notice how hard women fight for the same opportunities as men and as such, men need to be more sensitive and fair to them.

Conclusion

The campaign to bridge the pay gap between men and women cannot be done without the assistance of the employers. Employers have a responsibility to ensure that their pay favors both men and women equally and that the work done by women is not underrated. It is imperative that employers accept that women have the right to negotiate their salaries after they finish college and be perceived as aggressive and hardworking like their male colleagues.

Works Cited

Bennett, Jessica. 2010. Young Women, Newsweek, and Sexism. 2010. Web.

Crabtree, James. 2011. UN: barriers to gender equality remain. 2011. Web.

Greenberg, Edward and B. Page. Struggle for Democracy. New York: Pearson, 2010. Print.

Peterkin, Caitlin. Male-Female Pay Gap Persists and Starts Early, Study Finds. 2012. Web.

Sandberg, Sheryl. “Why we have too few women leaders.”Youtube. TEDTalks, 2010. Web.

Schwartz and Rutter present fascinating views on romance because they suggest that the gender of the person plays an important role as far as expression of sexual desires is concerned. Their view is that sexual drive is not simply determined by the sex of the person as it depends on if an individual fulfills his or her lover’s expectations pertaining to maleness or femaleness. However, the two scholars caution that any understanding of the romance depends on an individual’s explanation of sex. Unfortunately, defining the term “sex” is not as easy as many would expect since the notion has several dimensions.

For instance, sex can be defined from both the biological and the social contexts where the physiological classification of the process is also taken into account. In a recent study conducted in the University of Texas, no student admitted that he or she engages in sex with the main purpose of reproduction, which proves that they gain the experience of sexual enjoyment while the intent to have children is a negligible inspiration for most sexual acts. This confirms the assertion that people engage in sex mainly to have fun and to communicate their feelings to their lovers, which results in ego satisfaction. For some individuals, sex serves a special purpose of burning the calories, getting rid of headache, and empowering the partner (Rutter, & Schwartz, 2012).

In an article titled Does a More Equal Marriage Mean Less Sex?, Gottlieb observes that married couples develop sexual desires in case their partners espouse their natural features, which means that men should develop masculine features while women have to possess feminine features in case they are to attract their men (Gottlieb, 2014). The study establishes further that women do not develop interest in men who tend to behave in the same way as the females because they do not see any difference in that case.

In a study on gay partners, the New York Times columnist suggests that such partners are unlikely to engage in sex frequently because they are not easily attracted to each other, unless one of the partners adopts the behavior of the opposite gender. Similarly, lesbians tend to engage in sexual activities frequently just as partners in heterosexual relationships because of the attractive features in their partners. This means that gender plays a critical role in determining the sexual behaviors of an individual in the sense that no person would be interested in a partner that possesses similar characteristics as his or hers. The research reveals further that a woman feels comfortable with a man who seems aggressive in bed, even though she will not admit it, as this would give him an advantage to oppress her in the relationship.

It is surprising to note that, while a woman may feel comfortable with a violent man in bed, she does not agree to live with an abusive man, especially when it comes to accomplishing the family objectives. Again, the author of the article observes that women rarely get attracted to men who help them in doing their household activities, such as vacuuming, ironing, cooking, and preparing children for school.

Sexual desire is driven by individual’s principles as studies show that some people will never engage in sex if they are not sure that the partner loves them. The others view sex as an important aspect of life, and they only engage in this activity once they get married. For some, sex is not something special in the sense that he or she makes any considerations before doing it. In fact, they do not see much difference between doing sex and eating a sandwich.

If somebody is hungry, he or she goes for a sandwich, and it does not matter if he or she has interest in the food. An individual’s gender influences his or her sexual desire, and studies indicate that men easier engage in sex as opposed to women who usually prefer a cautious approach. This behavior is partly explained by varying biological wiring between the two genders. The society has specific norms and beliefs that force an individual to live as per his or her gender. In the United States, for instance, diapers are sold according to gender, and gender division starts from child’s birth and continues to maturity where children are expected to respect their sexual characteristics and live according to the set rules and standards.

Gottlieb notes in his article that many adulterous women are comfortable in their marriages, which confirms the idea that culture influences women to be in relationships even though they are not satisfied. Again, income is not an issue of concern to women because they choose to remain in a marriage despite the fact that they earn more than their partners do. The columnist notes that those values that make good social relationships are not the same as those that drive individuals to have sex. As already mentioned, husbands that cook for their wives and undertake other chores have less sex per month as compared to other men in marriage, which suggests that masculinity and femininity play important roles in sex drives.

References

Gottlieb, L. (2014). Does a more equal marriage mean less sex. The New York Times, p.12. Web.

Rutter, V., & Schwartz, P. (2012). The gender of sexuality: Exploring sexual possibilities. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. Web.

Introduction

An analysis of the poem “Smoking” by David Levithan reveals that one’s sexual orientation is distinct from one’s gender identity, yet society tends to mix these two concepts together. Cultures define gender identities, and this means that people who choose to interpret their gender unconventionally may be treated differently. It is essential to understand why this occurs.

How gender and sexual orientation differ in society

Traditionally, society has been particularly strict about gender roles assigned to men and women. Many assumed that attractions occurred between males and females respectively (Diamond, 48). However, according to the poem, being a man does not necessarily determine whether one is gay or straight.

The two boys in the poem love each other, but still regard themselves as males. They smoke ‘Marlboro’, which Americans regard as a classic male cigarette. They also dress and behave in a typical masculine way. Since society has classically assumed that one can link sexual orientation and gender, then many have assumed that individuals with gay preferences tend to have a mixed up gender identity.

In fact, some gay couples have conformed to these expectations by assigning typical feminine roles to one partner and typical masculine roles to the other partner. In this scenario, David falls in the former category while his lover Jed falls in the latter category. He explains that he preferred the vanilla scented smoke to other brands.

Jed was also the one who asked David out, and not the other way around. The author clearly identified with the less assertive role than the dominant one. It may be said that David took on this pseudo-female role as an attempt to reconcile tensions; they arose out of society’s definition of gender identity and sexual orientation.

The latter assumption comes from the notion that heterosexual relationships are normal while same sex relationships are not. However, some feminists and gay proponents believe that this assumption is wrong. They argue that one constructs gender, and this does not follow from one’s anatomy. Therefore, assuming that one’s biology determines one’s sexual preferences is erroneous. It is inaccurate to say that male and female biological traits will determine one’s behavior patterns.

This is because some individuals identify more with members of another gender, and thus adopt the role of the other gender. In the end, this may cause their sexual orientation to differ from the typical heterosexual one. For example, transsexuals tend to think of themselves as members of a gender that contrasts with their biological predisposition (Diamond 53).

A male transsexual will talk, dress, look and express himself as a woman because that is the gender role that he identifies with. As a result, such a person may find that he finds males attractive, and his sexual orientation may be homosexual. Transsexuals, therefore, illustrate that one’s physical traits do not determine one’s physical traits.

Such individuals are constantly trying to match their psychological gender with their sex. Unlike traditional approaches, this group of people illustrates that sex is secondary to gender. Initially people assumed that one’s sex determines one’s gender. However, in the case of transsexuals and homosexuals, gender is what matters the most. The gender that they identify with is not dependent on sex or biological traits.

In the poem, David explains that as he grew up, he never liked the things that typical boys liked. For instance, he never wanted to be a cowboy or do other things that they did. Consequently, his sex did not determine the gender roles that he chose. In fact, this is the reason why David seemed to be quite emotional (Levithan 12).

He explains how dreamy he felt when Jed asked him out for the first time; David even felt like crying. Many assume that women are emotional; in this instance, David did not fit into that mould. He is male, but expresses himself in a manner that people would translate as feminine. However, the poet does not take on all other feminine roles.

This teenage gay relationship challenges assumptions about gender and sexual orientation because neither of the two boys fits clearly into a definite understanding of gender. Feminist scholars assert that effeminate behavior among gay males is not as dominant as it is in transsexuals. In other instances, it may not even be possible to determine the differences between the two gay partners. The popular assumption of homosexual men as effeminate is unwise because some homosexuals may exhibit machismo-like traits (Diamond 50).

Gay men and women may choose to identify with any gender role. Lesbians can demonstrate masculine behavior or may opt to act feminine. Since individuals can fall into any of these categories without reference to their biological predispositions, then society needs to refrain from judging them.

Some relationships lack a dominant, masculine partner and a passive, feminine one. Such couples treat one another in more or less equal terms. Although this may not have been the case in David and Jed’s case, it is clear that their gender identities were not radically different from one another. David was not a dominant individual, but he still possessed other masculine behaviors.

Some individuals take on personas that are appropriate for heterosexual relationships. This may occur because of a hostile environment in school or at work. Such was the case for David and Jed. The two would not dare hold hands in public because this would offend other people’s sensibilities. However, they would assume a different identity in private circumstances. In many western societies, gay relationships are gaining a lot of acceptance.

Nonetheless, for adolescents who develop gender identities that differ from the norm, acceptance may be the last thing that happens to them. Such individuals may be ridiculed, bullied or mocked by others, and this could create psychological challenges. In the poem, David and Jed were distinctly aware of their different sexual orientation. They knew that this would not match their peer’s expectation of the male gender and how they relate sexually to others.

Consequently, they needed to disguise their differences from the rest of their schoolmates in order to gain acceptance. Sociologists note that people assign negative connotations to males who adopt female gender roles. For instance, some may call them ‘sissies’, ‘mammas boy’, ‘girlie-boy’, and many others.

This discrimination may result from the failure to understand the nature of sexual orientation. One must also understand its separateness from gender roles. Furthermore, some individuals think of gay relationships as a threat to their understanding of traditional gender roles. Looking at gender roles as socially constructed can lead to alterations in their perceptions. This can liberate people like David who must hide their true identities.

Conclusion

The poem “Smoking” provides powerful insights on gender identity and sexual orientations. David and Jed cannot express their love to one another because their society is yet to separate sex and gender roles. Since many individuals associate certain behaviors to certain sexes, people regard gay relationships as inappropriate because they defy these standards.

However, existence of transsexuals is proof of the fact that gender identity exists outside of one’s sex. Therefore, one’s sexual orientation should not be translated as a defiance of set sexual identities.

Works Cited

Diamond, Milton. “Sex and gender: same or different?” Feminism and psychology 10.1(2000): 46-54. Print.

Levithan, David. The Realm of Possibility. NY: Knop Books for Young Readers, 2006. Print.

Introduction

To a great extent, consumer culture can be viewed as a tool which is used to shape a person’s identity. In particular, it is possible to speak about people’s conception of gender. This paper is aimed at examining the way in which beauty myth can influence the construction of gender identity, both feminine and masculine. The term beauty myth is used to describe a stereotype according to which people are able to attain success only if they reach the highest standards of physical beauty. This argument is particularly relevant if one speaks about women.

The discussion of this topic is important for several reasons. First of all, the understanding of this question is important for explaining the attitudes of many people toward to physical attractiveness, education, social status, career, and so forth. These issues can be better discussed with the help of various theories that illuminate the impact of consumer culture on the behavior of an individual. For instance, one can speak about by the feminist approach advocated by Susan Bordo (2003), Susie Orbach (1997) and Naomi Wolf (2013) who argue that contemporary culture is supposed to maintain the norms and values of a patriarchal society.

Similarly, one can rely on the ideas of Michel Foucault (2012) who believes that the control over modern people is often based on the standards that people are required to reach. Furthermore, the failure to do it can result in the marginalization of an individual (Foucault 2012). This discussion can be important for various stakeholders. For example, one can speak about parents and educators who need to understand the factors that underlie the behavior of children and adolescents.

It is possible to identify several important themes. First of all, it is important to speak about the glorification of physical attractiveness as the key to acceptance, recognition, and success. Secondly, one can say that consumer culture and beauty myth can facilitate sexual objectification of women. Finally, much attention should be paid to the psychological and mental problems experienced by people who believe that they cannot meet the ideals of beauty. These are the main themes that should be discussed more closely. On the whole, it is possible to say that the use of beauty myth in consumer culture marginalizes achievement and intellectualism. This is the main problem that researchers should be aware of.

Physical attractiveness and sexuality as the keys to recognition, acceptance, and success

It should be noted that the conventional conceptions of beauty have often attracted the attention of feminist writers or critics. In particular, they discuss the way in which women’s bodies can be represented in mass media. It is possible to refer to the work of such a theorist as Naomi Wolf (2013) who introduced the notion of beauty myth. She argues that contemporary culture emphasizes the importance of physical beauty as the means of raising women’s self-esteem or attaining social status (Wolf 2013, p. 7). Similar opinions are expressed by other authors. For example, one can mention Susie Orbach (1997) who notes that excessive concern about the body image can be explained by women’s willingness to reach the ideals incorporated in the modern culture.

On the whole, feminist theorists believe that this trend can be explained by the fact that male standards of beauty still dominate contemporary culture. Additionally, this portrayal of women can be regarded as a means of reinforcing the norms of a patriarchic society in which women are not allowed to take part in social or political life of the community (Bordo 2003). It should be noted that consumer culture often set the standards of beauty. For example, one can mention the images of women displayed in various commercials. In particular, one can speak such companies as Chanel, Dolce & Gabbana, Tom Ford, and many others. The following images show what kind of standards women are supposed to reach.

These photographs show how the ideal bodies of women can be constructed by the representatives of consumer culture. More importantly, the authors of the photographs lay stress on the sexuality of these women. To a great extent, they can be perceived as role models by viewers. It should be noted that many females, especially adolescents, can believe that by attaining such standards, they will be able to become successful (Wolf 2013, p. 7). This is one of the most important issues that should be addressed. Nevertheless, feminist interpretation has some important limitations. In particular, one can say that men are also expected to reach certain standards of beauty. Moreover, these standards are consistently showcased in consumer culture. For example, one can speak about the advertisements of companies that design and sell clothes.

These images also lay stress on physical attractiveness and sexuality. They are intended for upwardly mobile males who have reached high levels of prosperity. This is one of the issues that cannot be explained with the help of feminist theories. Certainly, physical attractiveness is not the only prerequisite for their social acceptance and success. Still, one can say that beauty myth can affect them. This is one of the major limitations that can be identified. It is very difficult to argue that feminist interpretation can explain every aspect of the contemporary consumer culture.

This topic can also be discussed with the help of ideas introduced by Michel Foucault (2013). This thinker attaches importance to such concepts as power and control. In his opinion, societies attempt to set the norms or ideals that individuals should comply with. In turn, Michel Foucault’s theory can imply that beauty myth is one of such ideals or standards (Heitmeyer 2010, p. 12). In turn, individuals, who fall beyond these ideals, can be treated as outcasts by the society (Heitmeyer 2010, p. 12). This author does not interpret the notion of power from the perspective of gender.

His theory implies that such norms inevitably emerge in various communities and organizations. The main limitation of this approach is that it does not show what kind of stakeholders exercise control and what kind of benefit they derive in this way. Therefore, Foucault’s model does not show why gender is portrayed in this way. Still, this theory can be useful for showing that the gender identities can be artificially constructed by the media. Overall, feminist interpretation and Michel Foucault are helpful for explaining how beauty myth can be used to construct people’s conceptions of masculinity and femininity. These are the main points that can be made.

Beauty myth and sexual objectification

Apart from that, the notion of beauty myth can be closely linked to such a phenomenon as sexual objectification. This concept is widely discussed by feminist critics of consumer culture. This term can be defined as the representation of an individual only as the object of sexual desire (Gervais 2013, p. 99). The images incorporated in consumer culture may show what kind of gender roles should be adopted by people. This issue is particularly relevant if one speaks about the images of women displayed by modern mass media.

Feminist authors believe that modern consumer culture recognizes only sexuality of women without accepting other aspects of their individuality such as emotions and feelings (Buszek 2006, p. 302). Additionally, the notion of sexual objectification often implies that women are ready to accept these submissive roles without expressing any discontent. Therefore, this process can affect the attitudes of both males and females. It is important to look at the images which show that women may be represented as material objects, rather than living beings. One can look at this poster of Dolce & Gabbana:

In this case, the viewer can see that the woman is portrayed as a submissive being who willingly accepts the demands of a male. She represents the ideal of physical attractiveness which is created by consumer culture. However, she is depicted only as the object of sexual desire (Heldman 2012). This is one of the details that can be distinguished. Moreover, the image depicts the ideals of both masculine and feminine beauty. This is why photographs can appeal to viewers.

Yet, in this particular case, the beauty myth is linked with the message about the roles that males and females should assume. Much attention should be paid to the subordination of women (Heldman 2012). People, who can look at such images, can subconsciously accept behavior patterns that are depicted by the authors. This argument is important provided that one speaks about the behavior of teenagers. This is the main pitfall that should be avoided by parents and educators.

On the whole, this theme can be best examined with the help of feminist theories. For instance, Naomi Wolf (2013) notes that such images reflect the values of a patriarchal society in which women should only be submissive. They are not supposed to defy the authority of males. This is one of the aspects that can be singled out. The major problem is that the messages can be accepted by females, especially during adolescence. This is one of the problems that can be distinguished. A similar explanation can be provided by the supporters of Michel Foucault’s theory.

They may say that such images throw light on the gender norms that are accepted or promoted by the society (Sawicki 1991, p. 29; Howson 2013). Foucault’s theory implies that people, who choose to deviate from these norms, can be treated as outcasts. Thus, such images should not be overlooked because they show how a person can be made to accept the authority of other people. Yet, in this context, Foucault’s interpretation is very similar to the feminist approach. This is one of the points that can be made.

Still, it is important to remember that the notions of power and control may not be fully applicable to the process of sexual objectification. One should bear in mind that many women willingly participate in such commercials. They do not believe that such practices are unethical or irrational. Therefore, it is difficult to say that social roles can be imposed against the will of an individual. In many cases, they can be embraced. This is the major problem that should not be disregarded. Furthermore, one can say that consumer culture reflects the needs of people.

Beauty myth and frustration

There is another important theme that is closely associated with beauty myth. People’s attitudes toward their bodies and their individual worth can depend on their ability to meet such ideals incorporated into consumer culture. Feminist critics believe the acceptance of body myth eventually leads to frustration or even mental disorders. In particular, one should speak about frustration of people who are continuously exposed to the ideal images of masculinity and femininity. This argument is particularly relevant to the experiences of women who cannot reach the ideals of beauty created by consumer culture. Researchers note that women, who suffer from anorexia, are continuously dissatisfied with the image of their bodies (Malson 2004, p. 83).

As a rule, they are obsessed with physical training and dieting (Bordo 2003, p. 99). They believe that physical attractiveness is the major criterion according to which their individual worth can be evaluated (Bordo 2003, p. 99; Maine 2005). Additionally, in their opinion, they do not fit the norms that are set for their gender. In turn, Michel Foucault’ model suggests that this frustration can be explained by a person’s deviance from the norms set by the community. Furthermore, consumer culture can be regarded as a tool that is used to control people. These examples indicate that the exercise of power can have a destructive effect on an individual who believes that he/she will never attain social acceptance or respect. This is one of the details that can be distinguished.

Nevertheless, this situation is not widespread only among women. It is critical remember that such problems are also experienced by some men who are extremely concerned about the physical appearance (Beynon 2001, p. 7). In many cases, these individuals suffer from depression (Beynon 2001, p. 7). Furthermore, their self-esteem is usually very low (Beynon 2001, p. 7). Therefore, one cannot say that beauty myth causes frustration only among females. Such an assumption is not quite accurate since it cannot be used to explain the behavior of males who are also affected by the consumer culture.

Admittedly, one cannot say that this frustration can only be attributed to consumer culture. It is not possible to forget about the impact of mass media, peer pressure, and the attitudes of parents. Each of these factors can shape a person’s attitude toward his/her physical appearance. To some degree, these examples illustrate the limitations of the feminist approach and Michel Foucault’s theory. One should keep in mind that contemporary theories of popular culture may not be sufficient for explaining the way in which gender identity is constructed. So, consumer culture is not the only force which affects person’s view of his/her gender.

Discussion

There is a common element which is present in each of these issues. In particular, one should focus on implicit anti-intellectualism. Consumer culture does not associate physical beauty with academic achievement, career, recognition, and other things that can indicate at a person’s social status. This is the main reason why the impacts of consumer culture are often detrimental. In many cases, consumer culture can portray male and females as primitive beings without any complex emotions and feelings. The knowledge should be considered by parents who need to understand how the values of children can be shaped by external agents of socialization such as consumer culture.

Conclusion

On the whole, these examples indicate consumer culture is a powerful force that can shape the gender identify of an individual. In particular, it can shape people’s standards of physical beauty that both male and female should adhere to. Moreover, consumer culture can identify role models that both men and women should emulate. By emphasizing various elements of the beauty myth, the representatives of corporate culture can influence the formation of people’s views on gender roles. In particular, mass media can identify the qualities that both men and women should acquire and elaborate.

The problem is that they overemphasize physical attractiveness or sexuality and pay no attention to intellectualism, achievement, education, and so forth. This problem profoundly affects the experiences of women who can be objectified by consumer culture. The use of feminist theories and Michelle Foucault’s approach can be fruitful for discussing these issues. Understanding of this issue has several practical implications. In particular, in this way, one better explain the way in which the values of children and adolescents are formed. These are the major details that can be singled out.

References

Beynon, J 2001, Masculinities And Culture, McGraw-Hill International, New York.

Bordo, S 2003, Unbearable Weight: Feminism, Western Culture, and the Body, University of California Press, Palo Alto.

Buszek, M 2006, Pin-Up Grrrls: Feminism, Sexuality, Popular Culture, Duke University Press, Durham.

Foucault, M 2012, Discipline & Punish: The Birth of the Prison, Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, New York.

Gervais, S 2013, Objectification and (De)Humanization: 60th Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, Springer, New York.

Heitmeyer, W 2010, Control of Violence: Historical and International Perspectives on Violence in Modern Societies, Springer, New York.

Heldman, C 2012, Sexual Objectification, Part 2: The Harm. Web.

Howson, A 2013, The Body in Society: An Introduction, John Wiley & Sons, New York.

Kattan, H 2012, Who had the Best Beauty Ads in 2012, Web.

Maine, M 2005, The Body Myth: Adult Women and the Pressure to be Perfect, John Wiley & Sons, London.

Male Models 2013, Web.

Malson, H 2004, The Thin Woman: Feminism, Post-structuralism and the Social Psychology of Anorexia Nervosa, Routledge, New York.

Orbach, S. 1997, Fat Is a Feminist Issue, BBC Pub Corp, London.

Sawicki, 1991, Disciplining Foucault: Feminism, Power, and the Body, Psychology Press, New York.

Wolf, N 2013, The Beauty Myth: How Images of Beauty are Used Against Women, Random House, New York.

The end of the 20^th century and the beginning of the 21^st century brought a lot of changes into the social interactions, relations between genders and into the division of their roles. The tendency of changes is also reflected in altering the nature of the Australian workforce according to the question of male and female involving into the labour market.

The transformation of the people’s vision of the role of a woman in the society resulted in the women’s active participation in the working process. Broomhill and Sharp pay attention to the fact that it is possible to observe the changing male breadwinner model in Australia which is caused by the historical process of the society’s development and a lot of other social and economic factors (Broomhill & Sharp 2005).

The peculiarities of the modern society’s progress are based on the necessity to change the traditional vision of the gender roles’ division among men and women in relation to their involvement in the labour market because of the globalisation’s tendencies and altering the public’s attitude to households which were usually discussed as women’s activity.

What events caused the present-day issue of changing the male breadwinner model in Australia as a reason to speak about the new gender order? Broomhill and Sharp build their argument about the development of this new gender order and discussion of the question about the significance of the changes in the model with references to examining this process from the historic perspective and with paying attention to the most important social events and changes.

According to the researchers, the period after World War II was extremely significant for creating the necessary conditions for changing the current gender order. The male breadwinner model typical for the 1950s lost its importance during the 1960s, and later the process became more intensive (Broomhill & Sharp 2005). The economic growth and the demand for labour can be discussed as the key factors for involving more women in the working process.

Having presented the historical retrospective of the process of changing the model, Broomhill and Sharp determine such additional aspects of the phenomenon as the division of the market, the availability of services, the activity of the women’s movements, and the women’s financial independence, and the researchers’ conclusions are based on the detailed statistical data provided (Broomhill & Sharp 2005).

To confirm the reality of changing the male breadwinner/female carer model, it is necessary to refer to the factual information and numbers. Thus, Broomhill and Sharp provide statistics according to such criteria as the peculiarities of women and men’s employment, the prevalence of full-time or part-time work, the difference in wages, and the comparison with the situation in the neighbouring territories (Broomhill & Sharp 2005).

Moreover, possible unemployment can be characteristic either for men or women without references to gender and be the result of changes in the labour demand (Keating 2003).

If Broomhill and Sharp discuss the issue of the women’s active participation in the labour market from the point of increasing their activity in earning money, Baxter provides some glimpses on the process from the point of decreasing the time women spend on housework (Baxter 2002). Thus, the process is interchanged and should be discussed from different positions.

It is the fact that the definite processes of changing the traditional male breadwinner model were typical for the recent years, but it is impossible to speak about the extreme transformation of the structure in relation to the division of the gender roles. In spite of the fact women actively participate in the process of earning money for the family, the statistical data support the fact women prefer part-time jobs to have enough time to spend it with a family and do the necessary households.

Moreover, the increase of the percentage of working women should be discussed in connection with the decrease of the general percentage of the working men (Broomhill & Sharp 2005). The process is also correlated with the situation of more men’s participating in household activities in comparison with the period of the end of the 20^th centuries (Baxter 2002).

Thus, it is possible to focus on reducing the idea of dominance of this or that gender in performing this or that activity. However, this transformation is not radical, and it is the result of the society’s development. Gottfried concentrates on the role of globalisation in the process of changing the traditional models and gender roles which were characteristic for the previous century (Gottfried 2004).

The nature of the workforce in relation to the question of gender changed in Australia significantly. This situation is the result of the society’s progress and economic demands. Today, it is impossible to speak about following the division of gender roles strictly. Nevertheless, Broomhill and Sharp focus on the idea that there is a tendency according to which women are inclined to choose part-time jobs, and the increase of working women is correlated with the decrease of men as the representatives of the definite professions.

Reference List

Baxter, JH 2002, ‘Patterns of change and stability in the gender division of household labour in Australia, 1986-1997’, Journal of Sociology, vol. 38, no. 4, pp. 399-424.

Broomhill R & Sharp R 2005, ‘The changing male breadwinner model in Australia: a new gender order?’, Labour & Industry, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 103-127.

Gottfried, H 2004, ‘Gendering globalization discourses’, Critical Sociology January, vol. 30 no. 1, pp. 9-15.

Keating, M 2003, ‘The labour market and inequality’, Australian Economic Review, vol. 36, no. 4, pp. 374-396.

The conference involved various interest groups, which included women leaders in the country, representatives from the Department of Justice, Department of Labor, Department of Education, and the Department of Health and Human Services. It also involved university students and agencies who support affirmative action and gender equality.

The conference was held to discuss ways of achieving affirmative action, especially for the minority groups and the women in the society. The debate surrounded access to education, employment, and political representation. The major political discussion in the conference was that the women in the country are under-represented in leadership, as well as, decision-making roles in the public spheres even though they are the majority in the country, and also comprise of 40% of the country’s total workforce (Thies, Rosenbluth, and Salmond, 166). The argument was that the government should adopt a more comprehensive affirmative model that would ensure that more women are given the opportunity to participate in the country’s governance and management positions.

However, the debate did not come up with progressive methods of selecting women who will occupy the special seats and positions created for them. It remains a difficult task to find the answer to how the government would impose a quota to remedy the under-representation. Women and pro-equal opportunities for women argued that in the next five years, the government should have implemented structures that will ensure that women are equally involved in decision-making boards all the public sectors, and even in the non-governmental organizations. They insisted that equality quotas would allow the equal representation of minority groups.

The discussion held that in order to enhance gender diversity in the workplace, civil service included. The pro-women groups strongly voiced for affirmative action and transparency in recruitment in all organizations, both public and private. They suggested that every organization present annual reports to the public are indicating the number of women in senior management positions, boards, and within the organization. They also suggested that the government should initiate a program for mentoring top women executives in the country to help them get on organization boards. As a result, it was resolved that the government imposes quotas for female corporate directors.

The other important agenda discussed in the conference was encouraging education among females in the country. This would enhance the provision of equal opportunity for both males and females. Women’s educational attainment in the country is still low despite the programs that have been established to encourage education among females (Florida Department of Education 1). The pro-equal opportunities groups felt that it is important to involve more women in university and tertiary college management teams as heads of departments, schools, and deans. This would positively influence females’ education culture, as well as collegiality. Besides, it will give female students positive role models in education.

The debate on gender representation is part of the unilineal development, and panopticism discussed earlier in the course. It represents a continuation of a crack in the structural-functionalism which began in the 1950s (Lewellen 8). Many people today are fighting to achieve an equilibrium in political systems and other aspects of society (Foucault 197). The issue of gender equality and equal women representation in decision-making and governance has created constant tension for change in all societies across the globe.

Works Cited

Foucault, Michel. Discipline & Punish: The Birth of the Prison. New York: Vintage Books, 1995. Print.

Florida Department of Education. Gender Representation Among Professionals in Florida’s Public Schools. Florida: Florida Information Note, 2003. Print.

Lewellen, Ted. Political Anthropology: An Introduction, 3^rd Ed. London: Praeger Publishers, 2003. Print.

Thies, Michael, Rosenbluth, Frances, and Salmond, Rob. Welfare Works: Explaining female legislative representation. Politics & Gender, 2 (2006):165-192.

Introduction

In its simplest sense, hedging refers to inversion of harsh statements involving sentiments, critics or strong voices of commands to sound polite to the hearers while still maintaining the desired massage to be conveyed at the right bandwidth just like Ayodabo (1997, p.257) notes that, “hedging involves the qualification and toning-down of utterances or statements.”

Utilization of hedges in speeches reduces the hostility of expressions that contains commitment, rigidity in speaker’s opinions and acute precision. Hedges increase the acceptability of utterances originating from a speaker in virtually every phenomenon.

Virtually all linguists advocate for incorporation of hedging not only in verbal communication but also in writing. Though people incorporate the use of hedging in every language across the universe, various discrepancies exist for example in the case of Nigerian people, where shouting of children to the seniors signifies a lack of respect unless in situations involving danger where the other way round is acceptable.

Reframing of both verbal and written statements forms of communication to make them sound less assertive increases the magnitude of respect towards an addressee.

Language scholars endorse use of hedges and therefore have particular interest in determining the factors that foster usage of hedges in speech and written materials among various groups of people.One of the ways of investigating variability of hedging use is looking at manner in which differing groups of gender, social classes and age use them.

Once segregated this way, the various differences in use of hedging during the communication process can be established and analyzed. A Scrutiny of the usage of deferring types of hedges on the bases of genders exposes amicable differences.

Analysis of gender and hedges

The position held by many language scholars about the existence of the differences in the usage of hedges based on the gender lured Dixon and Foster to carry out a study to establish the nature of the differences. “…Gender differences cause prejudice in the way people communicate which is further replicated in other aspects of life such as politics (Dixon & Foster 1996, p.89).

Linguists from America such as Lakoff were convinced that women’s femininity comes with an expectation to be satisfied through exploration of alternative phrases and expressions that make them less assertive while communicating as opposed to their male counterparts (Lakoff 1975, p.92).

Women therefore, adopt linguistic devices that help express themselves without use of declarative expressions that would give an implication of force in their utterances. Use of expressions “‘may be’, ‘possibly’, ‘you should’, ‘you know’, among others therefore, form an integral part of their speech” (Dixon & Foster 1996, p.90).

Taking such a stand has the effect of making language of women indecisive and uncertain particularly where bold personal decisions are paramount. The conclusiveness of existence of the differences in the hedges use amongst the different genders, as argued by linguists, depends on issues giving rise to the debate.

In such a context, Lakoff’s propositions: supported by personal observations, induces questions of missing links between his approach and results obtained by conducting actual measurements and then carrying out an analysis to deduce the differences.

Some studies confirm that groups of women while involved in discussions have a greater capacity to use politer expressions compared to men. One can attribute women and men varying frequency of hedges usage to “global sex differences” (Dixon & Foster 1986, p.91).

In linguistics, ‘sort of’ helps a speaker to convey aspects of epistemic, effectiveness, and totality or ambiguity. On the other hand, usage of the hedge ‘you know’ signifies existence of confidence, lack of confidence, ambiguity or totality in speaker’s utterances.

For instance, the hedge ‘you know’ finds a use that is more frequent in topics involving personal narratives as opposed to instrumental topics.

Men have fewer tendencies to use effective hedges (Holmes 1986, p.105) compared to women. This raises the argument on dependency of sex mixes in discussions to give birth to a climate that evoke different usage of hedges differently.

Studies conducted by Carli (1990, p.944) claim that “the gender differences in communication are more pronounced in mixed gender setting than in similar gender settings”. Research work such as the one conducted by Bilious & Krauss (1998, p.189) is to the conclusion that “…the differences decline immensely in conversions involving mixed genders”.

The functional purpose accomplished by hedges also affects their usage preference between different genders. Hedges such as sort of that give a sense of emotional affiliations in communication typically find more counts in their usage in conversions dominated by women rather than men.

Unlike Holmes and other language scholars, Dixon’s and Foster’s study did not reveal any much gender difference in the usage of hedges such as “sort of and confidence you know” (Dixon & Foster 1996, p.34). The two believe that cultural settings can greatly influence the manner in which people use language in relation to gender.

The geographical location of the place from where the data originates is therefore a big determining factor in drawing a conclusion regarding the existence of such differences.

Having chosen South Africa as the place of samples collection, as opposed to New Zealand where Holmes had based her studies, cultural forces can result in the differences in observations made by Dixon and Foster since as found by Bodine “cultural norms can influence relationship between gender and language use” (Bodine 1975, p.80).

Substantial difference in hedges usage in different gender based on situational competitiveness examined alongside the contribution of audience gender to the preference in the usage of hedges exists across the globe.

In competitive conditions, both genders employ less use of ‘sort of’ than in situations when the genders under study are controlled in such a way that they are maintained in uncompetitive condition throughout the period of study (Dixon & Foster 1996, p.101).

The usage of ‘Sort of’ occurs in situations involving casual talks confirming an earlier argument by Holmes. On the other hand, with regard to Dixon and Foster’s study, the usages of ‘you know’ is extensively found in informal conversations for the two genders: men and women (Dixon & Foster 1996, p.110).

The usage of epistemic sort of in communication is dependent on the audience gender with both genders using it more frequently when addressing males than females.

Generally speaking, the disparities in the usage of the various hedged statements among different genders can be clearly attributed to and enhanced by the glamour and enrichment of the language achieved from the purpose of their usage in verbal and written forms of communication: precisely, the functions of hedging.

“In their effective role, they express speakers’ uncertainty about the validity of particular statements

Holmes’ conclusion on ‘Affective’ and ‘Epistemic’ functions of hedges

Deployment of hedging devices in speech in an attempt to utilize their affective and epistemic functions depends on the gender from which the speech originates as well as the target gender. Holmes (1986, p.13) states that, “in their affective role, hedges express speakers’ desire to create and maintain interpersonal solidarity.”

Speakers achieve magnificent capacity to win the audience to their way of thinking without an indication of compromising the audience freedom to make personal judgments and hence determination of their takes in a given subject.

On the other hand, hedges achieve epistemic functions by enabling speakers express uncertainty and validity of certain statements used in utterances. Based on New Zealand people’s usage of hedges in communication, Holmes proposes that use of hedging to achieve either epistemic or affective functions has to do with gender differences.

In particular, women and men use hedges distinctively to attain the two mentioned functions mentioned above. Women have a tendency of using expressions that depicts their utmost concern for other people especially when challenges of pain and anger confront their addressee.

Holmes exemplifies such a situation noting that, “women use the hedge sort of to fulfill emotional functions” (Holmes 1988, p. 119). The hedge you know, like wise, finds employment in women language as a gate away to confidently woo audience into conversations.

Incorporation of the audience into conversation eases the speakers’ task of conviction. Consequently, the speakers keep at bay any possibility of dissatisfaction queries associated to a given speech from arising.

Hedging devices therefore, permit a speaker to deliver the intended message whether written or oral in the most precise and straightforward manner.

As opposed to women, men use ‘sort of or you know’ to give an implication of varying degrees of uncertainty or hesitation in verbal speech. Looking out for instances where men tend to use the hedge, you know and sort of indicates that men use hedges to accomplish epistemic functions of hedged statements.

Following men’s conversations critically, the hedge you know will almost in all scenarios appear when framing of wording in a speech falls out of order or when they have made a mistake that requires quick correction for argumentation consistency purposes irrespective of the topic under study.

Similarly, men use the hedge sort of in speeches to indicate uncertainty according to Holmes (1986, p.16).The above discussion gives an exemplification of how men portray their expertise at using hedges in such a way to serve epistemic functions.

In terms of the functional differences of usage of hedges between men and women: affective and epistemic, the nature of communication for the different genders gives indication of speeches being self complete or deficient in one way or another.

Holmes (1986, p.20) counters the argument that women’s language being dominated by hedges that depict use of hedges to achieve effective functions is insecure and hence suffers deficiency. She laments that, rather than subscribing to such an opinion, people should not see their language as sensitive but also caring.

Despite the fact that, men use effective hedges more frequently when addressing women than men, their use of ‘you know’ defies the pattern (Holmes 1990, p.200).

Gender and Hedges: From an Oral communication perspective

Even though the use of hedges seem greatly contributed by gender differences, their use in oral and written forms of communication is a dependent on cultural backgrounds inclinations, subject matter of discussions, circumstance giving rise to a debate, functionality of the hedges and the status of both the speaker and the recipient socially.

The notion that women employ hedging more in conversation than men as claimed by Holmes (1988, pp.85-121) fails to agree with the results obtained when samples employed in a study to determine and evaluate differences in the use of hedges are subjected to varying treatments rather than just being pegged on gender.

Gender and Hedges: from Email communication Perspective

Analysis of data gathered from emails formulated by different people raises doubts on the contribution of differences in gender in the manner in which hedges are used: be it in terms of frequency or selection of hedge types.

The justification of hypotheses that men utilize hedging less frequently in their conversations than women which is found to be consistent with the finding of the studies by Holmes (1988, pp.85-121) becomes contradicting bearing in mind the email conversations involves varying groups of people characterized by random mixes of men and women (Redeker & Igen 2003, p.1).

Crucial to note is the fact that, strangers dominate the groups that participate in online mail charting raising question whether hedging is a function of such factors rather than being dependent on gender differences.

The results of Redeker’s and Van Igen’s study which had involved analysis of 66 email from equal number of men and women (Redeker & Igen 2003, p.2) depicts hedges usage as being dependent on the characteristics of the recipients, sender and topic of discussion with men dominating in some instances and women in others.

For example, based on the criteria of beneficiary of the mail, where women are the beneficiaries, more counts on the numbers of hedges employed, indicate a clear difference on hedges usage based on mails beneficiary criteria. On the other hand, more hedging seem apparent in cases where men are the recipient beneficiaries of the online chart mails.

Reference List

Ayodabo, J., 1997. A Pragma-Stylistic Study of Abiolas Historic Speech of June 24 1993. Ilorin: Paragon Books.

Bodine, A., 1975. Sex Differentiation in Language. Language and sex: Difference and Dominance. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

Carli, L., 1990. Gender, Language and Influence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59 (2), pp. 941-951.

Dixon, A., & Foster, H., 1996. Gender and Hedging: From Sex Differences to Situated Practice. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 26(1), pp. 96-103.

Holmes, J., 1986. Functions of ‘you know’ in Women and Men’s Speech. Language in society, 15, pp. 1-22.

Holmes, J., 1988. ‘Sort of’ in New Zealand Women’s and Men’s Speech. Studia Linguistica, 42, pp. 85-121.

Holmes, J., 1990. Hedges and boosters in women’s and men’s speech. Language and communication, 10, pp.185-205.

Krauss, R., 1988. Dominance and Accommodation in the Conversational Behaviors of The same and Mixed-sex Dyads. Language and Communication, 8 (2), pp. 183-194.

Lakoff, R., 1975. Language and Women’s Place. New York: Harper Colophon.

Redeker, G., & Igen, V., 2003. Politeness and Hedging in email Requests among Males And Female Friends. Oxford: Oxford UP.