Modern trade is a product of a long historical development and social-economic organization of society. Recognition of the importance of creating an international trade and tariff institution has its origins in the bitter experience of the period running up to the 19th century. During this period, major countries such as the United Kingdom and France, the USA and Japan built economic blocs (WIO, GATT, EU) within their autonomous territories and colonies to protect their own industries, using the imposition of high tariffs and other trade barriers (Zo 12). These countries established preferential treatment systems so as to discriminate against non-allied states. This economic bloc trading system and the associated currency devaluation began a chain of events that resulted in a substantial reduction in world trade. At the beginning of the 21st century, it becomes evident that gender and trade are closely connected reflecting social and economic development of modern society.
Modern trade depends upon and is influenced by human development processes. The human development approach to trade policy means that a human has a possibility to make choices concerning economic and social, political and cultural variables and changes (Making Global Trade Work for People 22). In this case, human development determines approach of trade policies and general development of the global trade. Succeeding in the international sector requires the individual or a firm (TNC or MNC) determined commitment to developing a strategy based on the interrelationship of three factors: the market, the product, and the business person. In spite of great changes, women have still deprived a chance to participate in trade and economic relations on the global scale (Zo 16).
Gender approach
In recent years, gender approach becomes a part of a broader human development approach based on equal opportunities and gender equality principles. Historically, women were seen as a secondary class citizens identified with childbearing and housekeeping activities (Human Development Report 9). Today, gender equality becomes an issue of the day affected the economic sphere and trade relations. For feminists, trade is seen as a gender-neutral activity permitting both men and women to participate in business practices and trade negotiations. Thus: “some studies also point out that gender inequality in wages stimulated growth in semi industrialized economies such as Thailand” (Zo 10). Insofar as it affects women, a definition of gender discrimination is necessary since there will be many references in this book to discrimination, segregation, and differentiation. Gender approach is a part of human development process because women are involved in social life and economic activities on the global scale (Who’s counting? 1995).
Different gender impact
In spite of great changes in gender question, trade liberalization has a different impact on men and women: it opens new opportunities for men to participate in global trade but creates new challenges for women such as unequal pay and labor exploitation. The wage labor market still discriminates actively and persistently against women, and salary, social security, pensions and working conditions are often less favorable for women than for men (Making Global Trade Work for People 24). The world averages do, of course, conceal very great regional differences. Working women in manufacturing industries take home less than half the wages earned by men, Secondly, women’s work in the informal sector, notably in Asia, Latin America and Africa, is a significant factor in production and sales. This contribution is often totally ignored in the system of national accounts because of lack of definition as to what output would qualify as part of the gross national product, and because of lack of records and control. But the contribution is important enough for economists and social scientists to argue that the United Nations itself should revise its system of national accounts. For most women the translation of public activity from the economic to the political sphere is impeded by domestic responsibilities. Men also see women as having less of a chance to succeed in politics (Making Global Trade Work for People 25).
Conclusion
The gender-aware reform in the trading system is necessary in order to involve more women in trade relations and provide them with equal access to trade activities and business practices. In the movie Who’s counting?: Marilyn Waring unveils the truth of modern global trade and underlines the importance of changes in modern gender relations. With strong sociological overtones, is patriarchy and women’s labor. In most countries, women’s production is not taken into account simply because custom, law, or religion permits the husband to consider everything that she produces or earns as his own and he alone decides on the allocation of her time and their joint resources. Injustice to women is seen less in the extra work women must do than in the assumption that it is their role, and theirs alone, to do all the work inside the home (Zo 51). This assumption is a triple injustice because women end up working twice as many hours as men, are not paid for those extra hours of work, and their domestic work is looked down on because it is unpaid. The chief injustice is that a woman is expected, required, even forced, to hold down a job and also be a mother to her infant children while receiving no assistance from society, or the state, to carry this dual burden. Human development processes cannot be effective if women are excluded from them because of gender bias and unequal distribution of resources.
Works Cited
Human Development Report: Gender and Human Development, United Nations Development Program, UNDP, 1995, pp. 1-41.
Making Global Trade Work for People, United Nations Development Programme, UNDP, 2003, pp. 21-47.
Who’s counting?: Marilyn Waring on Sex, Lies and Global Economics. Dir. By M. Nash. DVD. National Film Board of Canada, 1995.
Zo Randriamaro, Gender and Trade – Overview Report. Bridge, Institute of Development Studies, 2006. pp. 7-35, 50-56.
In recent scholarly literature, the workplace is viewed as a site where the gender of employees plays a key role in forming attitudes, developing biases, and providing rewards. Researchers agree that it is possible to observe gender inequality in the workplace in the treatment of male and female employees, and their experiences are associated with “doing gender” (Fletcher 2003; West & Zimmerman 1987). The concept of “doing gender” was formulated by West and Zimmerman (1987), and according to them, “doing gender” is an accomplishment and an activity that is recurrently performed by an individual. His or her gender is observed in interactions and concerning other people’s expectations. It is important to explain the concept of “doing gender” in detail and discuss how it is applied to women’s and men’s specific experiences in the workplace; despite critiques of the concept, modern work environments reflect this principle in observed biases and hidden discrimination.
Explanation of the “doing gender” concept
The concept of “doing gender” is based on the idea that gender is not a complex of traits, but is rather a complex of activities performed by individuals according to sets of norms prescribed to one or the other gender (West & Zimmerman 1987). Moreover, “doing gender” means that a person cannot avoid this performance because they have been educated in certain frameworks. Behavioral differences can be associated with resistance to representing one’s gender, but these activities cannot be avoided entirely. Thus, individuals choose to “do gender” because they do not know other patterns, and they are expected to demonstrate certain behaviors and reactions. If these persons choose to oppose their situation, they are assessed by the public according to the expectations assigned to each gender.
Application of the concept to men’s experiences in the workplace
Despite debates on the issue of gender in society, West and Zimmerman’s (1987) concept can be directly applied to female and male experiences at work. According to McDowell (1997), men in the workplace tend to accentuate their masculinity, including decision-making, problem-solving, and leadership skills, and these qualities and behaviors are expected of them. If men demonstrate these skills, they are rewarded. Furthermore, Schilt (2006) developed this idea and found that female-to-male transsexuals begin to receive more benefits in their workplaces when they act as males even though their abilities and skills do not change. This evidence seems to support the principle associated with “doing gender,” according to which women and men are expected to demonstrate quite different behaviors in interactions because of widespread gender biases. Individuals succeed in the workplace when their behaviors are within expectations, and they succeed in the workplace if they are men.
Application of the concept to women’s experiences in the workplace
When it comes to women’s experiences associated with their gender in the workplace, there are two opposing views. On the one side, women are viewed as leaders and managers only from the perspective of masculine behavioral patterns. In her study, Schein (2007) stated that leadership positions are viewed as prepared for men, and this aspect creates career barriers for women. Kirton and Healy (2012) demonstrated that women succeed in the workplace when they begin to develop masculine leadership qualities and specific competencies because of the expectations of their followers or co-workers. On the other side, women are expected to act according to their gender in the workplace also because other types of behaviors provoke questions and opposition among workers (Eagly & Carli 2007; Trades Union Congress 2016). According to Wright’s (2016) conclusions, the positional power of women does not guarantee differences in men’s perceptions of these women. In these examples, women are expected to demonstrate “doing gender” in both cases, but concerning masculine or feminine behaviors.
Opposing views
However, others hold the view that the concept of “doing gender” is not applicable in the modern world because of changes in women’s social roles and the overall transition in sex and gender identities. Thus, Fletcher (2003, p. 11) promoted the idea that women represent new approaches to leadership, including “post-heroic leadership.” As a result, the traditional concept of “doing gender” seems to be unable to explain women’s and men’s experiences in the workplace because women can be supported by their followers as leaders despite their femininity. Still, this counterargument can be refuted from two perspectives. First, if women in the workplace successfully perform as leaders, they are still involved in “doing gender,” but as female leaders. Second, despite women’s efforts in this area, their experiences still differ significantly from men’s experiences, and biases, discrimination, and harassment still exist, even if sometimes in hidden forms (Wright 2016). Therefore, the concept of “doing gender” can be effectively applied to the modern workplace.
Conclusion
Although the concept of “doing gender” was formulated in the 1980s, and it is now considered a traditional view of gender inequalities in society, it can explain specific elements of women’s and men’s experiences at work. Despite women’s and men’s behaviors and visions regarding this, they tend to perform according to their gender or resist the public’s expectations depending on their activities. Nevertheless, even if individuals behave unusually or have experiences that are not associated with their gender, they are still assessed according to certain views on gender adopted in society.
Reference List
Eagly, AH & Carli, LL. 2007, ‘Women and the labyrinth of leadership’, Harvard Business Review, vol. 85, no. 9, pp. 62-71.
Fletcher, JK. 2003, The paradox of post heroic leadership: gender matters. Web.
Kirton, G & Healy, G. 2012, ‘Lift as you rise’: union women’s leadership talk’, Human Relations, vol. 65, no. 8, pp. 979-999.
McDowell, L. 1997, Capital culture: gender at work in the city, Blackwell Publishers, Oxford.
Schein, VE. 2007, ‘Women in management: reflections and projections’, Women in Management Review, vol. 22, no. 1, pp. 6-18.
Schilt, K. 2006, ‘Just one of the guys? How transmen make gender visible at work’, Gender & Society, vol. 20, no. 4, pp. 465-490.
The modern American society is consumption-oriented, a case that is essentially fostered by the Media. Therefore, “much of what comes to pass as important is based often on the stories produced and disseminated by media institutions” (Brooks and Lisa ‘Gender, Race and media representation’ 297).
This implies that many of the things that people construct within their minds are articulated to symbols, images, and narratives that are filmed, televised, or even broadcasted in other forms of media. The mediated symbols, images, and even texts create awareness among people of what it infers by being black, Latino, Native American, female, male, white, or even a resident of the urban or rural area.
Media has also the capacity to segment many of these societal differences across gender and race. In simplistic terms, as evidenced by media genres, some movies like Bamboozled that is written and directed by Spike Lee present media as critical in the determination of what shapes social realities of people. In the context of the movie Bamboozled, the paper argues that African-American identity, race, gender, and class are enormously stereotyped.
Stereotype Presentation of African-American Identity, Race, Gender, and Class
Stereotyping of African Americans in the movie Bamboozled is evident even on the casing of the DVD containing it. Right from the beginning, Bamboozled is a satirical movie depicting the modern minstrel show. It features characters that are black. They also wear black faces.
The highlights create and construct the meaning of being black both internally and externally in the mindset of the audience. Though educated at the Harvard University, Delacroix has to undergo myriads of torments acerbated by his white boss (Thomas Dunwitty). As if endeavoring to satirically criticize and make fun out of Delacroix‘s identity as an African- American, Dunwitty talks similarly to the male blacks living in the urban areas.
He also consistently makes use of the word ‘nigger’ in his conversations coupled with proclaiming that he is essentially more black than Delacroix by virtue of the fact that he has married a black American woman and that they both have two children who are of mixed races. While Delacroix creates a TV script portraying black Americans positively, he demises it as “cosby clones” (Lee Bamboozled min.32).
Hence, he rejects it. Angered by this decision and with the aid of Sloane Hopkins, Delacroix decides to create a minstrel show in which he portrays the blacks in the extreme way. The picture shown below is an extract of the scanned promotional posters on the Bamboozled DVD.
Source (Brooks and Lisa ‘Lessons learned or bamboozled?’ 289).
From the promotional poster, African Americans are presented as cannibals as evidenced by the red color. Therefore, the poster implies that African-Americans are merely half human beings and half-animals. In the film, cannibalism motif is implied by the depiction of blacks as having abnormally big teeth that have abnormal gaps in between (Piehowski 14).
When black characters wear black faces, an impression is created to reinforce the stereotypical association of Africa with awful things because black is superimposed with additional blackness. The question that arises here is whether the identity of black people is housed by their pigmentation, or it is expressed through particular mannerisms.
Arguably, if the identity of being black is contained in the skin color, “those who perform the minstrel exaggeration of stereotypical traits become part of black life” (Black 19). Lee may have intended to provide a tool for addressing the abuse and misuse of the African American skin color ‘black’, which is also the identity of this human race particularly through TV depictions.
However, the movie may be argued as having not delivered the satires intended because people would tend to interpret the film as a true depiction of the identity of the African-Americans. Delacroix himself perhaps evidences this fact. He had created the film originally as a means of inciting his boss to fire him over extreme expression of racism.
Unfortunately, he ended up changing his mind to embrace the film as a source of fame and recognition while claiming that it was a satirical piece of work while fully aware of its capacity to profile the identity of the African-Americans in a negative way. Consequently, as Black argues, the film turned out as a reflection of the intense contempt that Delacroix had inside himself pertaining to the black identity (19).
Moreover, Bamboozled characterization raises questions on the African-Americans’ understanding of their race and gender issues. Arguably, although the movie opens by warning the audience to shun from taking things the manner they appear at facial value through Delacroix’s explanation of the meaning of satire, Womack raises questions of the blacks’ capacity to recognize their racial identity. Mantan: The New Millennium Minstrel Show is full of black actors who wear black faces.
They also make incredibly funny and racist jokes about the African Americans. With regard to Piehowski, Mantan: The New Millennium Minstrel Show also deploys “offensively stereotyped CGI-animated cartoons that caricature the leading stars of the new show” (13). In the making of the show, the main aim of Delacroix was to make his boss fire him on grounds of extreme racism.
This would make him get an opportunity to look out for employment in another company. Unfortunately, this is not the case. Even the black street performer seems also satisfied with the profiling. Manray exemplifies this case. Precisely, while Womack becomes horrified immediately when Dealcroix opens the reality about the film’s contents, Manray considers it as an opportunity for gaining fame and wealth through his dancing skills.
To Delacroix‘s surprise, instead of being fired as he had anticipated, Dunwitty endorses the show. It also becomes incredibly successful. When the show gains popularity in the TV, Womack and Manray become mega stars. On the other hand, Delacroix alters his mind and defends the show claiming that it is only a satire. While Delacroix is proud of the awards and fame that he receives, Hopkins is on the other hand intensively worried about her contributions in the development of a racism-oriented show.
Later in the Bamboozled, the Mau Maus engineer plans for bringing the show down by deploying violence due to the anger he has about the show’s content. Womack gets tired of the show and quits. This creates a room for Hopkins and Manray to come close to one another. Delacroix attempts to break this relationship by claiming that Hopkins had slept with Manray to earn her position. However, this plan fails to yield fruits.
For instance, Womack says, “I don’t know who I am” (Lee Bamboozled min. 52). Interpreted beyond the facials value, Womack is a characterization name reflecting destabilized racial and gender identities that are captured in the movie. It “probes issues of sexuality, what it means by a woman, race, or what it means to be black” (Brooks and Lisa ‘Lessons learned or bamboozled’ 291).
The paradox and confusion are further amplified through the characters’ actions of rejecting, realigning, relinquishing, and confirming the racial stereotypes associated with the African-Americans. For instance, the movie reminds the audience “to keep it real” (Lee Bamboozled min. 71).
However, Dunwitty claims that he is blacker in relation to some of the blacks including Delacroix since he is married to a black woman. This exemplifies the hatred that Dunwitty has by being associated with blacks. His association with the black people creates more hatred for himself in relation to the way blacks hate themselves.
The presentation of African-Americans’ gender, class, and how the two relate cannot escape criticism. The movie, presents a sexualized anxiety of coming into terms with physical prowess of the African-American people. In this context, Bowdre argues, “nodding to history, Lee shows how the public fascination with other black males’ bodies continues today” (128).
In the context of class, the film highlights the top dancer’s (Manray) original status before he was empowered by a show that only helps to highlight how his racial backgrounds denied him an opportunity to rise up economically. The film portrays Hanray as a poor street dancer who embraces the dancing role in the show as a tool for getting wealthy tantamount to the white community.
Through the songs in which Hanray and Womack take proactive roles, the stereotypic association of African American with low social class life often involving slavery is brought into the lime light. To evidence this argument in the film, the sonorous voices of both Manray and Womack bring up lively tones that are characteristic of historical slave songs. In the film, the audience is made by hilarious presentation to become blackface performers (Lee Bamboozled min. 87).
This way, the audience acquires sexual license. For instance, a Sicilian member of the audience posits that he has become “blacker than a nigger” (Lee Bamboozled min. 101) by showing his penis to the rest of the audience. Arguably, this implies that blacks are defined by nakedness, a trait attributed to the stereotype that they belong to a low class society, which was often tagged as poor in the racist historic America.
On a different perspective, Tondeur and Tyrone argue, “Bamboozled emphasizes performing black masculinity in an effort to recreate white femininity” (10). This implies that race and gender are vastly interrelated in films that stereotype African-Americans like Bamboozled.
Through the stereotyped African-American identity, race, gender, and class, Bamboozled sends a clear message to the audiences’ minds that black entertainment is principally designed to ensure that curiosities of the majority white Americans are fulfilled. To fulfill this curiosity, African-Americans are depicted as lesser human beings as evidenced in the movie in the movie when Dunwitty accepts the show created by Delacroix reflecting the African-American people in an incredibly negative way.
In fact, Hopkins becomes cognizant of the fact that she is being exploited in the show to make fantasy out of her identity. This prompts her to seek mechanisms of defending her identity as an African-American. For this reason, she compiles racism footages from various TV shows, cartoons, and even movies with the intent of making Delacroix realize the harm the show had. Unfortunately, Delacroix turns back from viewing them.
However, learning from this case amid the recognition of the exploitative nature of the show, Manray declares that he will no longer put on black faces. The executives in charge of production of the show are angered by this move. Arguably, this shows that the executives take advantage of the ignorance of the African-American on their identity to help acerbate their negative stereotyping.
In Bamboozled, coming into terms with the negative presentation of the African- American racial identity attracts serious consequences. For instance, Dunwitty fires Manray right on stage besides ordering him to get out of the production studio. This act clearly shows and confirms the stereotype perception spread by the Bamboozled by portraying African-Americans as having lesser human rights since it is evident that Manray was given neither a warning nor a notice for his firing.
Unfortunately, the Mau Maus who are predominantly composed African- Americans fail to embrace the fight that was staged by Manray aimed at seeking appreciation of the identities of the African-Americans. This presents them as ignorant. In fact, Mau Maus who make a public statement that they would murder Manray live on webcast kidnap him.
The authorities are unable to trace the internet’s feed source while Manray is assassinated. Later, the police track down Mau Maus whom they spray with bullets leaving only one person (Mc Serch) who also declares his willingness to die rather than facing an arrest. Arguably, these senseless killings of Mau Maus confirm that human rights are less significant when acts of extra judicial killings involve African- Americans.
This argument is significant because people are not told in the movie that the Mau Maus were armed or whether they actually threatened the lives of the police so that a decision would be reached to shoot them senselessly. Worse of all, the person who survived the spray of bullets (Mc Serch) had an originality of the white race. Does Bamboozled then clearly show that the applicability of human rights is dependent on the race of the people engaged in criminal activities such as murder?
The struggle to fight for negative stereotyping of the African-American is eminent in Bamboozled. Hopkins is immensely enraged by the ignorance that Delacroix has towards people of his race: the African-Americans. Therefore, she confronts Delacroix demanding him to watch under a gunpoint the movie she had previously prepared.
On watching the movie, Delacroix attempts to seize the gun from her. This results to his shooting. Hopkins flees from the scene leaving him watching the movie wounded and lying down. As Tondeur and Tyrone assert, “the film concludes with long racially insensitive and demeaning clips of black characters from Hollywood films of the first half of the 20th century” (11).
Cameras are then tilted towards the lifeless body of Delacroix with the last images shown depicting Manray performing his last Mantan: The New Millennium Minstrel Show episode live on stage. The situation in which Delacroix comes into terms with his identity makes it clear that, no matter how ignorant one may be towards his/her race, gender, and class, the fact remains that such identities do not cease to exist simply because they are ignored.
Consequently, Delacroix evidences how accepting negative profiling for individualistic reasons such as gaining fame and wealth only leads to further acerbating of the associated stereotyping. Bowdre contends with this argument by further asserting, “the movie directly implies that the White executives who control the entertainment channels support black entertainment mostly in a condescending manner, one that is not that much different from slave-era treatment of blacks” (127).
The preciseness of Bamboozled to possess this motif is arguably contained in the vivid intermingling of class, race, gender, and economic perceptions held by the traditional white community against the African-Americans. The reinforcement of the stereotypic perception encounters an immense support in the film.
In fact, instead of black characters aiming to disapprove these perceptions, they give them deeper roots to be anchored in the minds of the audience. For instance, with regard to Black, “Lee shows how Delacroix satirically uses the images and mannerisms of blacks from blackface minstrel showing how he seeks to escape his blackness, symbolized by being trapped in his job’”(19).
Therefore, instead of depicting satire through the film’s themes, Delacroix appears to be the object of the satire. Since he is black, being the object of the satire makes the interpretation of his mannerism better comprehended at facial value. The case is in contrast with his earlier warning at the beginning of the movie.
Conclusion
Through the movie Bamboozled, the African-American identity, race, gender, and class are presented as inferior in relation to those of the white people. The paper has argued that, through the presentation, the traditional stereotypes associated with African Americans are confirmed. This implies that, through Bamboozled, Lee succeeds in creating the impression that the modern black entertainment is designed such that it satisfies the white people’s curiosity about the blacks’ identity, class, gender differences, and racial stereotyping.
Works Cited
Black, Ray. “Satire’s Cruelest Cut: Exorcising Blackness in Spike Lee’s Bamboozled.” The Black Scholar 33.1(2003): 19-24. Print.
Bowdre, Karen. “A Black Camera Book Review: The Spike Lee Reader.” Black Camera 22.2(2008):127-128. Print.
Brooks, Dwight, and Hebert Lisa. “Lessons learned or bamboozled? Gender in a Spike Lee film.” Communication Studies 47.5(2004): 289–302. Print.
Brooks, Dwight, and Hebert Lisa. “Gender, Race and media representation.” Gender and communication in mediated contexts 3.2(2003): 297-318. Print.
Lee, Spike, dir. Bamboozled. Twentieth Century, 2000. Film.
Piehowski, Victoria. “Business as Usual: Sex, Race, and Work in Spike Lee’s Bamboozled.” Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies 33.1 (2012):1-23. Print.
Tondeur, Cristy, and Simpson Tyrone. “Bamboozled by Blackness: Movie Review: Bamboozled.” Black Camera 16.1(2001): 4-11. Print.
Sociologists have attempted to explain the sociological gender roles and sex and their differences. Others maintain that there is a difference between the two terms that are sex and gender and their behavioral character tends to differ. We shall critically review a newspaper article that attempts to define the sociological gender and sexual anatomy and how the two differ.
Sociology, Theory, Cultural Understanding and Physical Anatomy
This article has been written by Morine Nicholas, a sociologist and a columnist in the daily newspaper, the New York Times. The article was published in September 2009 by Ochs Publishers. In order to understand the sexual norms and feminists theories, one needs to know the difference between sex and gender.
He further argues that most people use the words ‘sex’ and ‘gender’ incorrectly, and 90% of the people who use these two terms cannot differentiate them (Nicholas 2). He proceeds to argue that sex is biologically determined and that it concerns itself more with the physical anatomy of an individual. He also argues that he believes that sex is a natural phenomenon and is not determined by any cultural practices or norms, as many people are led to believe. (Nicholas, 4).
On the other hand, social interaction, peer absorption, and cultural values are the main determinants of gender identity. He contends that one can challenge their gender and even proceed to undergo surgery to change to the opposite gender. He explains that this is one of the examples that show the distinction between sex and gender, as well as the two terms being disparate (Nicholas 9). He further argues that culture can describe gender roles and identities.
These roles have been criticized and argued upon in the feminist theory when it comes to the sociology and philosophy aspects. He gives an example of when males play with toy soldiers and females with Barbie dolls while they are still young. This has been termed as gender bias by the feminist theorists who consider it offensive.
The writer poses a question about why it is important to acknowledge the difference between gender and sex. He continues to answer the question by stating that a very important reason is to be able to understand the impact of the two terms on children and even adults. He defends this point by giving an example of children and adults who differ from the gender roles that have been socially accepted, and society tends to shun them (Nicholas, 12).
He gives an example of boys who, instead of playing with toy soldiers and trucks, play with dolls or adult females who like to engage in sports talk and wear plaid. The article relates to define the sociological gender and sex and to differentiate between the two.
However, the writer appears vague in his attempt to differentiate the two. He also fails to explain the feminist’s theories argument on gender roles. He also appears vague by stating that sex is a natural phenomenon as opposed to gender. This appears contradicting with his holding that one can change his sex but not his gender. He does not bring out the sociological difference between gender and sex.
Conclusion
In this article, the writer fails to clearly define the two terms and bring out the differences as intended. Instead, he leaves the reader even more confused about their applicability. He further introduced the reader to the feminist theory but failed to explain what these theories are and their stand on the gender roles portrayed.
Works Cited
Nicholas, Morine. “Sociology, Theory, Cultural Understanding, and Physical Anatomy.” New York Times. 2009.
Based on everything that has been presented in the course materials so far privilege for me can be summed up as a form of “entitlement” which is based on preconceived social and cultural norms from which a set of accorded “rights” are attributed to a certain class of individuals (Mcintosh 79-82).
Privilege, Dominance, and Race
How privilege works in the context of social norms and behaviors (as I understand it from the readings presented) is that it confers a certain degree of dominance-based on race and sex. For example, a person’s skin color (being white) enables them a far more likely chance to be accepted for a certain job, attain a degree or even avoid being accused of a crime on the basis that their skin color accords them a preconceived social status as being more likely not to commit a crime, have a greater possibility of performing well at a particular job and lastly having a greater chance of integration within a predominantly white campus community.
Privilege and Gender
On the other end of the spectrum, privilege can also encompass aspects related to gender stereotyping wherein males are thought of as being “superior” to females based on their “superior” gender, and as such men should be accorded certain privileges as befits their station (a widely held belief within the Middle East). Commonly held social beliefs regarding women (which are an inherent part of society yet few people willingly acknowledge them as fact) is that they are the weaker gender, lack the physical strength and endurance to live in a “man’s world” and as such are more suited to staying at home and taking care of children. While in the modern-day era women’s rights and equality between genders has ensured that women are accorded the same right as men in the workplace such aspects are superficial in that men are still more “privileged” than women in this regard. Examples of this can be seen in the hiring practices of corporations wherein more men hold senior positions within a company as compared to women are given higher salaries, more benefits and in the end, are presented with more opportunities for advancement as compared to their female counterparts.
Conclusion
In summary, it can be seen that the concept of privilege based on race and gender is an unfortunate fact of society that needs to be changed to create a just and equal “playing field” so to speak for people of all races and genders.
Works Cited
Crenshaw, Kimberle. “Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, hut out of ~ that they and Violence against Women of Color.” Feminist Frontiers. 7. (2007): 431-437. Print.
Devor, Aaron. “Who are We?.” Sex, Gender and Sexuality. 6.2 (2009): 527-534. Print.
Wilchins, Riki. “Gender rights are human rights.” Gender Queer. (2002): 187-191. Print.
Women from all walks of life have contributed a lot in making a difference to the present and past life through their struggles for equality. Women in Canada have faced a lot of discrimination not only in terms of gender but also in terms of race, age ethnicity, disability and sexual orientation. Men have always dominated the high managerial positions and also they have high numbers in terms of holding power. They have better job security, more benefits and also very respectable titles compared to women. The working conditions in most places are not conducive for the promotion of women to the top management positions. There is an extreme importance of involving women in the issues related to all policies and programs to ensure that the decision making process is representative of both women and men.
Main body
In the history of Canadian women in the 19th and 20th century were subject to various forms of discrimination compared to men. Women had no right to vote and there they spent a lot of considerable time participating in organizations that were devoted in developing education, fighting for the rights and supporting churches. They were not allowed to own property. They also had no right to their own money which was controlled by their husbands. Women were not in a position to attain high levels of education as men and they were faced with a lot of ridicule when seeking education for example Clara Brett martin face a lot of challenges when she became the first woman to enroll into a law school. She faced challenges from her schoolmates, the professors and also the media. Women were also subject to abduction as long as hey had attained the age of 16. This only changed in 1910 when the criminal code made it illegal to abduct women. The women also worked for long hours yet their pay did not rise beyond that of men. The women came a long way in obtaining their rights to vote, the maternity leaves and also reduced working hours. Giving them the right to vote made women become more vigorous in the affairs of the state. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy. It recognizes the queen as the head of state. Women also fought for the rights to divorce men on equal grounds as men would divorce women. The national council of women in Canada has come a long way in assisting women attain their rights. In the 18th century they fought for the female prisoners, the female factory workers and also the female immigrants. The council has also helped the women get better health facilities such as safe water, pasteurized milk and also medical clinics.
In the 19th century the council helped the women form a lot Canadian institutions that were to help women achieve their goals. The council has supported women to be appointed to the senator positions in the government and also in the judicial system. In the 21st century women have fought their way into having a good representation in the legal system. They have fought for their rights into having their rights included in the charter as section 28 which states that the rights and freedoms referred into it are guaranteed equally to male and female persons. The section 15 and 28 of the Canadian charter of rights and freedoms now gives a clear foundation for the development of policies that support gender equality. It is still unfortunate for the women since the charter is only limited to the persons who have the time, money and resources. This gives the consequences of many women not finding the required justice just because they do not have the required resources. In 1981, Canada recognized the United Nations Convention on eradicating all forms of discrimination against women. The convention insisted on the women’s human rights by enabling them access equal opportunities in politics, public life, health, education and also in employment. Women have also been recognized as equal players in the economic world. They have attained better working status and independence. Statistics indicate a woman earns about 73 cents for every dollar that is earned by a man.
The women are still earning less than men just like women in other countries face discrimination in terms of payment equality. The gap between the women’s earnings and men earnings is still very large.
In the government positions, statistics still indicate that men are still dominating most positions in the federal government. Men occupy more than two third of the executive in the civil service while women are being over represented in the administrative support category.
The women in Canada have continually played a very limited role in the public life. There is still few women representation in the parliament. Women have less than 15% representation in the parliament. It has been emphasized that it is extremely important to involve women in the government and also in the business world. This is because it has been proven that women involvement in such issues has resulted to reduce corruption and thus improving the environment for business and investment. Women have been praised of their capability to build relation-ships that enable dialogue and easy resolving of conflicts. Women have also developed special skills that help them to focus on creative thinking. Their flexibility has been recommended in the management positions since this would allow better responsiveness between them and the employees. In today’s world women who did not have power to speak now have the freedom to express them-selves.
Women still face challenges in the approach to the political world due to lack of training and skills of how the political system works. Lack of proper skills has led to the difficulty in understanding he rules of the legislature that are necessarily in the performance of parliamentary duties. Women are not yet fully economically empowered to enable them to raise funds that would help them get into the business world.
In an approach to address the women’s issues in Canada, it has been suggested that the government should adopt quotas like most of the Scandinavian countries.
Quotas in this case would place the burden of recruitment on the persons who are taking control of the recruitment process. It would bring equality since the system would ensure that women get at least the few minority positions. Quotas recognize equality in that it emphasizes on the removal of barriers that women face in bid to attain equality of opportunity. The quotas would also help in improving the democratic situations of the political system in Canada. This is because 50% of the Canadian population is comprised of women yet the current political system in which the nominations are made are controlled by the political parties which are dominated by men. This makes it very difficult for women to be nominated and to be elected to the parliament. The existing percentage of women in the legislature seems to be dormant as the 20% since this has not changed over time. The success of women in Canada in fighting for gender equality is mainly based on the commitment of the government of Canada to put in place gender-based analysis in a cross-sectional and systematic approach. In 1995, Canada’s federal plan for gender equality was adopted by the UN as the fourth national world conference on gender. The federal plan basically focused on the governments efforts towards ending the gender inequality. It is a statement of commitment and the future frame work for approaches to gender inequality. It also recognizes the women organizations and the non-governmental organizations that have enabled the closer look to the gender issues. It brings to reality the many issues that women face in terms of age, race, national and ethnic origin, physical disability, language and religion.
It recognizes the fact that despite the tireless efforts that have been put forward by the government and other organizations to end the gender violence, women have not yet achieved on equal terms the success than men have achieved. The federal plan called for the involvement of both men and women in the search for an equitable society that would benefit both men and women. Gender equality cannot be achieved if the women are not allowed to compete on equal terms with men. It recognizes the fact that building and strengthening the partnerships among the women and men, the universities , community groups, the private sector and the government would assist in the shifting of the resources to more effective and informed policies.
The federal plan includes eight objectives that are centered to the government’s commitment towards eradicating the gender inequality. One of the objectives was the establishment of the gender-based analysis which was aimed at forming departments and agencies that would inform and guide the future legislation and policies at the federal level. These institutions would assess at the federal level the effect of the potential differentiation on both men and women. The federal plan had the objective of improving the women’s economic power and welfare. It advocated for the valuation of the paid and the unpaid work that had been done by women, equitable participation of women in both paid and the unpaid labor force and also equitable sharing of responsibilities between men and women both at the family level and also at work. It also promoted the women entrepreneurship economic security and their well-being. Federal plan also focused on the improvement of women’s physical and psychological welfare
In this case it advocated for better health through research and policy development and changes in the practices within the medical sector. It also advocated for the decline in the violence that is performed against women and children. The Federal plan sort to strengthen the gender equality in the entire cultural heritage of Canada, it promoted the participating of women in governance and having equal opportunities at the decision making levels. It also focused its agendas on the support of global gender equality and also promoting the equality of employees of the federal where both men and women were given equal opportunities to gain employment.
Canada has always been committed in the fight for gender equality as an essential component for sustainable development, social justice, peace and security. Attaining sustainable economic growth calls for the recognition of the capability and the potential of women in building the economy. Lack women participation in the economy results to the wastage of labor and thus a resource required for development. There is the existence of the institutional infrastructure that addresses the issues of gender inequality. There is also improvement in terms of mechanisms that support gender equality and also mechanisms that allow for better transmission of information.
Canada also holds some foreign policy priorities that are directed towards ending gender violence. This includes the elimination violence against women, the full and equal participation of women in decision making and the mainstreaming of gender perspectives. It achieves these priorities by its participation in the multicultural institutions such as the UN and also bilateral discussions with the individual countries and also throughout the development assistance delivered by the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA).
Organizations such as the UN and other non-governmental have played a very signification role in advancing for women rights and gender equality internationally.
Conclusion
In conclusion it is very important for people to change their perception on women as the weaker sex. Women should not be marginalized but instead they should be incorporated in every aspect of our daily lives. It still remains a challenge for most Canadians to adapt to the changing government and economic environment. It is also difficult to incite further policy amendments between the government and the nongovernmental organizations. Women’s role in the society has improved and changes the lives of many over the centuries. The efforts of the women in the past centuries have given the current generation of women the rights and privileges that they enjoy today. The legacy that was left by these women has given rise to the women’s day , where women are expected to come out in support of the women’s efforts in bringing change to the modern world and also to pay their respects to the older generation of women who paved way for many women to achieve their goals and dream. Today the gender equality in Canada is guaranteed by the rights and freedom charter besides the many human rights to which Canada is a signatory. Today Canada is one of the leading countries that promote and protect women’s rights and gender equality.
Bibliography
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The presented documentary explores the concept of “mahu” people through the eyes a hula teacher in Hawaii. The concept is a traditional Hawaiian idea that there are male and female genders, as well as a third gender that shares characteristics of both. This concept was deeply repressed by the colonial government that Hawaii was under and only relatively recently, traditional cultural values were allowed to be taught and practiced. This film captures the unique perspective of a person who represents a traditional culture in a modern world and succeeds. This paper will attempt to apply Judith Butler’s gender performativity theory to the main character of the film, and provide my personal thoughts on non-binary gender identities.
Performativity and Mahu
It is difficult to apply Butler’s theory due to the unique origin of the Mahu culture. The preconceptions of the western world do not apply to traditional Hawaiian values, and the performativity that occurs is very different in nature. It can be seen as Hina’s drive to preserve and promote traditional Hawaiian culture allows her to shape her mahu identity because it is an intrinsic part of the Hawaiian society. To follow western views on gender would be directly opposing her cause and identity. If Butler’s theory that performance of the gender creates the individual is correct, then Hina is performing an ancient role that was almost forgotten due to the oppressive colonial regime. While Hina has a more dominant feminine side to her personality, the role of mahu equally applies to those people who have a stronger male personality, which is important to consider when applying such a theory. Hina wants to be a loving wife, but she does not always agree with the traditional views on gender roles in marriage, which creates a conflict with her partner. Nevertheless, she firmly stands by her identity and is working to promote traditional Hawaiian culture in the country.
Personal Views
I was very pleasantly surprised to see an example of non-binary genders in pre-colonial cultures. The difference in the construction of traditional Hawaiian society is fascinating, and it is a tragedy that it was repressed for so long. This repression made me feel wrong while trying to apply a very western theory of gender to a person who represents an almost direct opposite of western culture. Moreover, the role of mahu was developed without any presence of western thought, and to analyze it through a lens even of modern western gender theory seems inaccurate and even partially disrespectful.
Conclusion
Kumu Hina is a fascinating film. It presents an idea that is much older than the majority of gender debates, but its existence goes against traditional western views on gender. It is very reassuring to see that the original Hawaiian culture is experiencing a slow revival and that in the future, the concept of mahu would be much more common in the region. Hopefully, this will happen sooner than later.
Issues of sexual orientation, identity, gender and sex have always been of crucial importance for the existence of the human beings. In the modern world, the issues of sex and orientation can be found a rather higher level of development than in the past displaying more freedom for people in manifesting their likes and preferences in sexual sense. Nevertheless, considerable controversy still surrounds these issues as majority of the society still has not get accustomed to the existence of those who differ in their sexual orientation and do not hide it from public view. Thus, the special theory, “queer theory” was created by activists of the movements for the equal rights for people with different sexual orientation. This theory will be considered in this paper as a means to analyze the pieces of art that reflect the shift in public opinion about “queer” and about the issues of sex and sexual orientation. However, the major means of analysis in this paper will be the science about signs as main tools of exchange of messages between people, i. e. semiotics as “the words needed are to be found within semiotics” (Semiotics and Communication, 1993).
Pierre et Gilles
As far as this paper focuses on the tracing of the impact that the so-called “queer” art has on public perception of everything queer, the major subjects of this paper are pieces of art that deal with such issues as gay marriage, nude male and female body as a form of art, sadomasochism and all other phenomena that are considered to be abnormal by the society in the traditional sense of this word. Thus, the first work which is to be analyzed is the photo titled Les Maries by Pierre and Gilles which was shot in 1992. And the first impression made by the photo under consideration is the great amount of references to homosexuality. To be more exact, the very subject of the photo is the homosexual marriage which is difficult to see until one looks at the photo more attentively. The wife and the husband portrayed on the piece of art are actually both men one of which is wearing a traditional black tuxedo while another one is in a wedding gown with pink decorations:
What particular can be said about the photo and its meaning for the whole society? First of all, this is a piece of art that breaks all the standards and norms of the conservative society of human beings. It has never been “normal” to display in public such socially condemned feelings as homosexual ones, and due to this fact people considered “normal” consider homosexuals of lesbians to be dangerous, not for them personally but for the established way of social life: “They are ‘dangerous’ as certain social classes have sometimes been described, dangerous because they strike at the very heart of a world that is both narrowly self-assured and proud of its aesthetic and intellectual prerogatives. They challenge all forms of decorum without ever resorting to ostentation or militancy.” (Marcade and Cameron,1997:7).
Thus, from the point of view of semiotics, this picture is a sign of the change that has recently occurred in the public mind about homosexual relations. This photo, and the readiness of people to pose for it, can be interpreted as a sign of appearing freedom for the homosexual people and those supporting queer theory: “As an identity marker, queer is posted as a way to disrupt and simultaneously expose the construction of the reified binaries of heterosexual and homosexual and the static, constructed gender assignments male and female.” (Pinar, 1998: 17).
Gender perception of the audience of the photo is also disrupted by depicting a male in the clothes typical and associated with females. According to Pilcher and Whelehan (2004), gender is a rather conventional term and people usually label a person or a thing or a color with a particular gender on the basis of tradition and associations (167). Thus for example, if a pink color is thought of as feminine, then the men wearing this color is either confused with a woman or thought of as a homosexual. The photo by Pierre et Gilles proves this point of view, as spectators perceive pink color and wedding gown as feminine signs, while the person wearing them turns out to be a “queer” man.
Thus, from the point of view of the queer theory and semiotics, the photo by Pierre et Gilles reinforces the public perceiving of marriage and differences in sexual orientation. Despite all the criticism that one can receive due to such an opinion but seeing a man wearing a woman’s wedding gown and standing on the photo embraced by his husband is not perceived adequately by the modern society. People would rather feel disgust and experience confusion about the norms and standards of the society, while their attitude towards homosexual relations and issues of sexual identity would hardly be changed for the better. Finally, as Judith Butler says quoted by Bergman and Smith (1995), “in both butch and femme identities, the very notion of an original or natural identity is put into question and indeed, it is precisely that question as it is embodied in these identities that becomes one source of their erotic significance” (21).
Robert Mapplethorpe
As compared to the work by Pierre et Gilles which is a symbolic reflection of mocking the social standards and norms that are prescribed to the representatives of both sexes, the works by Robert Mapplethorpe reflect some other aspects of the same issues. For example, the major topics of works by Robert Mapplethorpe are the open manifestations of their author’s being homosexual and his great admiration for nude body, especially the male nude body. Moreover, in these works the special form of protest against the prohibitions imposed on the people by the society can be observed. The author under consideration protested against what he considered to be inhuman, i. e. against telling a person what he or she should do and what he or she should not. In other words, Mapplethorpe fought against stereotyping which was mainly negative, and proved the idea by Pilcher and Whelehan (2004), who considered stereotypes, especially negative ones, to be the reasons of all great concerns and misunderstandings in the society (167).
Here, the semiotics comes into play again because stereotyping is a kind of signs that are attributed to this or that norm, sex, person and standard of behavior. They also form people’s behavior and their expectations from others. And the work by Mapplethorpe to be analyzed in this paper reflects this statement perfectly. It violates the social prohibition for displaying nude bodies and is a matter of controversy due to its courageous idea and brilliant composition:
The first impression this 1985 photo titled Ken, Lydia, and Tyler makes is allusion to the classical art of the Ancient Greece where the beauty of the human body was admired and embodied in art. Thus, from the point of view of semiotics, this photo is the sign showing the desire to go back to the times when art was not politicized and served for pleasure of people. Moreover, the sign demonstrating the freedom of a human being who can easily undress and feel comfortable among others can also be observed in this picture.
What is also important about this picture is that it symbolizes the racial and sexual equality by portraying both white and black males holding hands, and a woman between them. Such a harmony was probably the major idea of the author of the photo who claimed to pursue the classical beauty of human body in his work saying that photography as it is has never been his hobby, while the objects of his works have always attracted him. Moreover, according to Butler (1993) “the body posited as prior to the sign is also posited or signified as prior” (30), and in works by Mapplethorpe bodies create signs and express meanings and not vice versa.
On the whole, from the point of view of the queer theory, works by Robert Mapplethorpe are divided into several periods in which he started with a cruel photos of leather-wearing nude females and males and came to the depiction of the monumental beauty of the human body, which, according to Nead (1992) was the main difficulty in his works: “Of course, Mapplethorpe always makes it more difficult for himself by deliberately framing everything and everybody in the same strait-jacket style – the world reinvented as logic, precision, sculpture in obvious light and shadow.” (8) This, however, adds to the credibility and importance of his works for change of public attitude towards “queer” making it better in all respects with the help of beauty which is not spoiled by any confusing semiotic signs that could distract attention of viewers.
Grayson Perry
As contrasted to both above discussed works, the pieces of art created by Grayson Perry have their specific features. First of all, as Pilcher and Whelehan, (2004) notice: “The gender order is a pattern system of ideological and material practices, performed by individuals in a society, through which power relations between women and men are made, and remade, as meaningful. It is through the gender order of a society that forms or codes of masculinities and femininities are created and recreated, and relations between them are organized.” (61) But Grayson Perry managed to break this belief by living as a man and a woman at the same time, i. e. being a transvestite.
As it could be expected from such a free person, his works are reflections of his outlook of the world which try to persuade its spectators that sexual orientation and preferences can be dictated only by the inner feelings of a particular person but not by the society. Thus, Perry’s works are full of various scenes from sexual life of people that include sadomasochism, homosexual and lesbian sexual relations, men wearing women’s clothes, etc. The work under analysis, for example, is the scene where roles of women and men are vague while characters portrayed as women may in reality turn out to be men:
Ceramics, as the major sphere of artistic interest of Grayson Perry, displays some features typical for Ancient Greek ceramic art but also combines them with the modern trends in art and in social thought. Thus, the main idea of the works under consideration is an attempt to change the social perception of non-traditional sexual orientation and issues connected with sex and identity on the whole. From the point of view of queer theory, the work by Perry is a manifestation of readiness of homosexuals and lesbians to stand for their equal rights with other members of the society. From the point of view of semiotics, this piece of art is the sign of the possible change of social roles of men and women in the society as well as the sign of the vague boundaries between the two sexes for such people as Grayson Perry and many of his supporters and fans. This work provides for the change in the public opinion about sexual orientation and identity by its direct appeal to spectators and purely artistic form deprived of any elements of violence, dirt or cruelty.
Conclusion
Thus, to conclude the paper, it is necessary to state that pieces of arts analyzed in this paper are able to change the social perception of the non-traditional sexual orientation and contribute to people’s understanding of the issues of sex and identity in the modern world. All the three works considered are pieces of art displaying the features of queer theory and have considerable meaning according to the semiotics’ point of view. The photo by Pierre et Gilles reaches its aim of persuading people in normality of homosexual relations by mocking the standards and their makers, while two other works try to do the same by appealing to the beauty of human body and people’s understanding of it.
Bibliography
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Abstract: The Millennium Development Goals are eight goals set by the United Nations Millennium Summit set to be achieved by 2015, to overcome the main development challenges of the world. Of these, the third goal is the one regarding gender equality and empowerment of women. My studies show that women are truly suffering the world over in various ways. They are not given proper education, health care and face discrimination in the workplace, and suffer violence at home. The Millennium Goals are aimed at various development challenges in the world but according to various scholars, women empowerment and gender equality are the ones that can impact all other challenges as well. For example, poverty reduction can happen only with women empowerment.
Towards achieving this goal, there are seven strategies to be followed to reach the goal and four indicators used to measure the progress. The four indicators are education, employment, literacy, and political participation all of which can be boiled down to one indicator: education. By educating women, they can be made employable, literate, and able to stand on political grounds. Thus, the education of women is truly the main priority of this goal. It has been part of the plan that most of the targets had to be reached by 2005. However, the world still lags in its pursuit of the third MDG. Women continue to suffer in different ways in different parts of the world. They need to be rescued from domestic violence and also from environment-induced problems such as carrying water and roaming for fuel. Overall, it has been found and I to agree, that education, employment, and political participation do strengthen the cause of women but what can bring about true women empowerment is a change in the way society perceives women. This can happen and the third MDG is achieved only when many support groups work together for the cause of gender equality and women empowerment.
Introduction
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are eight goals, set to be achieved by 2015, to overcome the main development challenges of the world. The MDGs are elicited from the Millennium Declaration that was adopted by 189 nations and signed by 147 heads of state and governments during the UN Millennium Summit in September 2000 (UNDP, 2008). The Millennium Declaration contains actions and targets. The eight-millennium development goals are broken down into 18 quantifiable targets that are measured by 48 indicators. The eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) range from halving extreme poverty to halting the spread of HIV/AIDS and providing universal primary education, all by the target date of 2015. It provides a blueprint for global development based on agreement by all the world’s countries and all the world’s leading development institutions (UN, 2008).
The Third Goal
Kofi Annan in 2006 remarked, “It is impossible to realize our goals while discriminating against half the human race”. The third goal in the list of Millennium Development Goals is about eliminating gender disparity in primary and secondary education preferably by 2005, and at all levels by 2015. Poverty is often felt to be a reflection of the status of women in the world (UN, 2005, 105). Global prosperity and peace can be achieved only when all of the people in the world can become self-sufficient and independent. Societies, where women are treated in a more equal manner, can develop faster and achieve the Millennium Goals by 2015 (Millienniumcampaign, 2008). All the eight goals are directly related to women’s rights, and this implies that societies, where women are not afforded equal rights as men, can never sustainably achieve development. It has been found that in Asia, Latin America, and Africa, where women have been given the chance to succeed through small business loans or increased educational opportunities, families are stronger, economies are stronger, and societies are flourishing (Milleniumcampaign, 2008, 1).
Need for the third goal
Women are often the suppressed community in the world. This can be seen through the following facts: of the 1.3 billion people living in poverty around the world, 70% are women. (Source: World Revolution); women do about 66% of the world’s work in return for less than 5% of its income. (Source: Women’s International Network); in the least developed countries nearly twice as many women over age 15 are illiterate compared to men. (Source: UNFPA); two-thirds of children denied primary education are girls, and 75% of the world’s 876 million illiterate adults are women. (Source: AskWoman); women work two-thirds of the world’s working hours, produce half of the world’s food, and yet earn only 10% of the world’s income and own less than 1% of the world’s property. (Source: World Development Indicators, 1997, Womankind Worldwide). There is now increasing awareness of the loss to society as a result of persistent inequalities between women and men. The inclusion of gender equality and women’s empowerment as the third Millennium Development Goal (MDG) is a reminder that there must be more done towards the direction of empowerment of women (UN, 2005). According to Naila Kabeer, empowerment can be studied in three dimensions: agency, resources, and achievements. Agency needs to act in the direction of the goal through mobilization of resources and lead to achievements that truly empower women (Kabeer, 2003, 173).
Seven Strategic Priorities
The U.N. Millennium Project’s Task Force on Education and Gender Equality has outlined seven strategic priorities that require action today if Goal 3 is to be met within the next decade. These strategic priorities are found to be interdependent and independent of the setting. The seven strategic priorities are: strengthen opportunities for educating girls at the school level; guarantee sexual and reproductive health and rights; invest in infrastructure to reduce women’s and girls’ time burdens; guarantee women’s and girls’ property and inheritance rights; eliminate gender inequalities in employment by decreasing women’s reliance on informal employment, closing gender gaps in earnings, and reducing occupational segregation; increase women’s share of seats in national parliaments and local governmental bodies; and combat violence against girls and women (ICRW, 2008, 1-2). These priorities are already under implementation in many countries. However, if it were to succeed at the highest level by 2015, more political commitment is needed (UN, 2007).
Education for Women
In the realm of education, the Task Force identifies four strategies that can be used in a variety of countries: fees must be reduced and schooling made more affordable; schools should be preferable close to girls’ homes and allow flexible class schedules; schools should be made girl-friendly by improving the safety, design, and policies of schools, such as building latrines for girls and allowing married adolescents to attend school; and quality of education must be improved by training more women as teachers, especially in secondary schools, using gender-sensitive textbooks, and developing curriculum for girls that is strong in math and science (ICRW, 2008). The challenge of educating women is greatest in the countries of sub-Saharan Africa, where scarcely half the eligible children attended primary school at the turn of the century (Black and White, 2003, 166).
Women Health Issues and Other Issues
Women’s reproductive health remains poor in many developing countries and has resulted in high rates of maternal mortality. Women in developing countries are at greater risk to die of pregnancy-related complications or suffer from sexually transmitted infections, particularly HIV. Women exposed to such risks must be kept well informed and also guaranteed universal access to sexual and reproductive health services through the primary health care system. In Tanzania and the Democratic Republic of Congo, special training of non-specialist medical personnel, such as medical assistants and nurses, has led to lower maternal mortality rates. In the case of AIDS/HIV, counseling, prevention, and treatment services integrated with other reproductive health services are most effective in reaching women. Another problem faced by women is their responsibilities at home. Routine tasks such as drawing water, collecting firewood, or walking to a market can take most of their time. One study found that women in Zambia spent more than 800 hours a year collecting firewood and an additional 200 hours fetching water (Malmberg Calvo, 1994).
This time burden on women can be reduced by providing efficient energy sources, accessible and affordable transportation, and water and sanitation systems. Finally, increasing women’s participation in the design and implementation of these infrastructure projects can make these projects more accessible and affordable. In Mali, the U.N. Industrial Development Organization and the International Fund for Agriculture worked with communities and women’s groups to design and create platforms. In time, it was found that this helped women to save time and labor and shift into income-generating activities, leading to an average daily increase of $0.47. More girls also stayed in school until grade 5, and women’s health improved because they were able to visit local clinics more often (Modi 2004). Women in many countries do not have property rights and inheritance rights and ensuring these rights is a crucial step in empowering women. Ensuring joint titling during land registration can enhance women’s access to land and protect them against cheating spouses.
In Vietnam, marriage and family laws were revised in 2001, requiring both the husband’s and wife’s signature on any document registering family assets and land use rights. Ensuring that women are properly represented in the parliament empowers them (Prosterman and Hanstad 2003; Ravallion and van de Walle 2004; World Bank 2002). In only 14 countries women make up 30 percent or more of the seats in their national parliaments. Increasing women’s participation in politics can be done in three ways: gender quotas and reservations, strong women’s movements, and government policies. The preferential hiring of men, occupational segregation, and women receiving lower pay for equal work are all examples of ongoing gender inequality in employment. These employment barriers for women need to be addressed. Women in many countries are often exposed to violence (between 10 percent and 69 percent). To control domestic violence, there needs to be a combination of interventions taken in the form of legal, judicial, enforcement, and health measures. The Task Force recommends that the U.N. Secretary-General, alongside heads of state, must lead a campaign to end domestic violence the world over.
MDG project success around the world
Toward reaching Goal 3, the international development community had set 2005 as the year for achieving a first milestone: eliminating gender disparity in primary and secondary education. However, progress has been slow and this first target has been missed in 19 countries for primary education and 24 countries for secondary. Oxfam has reported that over 90 countries failed to eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education by the deadline. To accelerate progress it has been found that the two most important steps are to remove fees for primary education and to improve school sanitation facilities to allow appropriate privacy for girls. However, this involves costs and in countries where school fees have been lifted, the resulting entry of new students has often exceeded the capacity of buildings and teachers (Oneworld.net, 2008). Although no country has successfully addressed all seven strategic priorities, some countries have shown that significant progress can be made to empower women and reduce gender disparities while some countries still lag in their journey towards achieving the third MDG by 2015. In Angola, barely 50% of women are literate and measures of the Gini coefficient show that inequality is rising (OneWorld.net, 2008).
In Guatemala, 87% of indigenous women are illiterate and only 1% attend secondary education. In Guinea-Bissau, schools are mostly non-operational for months at a time because of poverty. In Jordan, poor representation of women is recognized as a problem difficult to rectify by 2015. In Pakistan, the literacy of women is as low as 20%. Thailand is a country that may be on the way to achieving the third MDG. Literacy rates for women are 91% and overall health indicators for child and maternal mortality are progressing well (OneWorld.net, 2008). In Turkey, there are serious gaps in literacy rates between men and women. Women suffer discrimination and mostly work in the agricultural sector at low levels of productivity. Women in Uzbekistan of reproductive age have the highest anemia rates in the region. In Yemen, women’s literacy is low.
The 2005 Arab Human Development Report cites poverty and cultural attitudes to women, such as early marriage and segregation between the sexes, for the gender gap in education in Yemen. In a recent effort to boost girls’ primary enrolment and to meet the MDG goal of education for all by 2015, the Ministry of Education announced its decision to waive primary school tuition fees for female students. However, increasing evidence that as many as 400,000 children under 14 are engaged in child labor adds fresh concern (OneWorld.net, 2008). UN Progress Report on MDG 2007 holds that based on enrolment data, about 72 million children of primary school age were not in school in 2005; 57 percent of them were girls (UN, 2007, 2). Over half a million women still die each year from treatable and preventable complications of pregnancy and childbirth (UN, 2007, 4). This shows that much more needs to be done in all spheres of women’s empowerment.
Reasons for failure to reach targets
Generally, costs are not a barrier to the empowerment of women. The Task Force in collaboration with the U.N. Millennium Project has assessed in Tajikistan that the cost of universal primary and expanded secondary education would be roughly $20 per person annually and the cost of setting up a primary health care system for child and maternal health, major infectious diseases, and sexual and reproductive health would average about $29 per person annually. The cost of gender-specific interventions to meet Goal 3 in Tajikistan is estimated at $10.56 million each year and hence there seem to be no financial restraints to reaching the goal by 2015 (ICRW, 2008, 8). The actual reason why most of the countries are not able to address gender inequality effectively is that there is a lack of change on a large enough scale to transform the way societies perceive women. Achieving the goals will be impossible without closing the gaps between men and women in terms of capacities, access to resources and opportunities, and vulnerability to violence and conflict (UNDP, 2008).
Indicators to Measure Progress
Four indicators are used to measure progress towards the goal: the ratio of girls to boys in primary, secondary, and tertiary education; the ratio of literate women to men in the 15-to 24-year-old age group; the share of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector; and the proportion of seats held by women in national parliaments (UNDP, 2008). This seems to imply that education, literacy, employment, and political participation are the essential factors to the achievement of gender equality and women empowerment (Sweetman and Oxfam, 2005, 13). However, according to Bourguignon et al (2005), all of these indicators, on a deeper level, reduce to only one: education (Bourguignon et al, 2005, 253).
Recommendations of the task force
To achieve the third MDG, it has been suggested by the UN Millennium Project Task Force on Education and Gender Equality that national governments should expand their targets under gender equality. Recommended targets are: ensuring universal access to health services, eliminate discrimination in access to assets and employment, providing a 30% share of seats for women in national parliaments, and reducing by half the lifetime prevalence of violence against women (Grown et al, 2005, 125). The task force also suggests that national governments include additional indicators to monitor progress towards the third MDG. Their recommendations include completion rates for primary and secondary school; economic indicators such as gender gaps in earnings, sex-disaggregated unemployment rates and occupational segregation by sex; and prevalence rates for domestic violence in the past year (UNDP, 2008). Moreover, the report recommends the involvement of women’s groups and gender experts in consultations on all goals (Grown et al, 2005). Four key elements must underlie any institutional reform such as gender equality and they are access to information, encouraging participation; insisting on accountability at the political, administrative, and social levels, and developing local organizational capacity (Narayan-Parker and Narayan, 2002, xx).
My Opinion
I agree with the recommendations of the task force. Entry into schools is not a sufficient criterion for measuring literacy levels. Only when completion data are included, literacy rates can be studied accurately. Moreover, educational goals alone are not enough for the empowerment of women. Women need to become economically self-dependent and this can be done only through employment and ending discrimination in the workplace. Moreover, women can be considered truly empowered only when they are no longer victims of domestic abuse. Thus, the strategic focus should include career creation for women of all age groups and educational attainments. Skill-oriented training would be a way of empowering women.
Conclusion
The fact that gender equality is part of the global agenda for millennium development is a step forward and offers new opportunities for the empowerment of women. Although it is quite obvious already that most of the Millennium Development Goals are unlikely to be reached within their specified time-frames they provide a framework for moving towards them, and also to analyze the barriers to achieving gender equality and empowerment of women. Moreover, they also serve to hold various global agencies and governments accountable. The third Millennium Development Goal may currently be a distant dream, but as long as the world keeps moving along the strategic plans envisioned through this project, there is the possibility that this dream may come true very soon.
Bibliography
Black, Richard, and White, Howard (2003). Targeting Development: Critical Perspectives on the Millennium Development Goals. Routledge Publishers. New York.
Bourguignon, Francois; Pleskovic, Boris and Sapir, Andre (2005). Are we on track to achieve the millennium development goals? World Bank Publications.
Grown, Caren; Gupta, R. Geeta; Kes, Aslihan (2005). Taking action: Achieving Gender Equality and Empowering Women. Earthscan Publishers.
ICRW (International Center for Research on Women). Toward Achieving Gender Equality and Empowering Women. Web.
Kabeer, Naila (2003). Gender Mainstreaming in Poverty Eradication and the Millennium Development. Commonwealth Secretariat.
Malmberg Calvo, C. (1994). “Case Study on the Role of Women in Rural Transport: Access of Women to Domestic Facilities. Sub-Saharan Africa Transport Policy Program”. World Bank and Economic Commission for Africa Working Paper 11. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.
Modi, V. 2004. “Energy and Transport for the Poor.” Paper commissioned for the U.N. Millennium Project Task Force 1. New York: Earth Institute and Columbia University, Department of Mechanical Engineering.
Narayan-Parker, Deepa and Narayan, Deepa (2002). Empowerment and Poverty Reduction: A Sourcebook. World Bank Publications.
OneWorld.net (2008). Millennium Development Goals Progress Review. Web.
Prosterman, R. L., and T. Hanstad (2003). Land Reform in the 21st Century: New Challenges, New Responses. RDI Reports on Foreign Aid and Development 117. Seattle: Rural Development Institute.
Ravallion, M., and D. van de Walle (2004). “Land Allocation in Vietnam’s Agrarian Transition Part 2: Introducing a Land Market.” EWP March 2004. London: Institute for Fiscal Studies and Center for the Evaluation of Development Policies.
Sweetman, Caroline and Oxfam, GB (2005). Gender and the Millennium Development Goals. Oxfam Publishers.
UN (United Nations) (2007). The Millennium Development Goals Report 2007. United Nations Publication. New York.
UNDP (United Nations Development Program) (2008). Gender and the Millennium Development Goals. Web.
World Bank. 2002. “Land Use Rights and Gender Equality in Vietnam.” Promising Approaches to Engendering Development Series #1. Washington, D.C: World Bank.
When Consumption Reaches the Scale of a National Disaster: Consuming Kids and Its Underlying Ideas
One of the most disturbing things about consumerism, however, is that it affects people’s perception of gender and, therefore, contributes to the creation of stereotypes that make the relationship between men and women even more complicated (Cherlin, 2009). There is no way to escape these commercials: “Kids are inundated with this. They are buried in this – buried in this media blitz” (Barbaro & Earp, 2010). Mass media coins new gender roles and new images of men and women, which children readily accept:
If you set up five different accounts […] you will see five different ads. You will see five different worlds. Now, as a child, you don’t know that. As a child, you’re competing with MBAs. You’re competing with some of the smartest people out there. (Barbaro & Earp, 2010)
Therefore, it is obvious that mass media creates false ideas of what a man or a woman should be like, what they should do, and what they should care about (Cherlin, 2013). It is obvious that mass media exploits girls’ maternity instincts by offering them a variety of dolls and the related gimmicks, therefore, using their instinct of nurturing others to come up with a perfect selling point for their new product.
For boys, the idea of winning, being the very first at something, leading the pack is reinforced to the nth degree (Cherlin, 2013a). However, there is an even greater problem. While promoting motherly behavior can be considered a social norm, the idea of sexualizing young girls, which is also the infamously remarkable characteristics of modern media, is downright wrong: “You see now dolls with highly sexualized outfits and themes marketed to six-year-olds” (Barbaro & Earp, 2010). There is nothing wrong with educating children about sex; however, modern media does not educate – it exploits popular stereotypes by offering an overly sexualized image of a woman to young children West & Zimmerman, 1987).
The ethical problem concerning the use of gender stereotypes in marketing is not new. Reinforcement of statements that lead to gender profiling or complexities in the personal lives of the people who have accepted the concept of gender offered in commercials as a social norm has been discussed a number of times in a number of contexts (Cabrera, Shannon, & Tamis-LeMonda, 2007). However, when it comes to relating the problems mentioned in the film to the recent researches on the related issues, one will see distinctly the similarity between the discussion patterns of the movie and the article Betwixt and between by Risman and Seale.
In their work, the authors commented on the ways in which concepts adopted in early childhood affect the relationships between adults and young adults. One of the examples that the authors suggest considering is the function of stereotypical behavior in the mini-society of schoolchildren: “The conflation of gender and sexuality works to regulate boys’ gender behavior, leaving them afraid to cross gender boundaries for fear of the ‘gay’ stigma” (Risman & Seale, 2013).
Much like Barbaro and Earp’s film, the given work shows what happens when gender stereotypes are being pushed to the breaking point. On the one hand, children need a clear understanding of what defines being a man or a woman; on the other hand, children need to realize that the ideas of gender offered by the mass media do not necessarily have to coincide with the personal choices of other people. Therefore, it is necessary to explain to children that what media offers is only an option, and not necessarily a very clever one at that.
Reference List
Barbaro, A. & Earp, J. (2010). Consuming kids. Web.
Cabrera, N. J., Shannon, J. D. & Tamis-LeMonda, C. (2007). Fathers’ influence on their children’s cognitive and emotional development: From toddlers to pre-K. Applied Development Science, 11(4): 208-213.
Cherlin, A. (2009). Blue-collar blues, white-collar weddings. Marriage go-round: The state of marriage and the family in America today. New York City, NY: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. 159–181.
Cherlin, A. J. (2013). Public and private families: An introduction (7th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Cherlin, A. J. (2013a). Public and private families: A reader (7th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Risman, B. J. & Seale, E. (2013). Betwixt and between: Gender contradictions in middle school. Chicago, IL: University of Illinois at Chicago.
West, C. & Zimmerman, D. H. (1987). Doing gender. Gender and Society, 1(2), 125–151.
