Psychologist began the work of studying gender identity in the late 1950s when they established the first gender research project and developed a lot of theories of gender identify.Originally, gender identity was a medical term used to explain the process of reassigning sex to the public. Nowadays, the term gender identity is quite different from sexual identity. It is now used to indicate self- identification as male or female. Long before the dawn of the 20th century, person’s sex was determined entirely by the appearance of the genitalia or sex organs. Some people are surprised by their biological sex and their gender identity correspondences. (Lorber, 1994)
Main body
All transgender people including transsexual and many intersexed persons have complications in which they can explicitly determine their gender and adopt gender role based on sex. This makes such individual’s behavior to be quite inconsistent with their gender identity. Gender dysphorai is closely connected to phenotypic nature with hormones. Trans sexualizing is considered to be a neuron–developmental condition of the brain.
This results from the several sexually dimorphic nuclei found in the hypothalamus region of the brain. The central subdivision of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis is a sexually dimorphic limbic nucleus. It is sexually differentiated in the human brain in the early adulthood. From research work in which forty two human brains were studied, it was found that the structure of this particular part of the nucleus was concordant with the psychological identifications of male and female. The bed nucleus of atria terminalis is an important part sexually dimorphic neural circuit, and that it is involved in the development of gender identity. (Hines, 2002)
Further studies indicated that sexual differetiation of the mammalian brain starts during the fetal development. This is time during which many genetic activities attached to hormone production are very high. The sexual differentiation continues even after child birth.
From this point of view, it is hypothesized that hormones have significantly influenced the developmental behavior both in human beings and other mammals. Some postulations show that hormonal effects occur at several critical periods of development of the sexual differentiation of the brain during which gender identity is established. These periods include the fetal period, then time around birth and post- natal period.
Several factors contribute to the alteration of hormonal environment at this critical moment of early development such as genetic influences, medication environmental influence, stress or trauma to the mother during pregnancy. Gender identity normally continues along lines which are consistent with the individuals’ phenotype. However a small number of new born experience their gender as being dissimilar with their phenotype. In such cases, it is very hard to predict with certainty the outcome of the social behavior of the adults due influence of hormonal changes during growth and development. (Dessens, 2005)
The biological influences on gender identity includes sexual differentiation; which encompasses the physiological processes where by the male nature become more or the female nature is more established. The differences established by these physiological processes ultimately interact with social –learning influences to bring about firm person’s gender identity. Geneticists determine the embryo’s genes carried on the Y and X –chromosomes. The three patterns of genetic transmission including dominant, recessive and sex- linked inheritance helps to find out embryo’s chromosomal sex in the X-chromosome. The X- chromosomes carry more valuable genetic materials essential, for life and better health than the Y-chromosome. (Dessens, 2005)
The early believe that gender identification depended on the socio-environmental influences such individual learning and choice is not totally true. The experimental result reveals that transient action of sex steroids such as testosterone during prenatal life is crucial for the development of sexual behavior in adulthoods.
Conclusion
Gender identity being a personal conception of one-self as either male or female is more influenced by the environmental factors. The environment in which we are borne in the maternal womb first determines our appreciation on gender identity. The outward manifestation of our personality reflects our gender identity, which is just a label given by the society, because of our behavior and appearance. Mostly our behavior is gain from the parent or guardians, friend and relative whom we associate with.
These people form part of the environment in which we live in. they mould our behavior and appearance as they nurture us from the moment we are born. They make us think that I am either a male or female, and then we identify ourselves as such. After convincing our mind to identify ourselves with a particular gender, they also teach us the roles we need to undertake including good and bad acts, work for males and work for females, what to put on and what we should not, simply i.e. does and don’t.
Environmental influence greatly affects biological influences. Genetic materials are prone to changes from the environment. Hormones which are produced and controlled by these genetic materials are affected by great heat and extremes of temperature changes.
References
Dessens, A.B., F.M. Slijper, and Drop, S. (2005): Gender dysphoria and gender change in Chromosomal females with congenital adrenal hyperplasia: Archives of Sexual Behavior, 34(4): p. 389-97.
Hines M (2002): Sexual Differentiation of Human Brain and Behavior; Hormones, Brain and Behavior: Elsevier Science Vol. 4, pg (425-461).
Lorber, J; (1994) Paradoxes of Gender: Yale University Press.
Gender inequality is defined as the unequal rating of women and men’s roles in any aspect of the society. However, it is sensible to acknowledge that physical differences between these two sexes exist, but the way, which society interprets these differences, is what brings about gender inequality and this arises in terms of economic, educational, legal and political aspects.
Therefore, overcoming these barriers of prejudices and stereotypes can work to enable equal contribution to the society and advancing development, especially in the education sector. This study focuses on the persistence of gender inequalities in Higher Education in the UK.
Gender inequalities in the UK’s system of higher education
Gender inequality has shown the greatest shift of all the education inequalities. In the UK, gender gap closure is up to the age of sixteen and changing patterns in education achievement stands as evidence to this transformation. However, gender parity has dominated in education for several years.
The gender gap in performance at 16 and 18 has closed in terms of the patterns of achievement at the national level. Since that time these gaps have opened up with girls performing better than boys do over the last 10 years (EOC, 2003, p. 3) and this shows one of the most significant transformations in the gender inequality history in the UK.
However, there are several contradictions and tensions in relation to gender equality. UK academic staff statistics shows that lecturers comprise of 53% men and 47% women; 67% men and 33% women senior/principal lecturers; 83% men and 17% women professors/Heads of department (Cotterill & Letherby, 2007, p. 31).
The definition of male success is defined as normal while for women is measured in terms of how they can adhere to the norm, thus making the effort towards educational equality women to be at the same level as men (Smyth, 2007, p. 27).
Many countries disagree with the fact that higher education for a boy is more important. Many people claim that men get more job opportunities with good salaries and adequate work conditions than women with equal qualifications and potential.
Women and men should establish shared responsibilities at home, work and in the wider community. However, the initial step in achieving this should start at the education level. Jacobs (1996, p. 32) emphasizes that the rising status of women is major due to the rise of modern economic and political institutions, which have changed the priorities of these institutions concerning gender.
As the power of the economy transverse into large-scale organizations dissimilar to the distinctions of gender, the model lost its cultural and social trend and the efforts women to conquer the world became increasingly successful.
Total gender equality will eventually prevail; the only questions remaining are what it will look like and how and when it will arrive. Gillborn & Mirza (2000, p. 67) reported that differences in ethnicity and social class also increased with the pressure of schooling that was performance oriented in educational achievement respectively.
According to Teese et al. (1995), the arouse issue occurs when girls or boys fail or succeed in the education system A significant number of policy and legislative developments also form part of the climate of change in educational access and achievement of formal gender parity, which connects indirectly with the increase in women representation in public life.
Currently the contradiction of education and new job opportunities for women are increasing along with a focus on women’s unequal treatment in school, at work and at home. This stirred the Women’s Movement to give priority to gender equality in its manifesto goals (Harford & Rush, 2010, p. 43).
However, it has been difficult to quantify the implications as the areas of initiatives are provided with little attention. Even with formal ‘gender parity’ dominating in educational achievement there are still gender stereotypes in the subject areas, which determine one’s qualifications. For instance, men are dominating in such the sciences like engineering and Technology, while women are dominating in Biology, Arts, especially in Humanities and Education courses (EOC, 1998, p. 1).
Conclusion
Progress in reduction of gender parity and improvement of equity can be attained when women are considered aboard, so their status is improved. Their rights as well have to be honored and their positions are elevated. Gender equality should include identical partaking by both genders, in coming up with resolutions and encouraging women to optimally practice their rights and reduction in the gap between men and women to control resources and development benefits.
Access to resources should be equitable not biased. Education is meant for everyone in the higher institutions; hence, all the citizens have a right to participate in the knowledge acquisition and in employment.
Several strategies can be implemented to address gender inequality in the UK institutions, including encouraging women to apply for appointments and promotions, mentoring, role models, women’s networks. The management of the institutions, which includes the Vice Chancellor, Principal and managers, needs to change its attitude and show visible commitment in policies. Institutions need to review processes involved in promotions and recruitment and provide support during maternity as well as flexible working hours.
References
Cotterill, P & Letherby, G 2007, Challenges and negotiations for women in higher education. London: Springer.
Equal Opportunities Commission- EOC, 2003, Facts about Women and Men in Great Britain, London: Gvoove Publishers.
Equal Opportunities Commission-EOC, 1998, Gender and Differential Achievement in Education and Training: a Research Review,London: Sage.
Gillborn, D & Mirza, H 2000, Educational Inequality: mapping race, class and gender, London: Ofsted.
Harford, J & Rush, C 2010, Have women made a difference, London: Peter Lang.
Jacobs, J 1996, Gender inequality and Higher Education, Annual Review on Social behavior, 22, 153–85.
Smyth, E 2007, Education and Equity: International Perspectives on Theory and Policy. London: Springer Press.
Teese, R, et al 1995, Who wins at school? Boys and girls in Australian secondary education, Sydney: Canberra.
The problem depicted in the case study revolves around the commitment to diversity issues, especially as they relate to the perpetration of gender inequities and insensitivities in day-to-day work practices. The woman director feels that the two genders are not accorded a level playing ground with regard to professional development as well as hiring and promotion, leading to the departure of several highly talented women professionals.
Gathering information to Access Accuracy of Perceptions
As the vice president of administration and finance at the university, it would be plausible to begin investigations into the allegations of gender inequity practices by gathering information from other leaders and directors to evaluate the accuracy of the perceptions. The best way to proceed with the gathering of information is to arrange for individual discussions with members of the leadership team to discuss the allegations and core issues and values involved.
The major benefit of this approach is that it provides individual members of the leadership team with the confidence and space needed to open up without fear of retribution from fellow members. Accusations of gender inequality in the workplace are quite sensitive in nature and scope, hence the need to provide a secure environment for further discussion of the issue.
Another benefit of this approach is that it may lead to other important revelations as employees often feel obliged to divulge more information when they know that their confidentiality is guaranteed. However, a major disadvantage revolves around the fact that some members may not be sincere and may perceive such an opening as an opportunity to settle scores with their colleagues.
Overall, the discussion should be framed in the form of an inquiry which aims to get to the bottom of the matter without jeopardizing the privacy and confidentiality of the source. As a leader, it is important to maintain self-awareness and demonstrate initiative in commencing deliberations aimed at taking proactive steps to deal with the problem.
Benefits and Risks of Sharing the Issue
The benefits of sharing the issue with the director or others in the department include (1) possibility to get more clarity and deep insights on the issue, (2) possibility to make a good decision based on the information collected, and (3) possibility for collaboration in seeking for answers. The risks include the possibility for bias as well as the propensity to entrench further divisions within the department.
Options for Validating Gender Inequity
The issue can be validated by undertaking an independent inquiry involving members perceived to be discriminated upon in professional development as well as in hiring and promotion. The leadership of the department can also decide to develop a strategy entailing careful observation, documentation, and analysis of all the issues perceived to be contributing to the issue. Additionally, the institution could choose to undertake a survey to get objective and quantifiable responses on the issue.
Action
The best way to proceed after evaluating the situation is to develop a strategy that will drive a paradigm shift on the way gender issues are handled in the department. If the director’s perceptions are inaccurate or exaggerated, it would be important to develop a strategy that underscores the importance of morals and integrity in the workplace.
If the director’s perceptions are indeed accurate, however, a short-term approach to deal with the issue would be to develop and implement a policy that underscores the importance of workplace diversity, while a longer-term approach would be to conduct rigorous training and awareness campaigns on the need and importance of gender equity in the workplace.
Gender issues relating to a balanced representation of men and women in governance, scientific research, and other socio-economic and political spheres of the human life are common in virtually all societies.
Even though experience indicates that gender equity is essential to meaningful and sustainable development, gender imbalance in various critical sectors is still a thorny issue in many societies including certain sections of the so-called mature democracies.
Gender imbalance in science is particularly a serious issue even when it has been conventionally accepted that, what a man can do, a woman can do better, especially in academics. This essay argues that science would be more objective if gender were visible.
Importance of gender balance in science
Conventionally, gender equity is essential in attaining poverty alleviation and socio-economic development. This development is usually an outcome of the combined efforts of men and women. Women play the vital and crucial role in society through their contribution to fruitful activities and responsibility of social educators and family custodians.
Similarly, gender equity in science and technology is crucial for societal development (Miroux 2011, p.2). Unfortunately, there are cultural practices in different countries, especially in Africa and other developing countries, which discourage girls from pursuing science in universities or schools, and from choosing a scientific career (Willingham & Cole 1997, p.96).
However, gender equity in science matters a lot because it ensures that human rights and justice, for both men and women, is upheld (Willingham & Cole 1997, p.96). This understanding is necessary because all people should have equal opportunity to a science education and scientific career.
In other words, men and women should benefit equally from progress in science technology (Willingham & Cole 1997, p.96). Second, if one gender, especially women, is denied an equal opportunity to pursue science and engineering, then a society robs itself of an opportunity to realize its full balance of scientifically creative minds (Willingham & Cole 1997, p.96; Oldham 2006, Para. 6).
In turn, this becomes a serious stumbling block to development of science and to the creation of wealth in a world that is extremely competitive. The resultant poverty dehumanizes women and children mostly. Third, gender equity in science and technology is vital because, naturally, women perform different duties and roles, both within and outside, home environments (Willingham & Cole 1997, p.96; 2006, Para 6).
As such, it is pertinent for both men and women to integrate scientific and technical education that reflect the performance of their different, but crucial roles and tasks. Fourth, it has been established that women bring different approaches, ideals, incentives, and techniques of work to their scientific jobs that men can not (Willingham & Cole 1997, p.96; 2006, Para 6).
Therefore, including as many women as men in science will enhance the complete pool of abilities, approaches, and inspirations. This will also raise the probability that science will provide for the needs of the greatest majority in the society.
Objectivity of Science
Even though the question whether science is objective or not is a serious debate, many scientists claim that they believe in objective truth. Ashman and Barringer (2001, p.82), argue that, the objectivity of science cannot be achieved if scientists do not continuously seek to reveal cognitive biases like those brought about by cognitive errors connected to gender, race, and sex.
Therefore, objectivity of science should be open to a perpetual and well-purposed analysis. Such objectivity is a characterization of the scientific processes, and not a finished product (Ashman and Barringer 2001, p.82). These processes should be continuously challenged by scientists themselves and non-scientist critics.
Ashman and Barringer (2001, p.82) assert that, science can only be more objective if it appreciates criticisms of its theories, or if experts, in a given branch of science, are less gender biased than other scientists in another branch.
Ashman and Barringer (2001, p.82) hold that, only open, just, and social practice of science can make it more objective. For purposes of ensuring that science is more objective with regard to its gender biases, it should continuously confront those biases by bringing on board scientists from gender minorities (Wyer 2008, p.82).
Therefore, each society should ensure gender equity in science and technology education in its learning institutions including schools and universities. It should ensure that impediments to women in scientific and technological careers are removed.
The science and technology decision-making process should be made more gender sensitive (Miroux 2011, p.2). Governments and other stakeholders should promote and leverage science and technology to enhance women’s development (Miroux 2011, p.2).
All societies should uphold gender equality in science, technology, and engineering education, personnel, and leadership (Miroux 2011, p.2). Furthermore, the position of women in scientific organizations at the national and local levels should be promoted and backed (Miroux 2011, p.3).
Conclusion
In a recap, it cannot be disputed that women play a vital role in all leading spheres that directly affect individual and societal wellbeing including agriculture and food production, water and sanitation, energy, and preservation of biodiversity.
Therefore, devising gender-sensitive policies that encourage and support women’s studying of science, technology, and engineering careers is the best and the only way of ensuring objectivity of science. At the elementary and secondary levels of learning, girls, just like boys, should be motivated to be positive towards science disciplines.
References
Ashman, K. M. & Baringer, P., 2001. After the science wars. New York, NY: Routledge.
Gender analysis assesses the effects of actions on both women and men. Gender analysis tends to focus on women more than men. The institutional structures view women as insubordinate. This could be termed as an aspect of women marginalization. Women are not involved in planning, decision making, policy formulation, training, employment and in projects. Women have been marginalized in politics, schools, economic and family setting.
Consequently, men have emerged as the privileged gender. Men who come from high social status have enjoyed the impacts of development. The economic status of women usually denies them a chance to access and maintain quality healthcare (World Health Organization, 2002, p. 1).
There is a need to examine gender relations in health care. This will enable policy makers to implement policies that benefit the least advantaged gender in the society.
This essay defines gender analysis and discusses the application of gender analysis to the health status of women of different incomes. The paper will also examine the implications of gender analysis to public policy and how research can contribute to gender analysis.
Gender Analysis in health care
Gender analysis in healthcare can be defined as the process of evaluating effects in healthcare provision from a social and economic perspective on both male and female genders.
The aim of gender analysis is to promote sustainability of healthcare provisions, enhance equity and identify areas with challenges. The assessment highlights areas of involvement, achievements and failures associated with either men or women. Gender analysis will provide the information required to plan and implement effective programs (Hunt, 2004, p. 100).
According to Office for Women’s Policy (2005, p. 8), gender analysis in health care involves identifying healthcare experiences for both men and women and noting the disparities. The aims and objectives of the policies are analyzed to obtain their impacts on men and women.
Data on different groups including the high, middle and low social class women and men is obtained and analyzed. Investigations on the effects of the policy on different genders are recorded and evaluated. Innovative solutions are obtained to overcome the challenges.
Recommendation of the most appropriate solution that will achieve gender equity is considered. The policy and the program are communicated and the indicators mentioned.
To examine health status of women of different incomes, it is necessary to obtain information concerning sex in the community, households and in the workplaces. Their health care needs, the level of income and access to health care are also important to gender analysis (Women and Healthcare Reform Group, 2009).
Gender analysis involves aspects like convenience and access to health care facilities. It also involves attitudes and perceptions about health for both men and women. Gender analysis will seek to obtain information on health care providers and investigate their attitude towards male and female. The influence of different instructions such as schools and religious institution can be analyzed. The implications of diverse attitudes from policy makers in health matters should be examined.
The equipment, infrastructure, environment, waiting time and access to facilities can be analyzed. The source of motivation for health care providers and the hospital guidelines used can be assessed. The services that are offered, community involvement, education materials and organization structure can contribute to the assessment of gender analysis.
Financing in health care is an aspect of gender analysis. The focus is placed on areas that are given priority in relation to gender analysis. Analyzing the stakeholders and decision making process on their ability to recognize gender issues in health institutions is significant. Obtaining information on service delivery for both genders is essential for gender analysis in healthcare, as Jackson et al (2006, p. 1) mention.
Social indicators of health and illnesses between men and women should be analyzed. Depending on the roles and the economic social status, differences may affect the access and availability of health care resources. Poverty may increase vulnerability.
Women who are left with the responsibility of providing and childcare may lack the resources to access health care. Cultural norms have a great impact on the perception of health by both men and women. Men and women give different levels of attention to illness, preventive measures and treatment. Culture affects the attitudes of both genders.
Quality healthcare is important in healthcare provisions. High social class women have access to quality health care owing to their economic status. The low class struggle to obtain and access healthcare. They are exposed by their environment and sometimes lack information on measures to prevent preventable illnesses. A large number of women belong to the low social class and the middle class. Consequently, they receive low quality health care than men. Poor quality health care may have negative effects on women.
Policies impact the implementation and the outcomes of every program in healthcare. Policies are the foundation for programs undertaken in health care institutions. The assumption is that policies address prevailing health issues. Gender blind policies ignore the differences between male and female and foster widespread gender inequalities. Gender aware policies are neutral, specific or redistributive.
The aim of gender awareness policies is to recognize the differences in men and women and attempt to attain equality between them. They also address specific issues in one gender and transform existing policies in order to accommodate both men and women irrespective of their situation (World Health Organization, 2002, p. 32).
According to Moana (1999, p. 4), policies based on gender analysis avoid discrimination of one gender. Most of the policies eliminate gender discrimination against women, who are often the victims of gender inequality. Basic health care is a human right and should reflect in public policy.
Health care policies that reflect gender analysis overcome unconstructive cultural practices and promote the availability of healthcare at an affordable price for women of all social classes. They also enhance accessibility to health care facilities. The application of gender policies will enable women to have access to reproductive healthcare services. Occupational challenges related to childcare and health care for women in career development will be alleviated if policies that are gender sensitive are implemented.
According to USAID (2012), gender analysis can be achieved if men and women collaborate in the evaluation and implementation of policies. Policies that are implemented should incorporate the community. It should not be viewed as a means of attaining equality but as an avenue for improving the lives of the marginalized. The programs should ensure that both men and women from low to high social class benefit.
Muecke (1996, p. 385) notes that healthcare providers pay little attention to gender when offering services. The value of gender analysis can be recognized if the quality of healthcare given to women is known. Gender analysis will enable healthcare providers improve the quality of healthcare given to women from diverse economic backgrounds.
If gender analysis is implemented, women with low income will access quality health care. Health services will be convenient and accessible. Programs that are implemented in health care will become a success because some of the issues and challenges will be overcome. Policies will be effective in meeting the needs of diverse groups in society. Gender analysis will contribute to the awareness of gender issues while enhancing the capabilities of women in society (Office For Women’s Policy, 2005, p. 5).
Research in gender analysis will inform the policy makers to formulate policies that will improve the quality of healthcare for women. Additionally, policies should be communicated to women, to whom the quality of healthcare services is directed (Muecke1996, p. 385).
World Health Organization (2002, p. 10) reveals that research provides a clear understanding of the issues in gender. Moreover, research can be effective in providing a solution for the challenges encountered in the analysis of gender. Research can also be used to set agendas and to determine the measures that are effective for prevailing problems.
Conclusion
Gender analysis mainly focuses on women. In health care, gender analysis eliminates the inequality related to gender, sustenance and meeting the goals of programs, identify issues and enable equal distribution of health resources to both genders of all social classes. Gender analysis informs policy formulation and is based on research.
Women of low income are more vulnerable than men. Gender analysis is a process that recognizes that men and women have different roles and are economically diverse. Women have been marginalized by the social institutions. Change will be realized if men and women collaborate. Gender analysis will improve the health of both genders if gender aware policies are implemented.
Reference List
Hunt, J. (2004). Introduction to gender analysis concepts and steps. Development Bulletin, 64, 100-106. Web.
Gender issues have been an understandably controversial topic for a long time. Recent achievements and highlights in clinical, psychological, and social research greatly expanded our understanding of the matter and offered new ways of coping with the situation for people suffering from gender dysphoria. Several interventions were developed to provide solutions for people who feel the necessity to align their physical gender characteristics with their perception of gender, with hormone replacement therapy (HRT) being among the leading practices. Unfortunately, a growing body of evidence suggests that HRT may have several adverse effects. Specifically, a relationship is established between the administration of hormones and the increased suicide rate among teens suffering from gender dysphoria (LeVay et al. 91). This suggestion has led to the debate on whether eligibility for HRT should be regulated more strictly. Despite the obvious ethical implications, I believe that a more rigorous evaluation of eligibility should take place before the permission for hormone therapy may be acquired.
The main reason for such a decision lies within the gap between the perceived benefits and the real positive outcomes. The initial assumption is that the physical changes of secondary sexual characteristics will aid the perception of transition and, by extension, result in psychological improvements. However, that means that transgender individuals support the social construct they intend to oppose. For as long as the practice is proven to be safe, there is little reason for reconsideration. However, since gradually more studies support the presence of negative effects, the unrestricted access to hormones becomes an unjustified risk (Simonsen et al. 241). What’s more, the actual psychological improvements are questionable. A meta-analysis of studies on the outcome of patients who underwent hormonal therapy shows only short-term improvements and no statistically significant long-term benefits (White Hughto and Reisner 21). In my opinion, such results confirm the necessity of prior evaluation.
My position is only strengthened by the fact that most of the teens that identify as transgender are not “persisters” (LeVay et al. 90). I admit there is another controversy involved here of the amount of freedom versus control that an individual at a young age should have. However, it should be mentioned that the current level of scientific knowledge is such that it becomes difficult and in many cases impossible for a layperson to follow using only conventional wisdom. Therefore, in the situation such as this, it would be better to rely on evidence and prioritize physical and psychological health rather than pursue the ultimate freedom of choice.
I must admit that I find the factor of irreversible physiological changes relatively unimportant beyond the issue of a low number of persisters. For as long as the practice remains safe there is no reason to worry about the changes in physical characteristics. On the other hand, as soon as we figure out the adverse health effects (which we did in this case), we have reasons to introduce regulations and establish evaluation procedures to determine eligibility for the practice. In other words, it is not the irreversibility of change we should be concerned with – it’s the ultimate effect (which, in our case, is negative).
In conclusion, hormone therapy can only be considered a viable solution as long as it does not contradict the established medical ethics and a philosophy of doing more good than harm. For as long as we have reasons to suspect the opposite, I suggest prior evaluation as a necessary element of hormone therapy access.
Works Cited
LeVay, Simon, Janice I. Baldwin, and John D. Baldwin. Discovering Human Sexuality. 3rd ed., Sinauer Associates, 2015.
Simonsen, Rikke Kildevæld, et al. “Long-term follow-up of individuals undergoing sex reassignment surgery: psychiatric morbidity and mortality.” Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, vol. 70, no. 4, 2016, pp. 241-247.
White Hughto, Jaclyn M., and Sari L. Reisner. “A systematic review of the effects of hormone therapy on psychological functioning and quality of life in transgender individuals.” Transgender Health, vol. 1, no. 1, 2016, pp. 21-31.
Gender refers to the perceived behavioral and psychological roles that are associated with men and women. Preves describes gender from a different perspective, “a child’s gender is inferred from his/her sex. As the child ages, her or his sex is inferred from gender” (524). This implies that, a child’s gender start to be perceived as he/she grows and starts to assume different roles as either a man or a woman.
The study of racism and its various orientations is crucial to one’s understanding of gender relations. Racism is a belief based on the assumption that one’s race is superior compared to others. This could also emanate from their cultures and on the development status of a given society on which people could base their discrimination.
In the ancient times, trafficking of ladies of South Asian origin to the United Kingdom was rampant, where they could be tested for virginity before they were taken there. In the American societies, Africans and Latinos may be denied access to loans but their white counterparts be allowed just because of the black race that is believed by the whites as that of criminals.
Besides, if a black woman reports of domestic violence, the authorities first question of her immigration status before handling the case. This clearly shows how blacks could be treated if they married the whites or even engaged them in relationships.
“People encounter racism, classism and sexuality differently depending on their social location in the structure of race and class. For instance, people of the one race may experience racism differently depending on their class in society” (Collins 43).
This could be due to their economic positions that they hold such as being owners of the means of production in the society which places them at a higher class despite their race. Also, they may enroll their children in schools of the racists but still the children feel as being part of the group as they would want to behave as other children from the racist society.
In addition, the study of classism shades light on the understanding of gender relations. Classism may be looked at as the discrimination of one person by another based on his/her socioeconomic class. Classism can be based on the school one studies, his/her society, and where he/she stays, among others.
“Class emanates from rules and conventions found in institutions, in unwritten custom and legal practice” (Bowles 106). Classism can be considered at institutional, intergroup and individual levels. At institutional level we look at private ownership where one or a few people own the
means of production (land, labor and capital), placing them at a better position to impose their power and control over those who lack such means.
As a result, employees work for long hours, are mistreated, and work in difficult conditions and at the end of the day they share their produce disproportionately (the rich takes the large share). Besides, the legal system seems to favor the rich more and the trend where the rich become richer and the poor become poorer shall continue.
In African culture, women are considered to be inferior in their societies. This is highly supported in their cultures where they believe that women should be under their men and be submissive to them. As a result, issues of gender inequalities are common in the African continent, where many young girls are married off at school age in exchange for dowry.
Besides, the number of boys accessing schools is higher than that of girls. This predisposes the women to an inferior class where men are considered to be more learned and hence make decisions and also hold leadership positions in their communities.
These African cultures relates with the study conducted by Alia in Canada where she talks of the predicament of the Inuit women. Alia argues that once married, the Inuit woman is supposed to change her last name and replace it with that of the husband’s father (78). This would then be followed by calling her child by the name of the husband’s father because she is not allowed to address her father in-law by his name.
This clearly illustrates the discrimination of women based on their gender roles, something that has spurred concern among the African society that women are now reclaiming their lost position in the society through their campaign for gender equality.
On the other hand, the study of heterosexism exposes us to the understanding of gender relations and how opposite sex couples are favored over lesbians, gay men and bisexuals.
You find that, couples of the same sex are denied promotions at work place, tax benefits and visitation rights that the opposite sex enjoys. Heterosexists consider other sexual orientations as second class citizens, because of their negligence by the legal system.
“Heterosexism affects the family where in most legal systems same sex marriage is not allowed” (Adams 23). They are denied some rights such as adoption of children, social security benefits and hospital spousal rights. In addition, heterosexism predisposes other sexual orientations to marginalization.
Their acts are seen as those of deviant behaviors that are not acceptable in the society. This has made some of them to hide their sexual orientations from friends for fear of being discriminated.
Both Christians and Muslims recognize heterosexism as the only sexual orientation that is allowed in the society. This is because the sole purpose of two couples uniting is to sire children and bring them up in the family. Christians also believe that as Christ is the head of the church the man should also be the head of the family.
The other sexual orientations are considered to be against the teachings of the Koran and the Bible. It beats logic that lesbians and gay men have to assume both men and women roles in their relationships, but still fail to recognize the importance of heterosexism.
Bem uses the terms “lenses of gender” to describe the hidden assumptions about gender among the Euro-North American society (65). She argues that we should look through three lenses and they include androcentrism, gender polarization, and biological essentialism. The polarization lens is the one responsible for marginalizing the non heterosexists by seeking to determine the man and the woman in society. People use such lenses to classify others as lesbians, gay men or bisexuals in their societies.
It is worth noting that to understand gender relations, the study of anti-Semitism is important. Anti-Semitism is a form of discrimination that is projected against the Jews due to their relation with the Jewish heritage.
Harap argues that anti-Semitism is based on various orientations including religion where the Jews are seen as the Christ killer, economical where they are viewed as money-obsessed, social where they are seen as socially inferior, ideological where they are regarded as subversive or revolutionary and cultural where they are regarded as undermining the structural fiber of civilization (76). Indeed the study of racism, classism, heterosexism and anti-Semitism shades more light toward understanding of gender relations.
Works Cited
Adams, Jones. Teaching for Diversity and Social Justice. Routledge, 2007. Print.
Alia, Valerie. Inuit Women and the Politics of Naming Nunavut. Halifax: Fernwood, 1994. Print.
Bem, Sandra.The Lenses of Gender: Transforming the Debate on Sexual Inequality. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993. Print.
Bowles, Smith. Understanding Capitalism. New York: Harper-Collins, 1996. Print.
Collins, Henry. Toward a New Vision: Race, Class and Gender as categories of analysis and connection. New York: Harrington Park Press, 1993. Print.
Harap, John. Creative Awakening: the Jewish presence in twentieth century American literature. Greenwood Publishing Group, 1987. Print.
Preves, Sharon. Sexing the Intersexed: An Analysis of Sociocultural responses to Intersexuality. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2002. Print.
It is amazing to note that some people spend more time feeding on media content than doing an assignment, exercising or even sleeping. While this may be a leisure activity for some people, the impact of media cannot be underestimated today (Bennett 2005, p. 12). This assessment essay focuses on the issue of gender representation in media, with regard to image, roles and stereotypes.
Media representation
What is media representation? According to media theorists, representation refers to any model in any medium that defines a real aspect, say, people, events, objects, places and cultural identities among countless abstract concepts. Such representation may be written, spoken or expressed in moving pictures.
In defining media representation, the end products are also considered through the construction of one’s identity. For instance, an issue like “gaze” may consider how women look at images of women, men at women or even women at men (Bennett 2005, p. 12).
An important point to note is that all texts are always constructed irrespective of how realistic they may appear. They do not represent mere recordings or reproduction of pre-existing circumstances that are real (Briggs & Cobley 2002, p. 10).
Additionally, representations may become familiar and natural when they are used constantly. As a result, such denotations may become acceptable by the general public because of their recurring nature. Although it is never taken with a lot of emphasis, there is always need to interpret representations in order to appreciate the intended meaning.
Due to this assumption, most people end up making modality judgments towards various representations through the media. Above all, representation is unavoidable; it always exits even when we have no idea about its existence. As a result, its impact in human life is inevitable.
Gender and media representation
Gender is arguably the basic element of identification commonly used to categorize human beings as men or women. Nevertheless, the concept of gender is also sensitive and of immense significance in discussing media representation (Laughey 2009, p. 10).
Based on this element, each group identifies its members through similarities that are either inherent or borrowed from the surrounding in order to find a suitable and definitive description. In other words, human beings tend to obey the acceptable definition of man or woman by identifying themselves with certain elements.
In the understanding of media representation, it is worth noting that there are several objects, which are usually represented even though they may not necessarily be human (Dines & Humez 2010, p. 3). This representation usually aims at giving that item feminine or masculine characteristics.
From a simple understanding, masculinity is associated with hard, tough and sweaty issues while feminine objects appear fragrant, fragile and soft. Common objects represented with either a masculine or feminine-touch include but not limited to, smart phones, running shoes, bottled beer, an airline and a sports car.
Representation of role models
As mentioned above, media plays a significant role in shaping our lives and understanding of what it means to be a man or woman. No one can deny that role models do have impact on millions of people consuming media content (Andrews & Jackson 2001, p. 20).
Role models are supposed to influence the society positively. Is this how they are represented? Whether in a commercial advert or any representation, prominent people are usually used to define men and women in a different way. It is however important to ask how these role models represent variation of men and women.
In other words, representation of men and women through the media may not necessarily reflect the identity of an entire generation or society (Bennett 2005, p. 5). In fact, some theorists argue that gender representation is undoubtedly based on stereotypes among various people.
At this point, it is imperative to affirm that stereotypic representation of men and women using role models usually exerts negative effects on the society. For example, people tend to identify themselves with particular personalities by emulating their lifestyle in terms of dress code, dietary or even the way of talking (Bucy 2002, p. 20).
Media stereotyping
Does media represent the true image of men and women? Stereotyping is not a new term in the media industry especially with regard to how men and women are represented. In fact, stereotyping in media cannot be avoided and it is a common phenomenon in news, advertising and entertainment industries (Carrington 2010, p. 138).
What is not known to many people is the fact that media stereotypes act as hints or codes, which help viewers, listeners or readers to figure out an individual or group of people, with regard to social class, occupation or ethnicity among other aspect of identity.
Notably, media stereotypes have a wide range of negative effects. For example, the manner in which men and women are represented may reduce their inherent differences into classes of people defined by simple traits (Giddings & Lister 2011, p. 10).
Similarly, stereotypes affect the manner in which people perceive life. They change perceptions into realities, such that people may begin to actualize the image represented by the media. In some cases, media stereotypes are used to erroneously justify some positions, say, for leaders in power.
This can be misleading to the public, as they may adopt a misguided meaning of leadership and power (Carrington 2010, p. 138). It has to be mentioned that groups of people who are prone to being stereotyped usually have minimum or no influence in determining their representation. Based, on this argument, media stereotypes have a significant impact on the society.
Women and men representation in media
Under normal circumstance, one would expect the media to represent men and women positively. Is this the case? No! From TV shows to fashion magazines on the streets, women have always been represented negatively. Think of advertising agents and women. Almost every advert, whether for cars or food, carries the image of a woman (Cashmore 2006, p. 98).
Popular female personalities appear to have peculiar features like extreme thinness, bleached skins and always becoming younger in spite of their advanced age. It is very common to find media adverts or articles influencing women to adopt certain beauty standards perceived to be more appealing and acceptable than their natural outlook even though some of the conditions may be unattainable (Hills & Kennedy 2009, p. 13).
It is viewed that economics of beauty play a major role. By insisting on an ideal figure, body size and skin color, cosmetic and diet industries enhance continuity of their business as they have a ready market (Livingstone 2002, p. 77).
Importantly, insecure women are more prone to acquiring these products as compared to those who are comfortable with their body images. In order to achieve these extreme and unattainable standards, most women resort to unhealthy eating habits like induced vomiting, skipping meals or even opting for diet aids (Creeber & Martin 2009, p. 5).
Magazines, movies and television emphasize the need for ladies to have a thin body, associating it with wealth, prosperity, love and a happy life. Besides body image, media represents women as sex objects. TV, movies and magazines carry ads which imply that a woman’s body is supposed to be sexually active and attractive.
In terms of professionalism, women are underrepresented. Mainstream media concentrates on having men as main news presenters while women are allowed to report on minor issues like domestic violence and accidents (Cashmore 2006, p.188).
Are men exempted from negative representation? The truth is that men are differently represented in the media. In most cases, men are seen to be in control of others, aggressive, physically appealing and financially stable (Dworkin & Heywood 2003, p. 65).
This representation has far-reaching implications on the society, as boys and men assimilate what that they consume from the media into their daily lives. They therefore tend to be in control of every situation in life and may resort to aggression in cases where they find resistance, emulating how male characters carry themselves in media (Wenner 1998, p. 27).
Male stereotypes in media are grouped into five classes as follows. The joker presents men as people who lack seriousness, while the jock fights in life and finds approval in the eyes of men. On the other hand, the strong silent type portrays a decisive man who is always in control (Rowe 2011, p. 20).
The big shot denotes a professionally, socially and economically stable man, in possession of societal dreams like wealth and power. Lastly, the action hero man is angry and violent. All these representations affect the manner in which the society perceives men, how men define their position in the society and how boys define masculinity (Whannel 2001, p. 1).
As a major marketing tool, advertising ought to communicate the intended message in the most appropriate manner. As a result, men and women can be used in wooing customers in the business world, in a positive way. However, researchers affirm that most ads designed for men are common during sports shows.
Accordingly, women are rarely featured, with stereotypes taking center stage among a few that are considered. In extreme cases, women are represented as gifts given to men who have the capability of choosing the best products on the market (Wenner 1998, p. 27).
With regard to beer commercials, most ads carry slim and white men, who attract women. Additionally, adverts present men as powerful and masculine. They therefore dominate, while women are stereotypically portrayed as slender and on special diet. This approach has negative impact on the society through emulation of certain traits by people who feed on media content.
Conclusion
From this assessment, it is clear that media plays an immense role in shaping human life, through information. Nevertheless, representation of gender in media is a debatable issue that continues to affect the society today.
There is no doubt that some of the vices observed like scanty dressing, poor eating disorders and violence are directly or indirectly propagated by the media through stereotyping; both men and women are victims.
Reference List
Andrews, D & Jackson, S 2001, Sport Stars: The Cultural Politics of Sporting Celebrity, Routledge, London.
Bennett, A 2005, Culture and Everyday Life, SAGE, London.
Briggs, A & Cobley, P 2002, The Media: An Introduction, Longman, Harlow.
Bucy, E 2002, Living in the Information Age: A New Media Reader, Wadsworth New York.
Carrington, B 2010, Race, Sport and Politics, Sage, London.
Cashmore, E 2006, Celebrity/Culture, Routledge, London.
Creeber, G & Martin, R 2009, Digital Cultures: Understanding New Media, Open University Press, Michigan.
Dines, G & Humez, R 2010, Gender Race and Class in the Media, Routledge, London.
Dworkin, S & Heywood, L 2003, Built to win: The female athlete as cultural icon, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.
Giddings, S & Lister, M 2011, The New Media and Techno-cultures Reader, Routledge, London.
Hills, L & Kennedy, E 2009, Sport, Media and Society, Berg, Oxford.
Laughey, D 2009, Media Studies: Theories and approaches, Oldcastle Books, Harpenden.
Livingstone, S 2002, Young People and New Media, Sage, London.
Rowe, D 1998, Global Media Sport: Flows, Forms and Futures, Bloomsbury, London.
Wenner, L 1998, Media Sport, Routledge, New York.
Whannel, G 2001, Media Sport Stars: Masculinities and Moralities, Routledge, London.
The article in question dwells upon the issues concerning representation in terms of gender. The author tries to come up with the most appropriate pattern of representation of the woman. Chow concludes that representation as well as self-representation is subjective and interconnected with such notions as ethnicity, race, class, etc. The author starts the article with a strong argument.
He states that human societies often rely on the system of signs which presupposes “hierarchization and evaluation” (Chow 38). Humans make out specific signs that stand for specific ideas, notions, phenomena, etc. The author proceeds by defining representation in terms of gender.
The researcher notes that women should be seen as equal to men (as both represent human beings), though they are often regarded as inferior to males. Thus, the author comes to a very important conclusion.
He tries to define those who are engaged in development of representation. The author claims that representation of women is worked out by men in terms of imperialistic Western cultures (Chow 42).
The author concludes that if representation is such a subjective phenomenon, people should rely on self-representation. The researcher states that people have already acknowledged benefits of self-representation as such works as diaries, memoirs and auto-biographies have gained popularity.
Chow also argues that self-representation can be regarded as the result of the democratization of Western societies (44). The author also provides Foucault’s ideas concerning self-representation. Chow also claims that self-representation has become non-representative as people tend to depict ‘imaginary’ selves. The author also refers to Spivak’s ideas concerning representation of women.
The author provides particular examples which vividly illustrate the researcher’s ideas. One of the brightest examples is the way pornography is seen by different people. The author argues that this can be regarded as a kind of representation and self-representation. Chow concludes that representation of women is closely connected with such notions as inequality, class, religion, ethnicity, etc.
The article in question touches upon very disputable issues. These issues are also considered in other works. For instance, Brenda J. Allen focuses on issues concerning self-identity and self-representation (228).
The author argues that it can be difficult to find oneself, though it is crucial for self-development and self-realization. Another work also touches upon issues concerning self-identity (Wong(Lau) 267). The author notes that race, class and gender are interconnected.
The author also deals with the importance of self-identity in terms of these notions. One more work focuses on the racial aspect of self-representation (Harris 240). Notably, though the major focus is made on race, the author also pays a lot of attention to gender and class. All these works contribute greatly to the development of the overall discourse concerning gender and self-identity.
Thus, it is possible to claim that researchers have developed a particular vision of self-representation claiming that such notions as class, gender, ethnicity and race are interconnected.
Admittedly, the articles mentioned are important in terms of Communication Studies as they help to focus on really important issues that influence the way people see themselves and others. Of course, representation and self-representation shape communication strategies to great extent.
The article under consideration focuses on the issue concerning women’s representation in the human society. Interestingly, Chow mentions various scenarios that depend on ethnicity and cultural peculiarities. Thus, Chow also touches upon issues concerning oriental viewpoints on the matter (47).
However, it is possible to note that Chow is somewhat too theoretical, i.e. the author focuses on trends rather than real life experiences. Other works on the issue can become a good illustration for the ideas revealed by Chow. For instance, Bowen reveals her own experiences which can be illustrative in terms of women’s representation and self-representation (41).
The author recounts her upbringing and the way she adopts feminist values. Bowen claims that being a Jewish girl she had to live in the men’s world where women were seen as somewhat inferior members of the society. However, she manages to rethink her role in the society. Likewise, Hoda Al-Mutawah considers the role of women in the men’s world (36).
The author also focuses on the way women are represented in the Muslim world. The author reveals the way she has changed her perspectives. Al-Mutawah provides her own experience which can be the necessary illustration to such theoretical approaches as Chow’s perspective. Admittedly, the three works are of exclusive importance for the field of Communication Studies.
These articles provide insights into the development of representation and self-representation of women across the world. The articles reveal experiences of women who develop specific outlooks on the basis of certain cultural peculiarities and contemporary trends.
These articles also help to understand the ways contemporary women see themselves in the society. This understanding can definitely help to work out specific communicative patterns. The articles can help people understand the contemporary values to communicate effectively with people pertaining to other groups (in terms of ethnicity, gender, etc.).
Discussion question: Based on the Chow’s article, reveal similarities and differences between representation and self-representation of women in the contemporary society.
Works Cited
Allen, Brenda J. “Sapphire and Sappho: Allies in Authenticity.” Our Voices: Essays in Culture, Ethnicity, and Communication. Eds. Alberto Gonzalez, Marsha Houston, and Victoria Chen. New York, NY: Roxbury Publishing Company, 2011. 228-233. Print.
Al-Mutawah, Hoda. “Women and Islam: A Muslim Feminist Perspective.” Our Voices: Essays in Culture, Ethnicity, and Communication. Eds. Alberto Gonzalez, Marsha Houston, and Victoria Chen. New York, NY: Roxbury Publishing Company, 2011. 35-41. Print.
Bowen, Sheryl Perlmutter. “Jewish and/or Woman: Identity and Communicative Style.” Our Voices: Essays in Culture, Ethnicity, and Communication. Eds. Alberto Gonzalez, Marsha Houston, and Victoria Chen. New York, NY: Roxbury Publishing Company, 2011. 41-47. Print.
Chow, Rey. “Gender and Representation.” Feminist Consequences: Theory for the New Century. Ed. Elisabeth Bronfen and Misha Kavka. New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 2001. 38-57. Print.
Harris, Tina M. “I Know It Was Blood: Defining the Biracial Self in a Euro-American Society.” Our Voices: Essays in Culture, Ethnicity, and Communication. Eds. Alberto Gonzalez, Marsha Houston, and Victoria Chen. New York, NY: Roxbury Publishing Company, 2011. 239-244. Print.
Wong(Lau), Kathleen. “Working Through Identity: Understanding Class in the Context of Race, Ethnicity, and Gender.” Our Voices: Essays in Culture, Ethnicity, and Communication. Eds. Alberto Gonzalez, Marsha Houston, and Victoria Chen. New York, NY: Roxbury Publishing Company, 2003. 266-271. Print.
Despite the feminist claim that all people are created equally and women should have equal rights because they are just as capable as men, there remain numerous differences between the genders. This does not necessarily make the claims of the feminists wrong, but to ignore the fact that there are differences between the genders negates the special qualities that make individuals different and glosses over some of the reasons why the genders have such differences.
The reason why the genders have such differences
One way that males and females are different can be found in the way they think, which does not seem to be a result of their upbringing or social constraints but instead seems to be a part of their biological states. Men tend to think about one thing at a time until they shift onto the next thing. They are usually geared toward action and movement but are equally capable of investigating the deeper meanings of a piece of literature or contemplating the heavens. Women tend to think about several things at a time and seem to be more concentrated on planning and preparing rather than acting although they are also equally capable of concentrating just on winning the next footrace or another single-minded pursuit. In addition, men seem to focus more on the physical, outward elements while women seem to focus more on their feelings and emotions, the inward elements.
Not to negate the very real physical differences that exist between men and women, but it seems a great deal of how we define our gender is based upon social elements. For example, from a very young age, girls are surrounded by the color pink, encouraged to play with dolls or stuffed animals, and are taught to pursue housekeeping activities through the use of play kitchens, etc. Boys are surrounded by blue, given toy trucks, cars, and planes to play with, and taught to go out and do things, be active, energetic, and always on the move. These types of treatments are continued not only by parents but also by teachers, toymakers, television and movie depictions, and everywhere else a child might look.
Of course, men and women are frequently defined primarily by their physical characteristics but this can often have detrimental effects on men and women who don’t fit the ideal shape. For instance, a woman with relatively small breasts will often be treated more like ‘one of the guys’ even if she has a greater tendency to surround herself with cute animals and lacy clothing items. A man with delicate features is often excluded from the playing field from a very young age with accusations that he is too weak or puny to participate in ‘real man’s games.’
Differences through the prism of time
In prehistoric times, there were numerous advantages to be gained by such definitions of male and female as the women needed to stay back at the cave to care for young children who still nursed for their major sustenance and men needed to go out and hunt to ensure the continued survival of their people. These roles were continued throughout the centuries even into the beginnings of the 20th century as women remained the keepers of the house and men remained the ‘breadwinners. However, these constraints were artificial once the world became modernized to the point where breast milk could be refrigerated for later use and women could move outside of the home. In recent years, it’s been more of a hardship determining how to divide workloads that have been traditionally gender-based as women are now required to work outside of the home to help make ends meet.