Category: Gender

Introduction

Elizabeth Cady Stanton was one of the leading feminists who fought for equal rights and liberation for women. Elizabeth Cady Stantons life was characterized by controversy. From the unusual academic and athletic achievements of her adolescence to her demand for female suffrage in 1848 to her declaration of a feminist ideology of independence to agitation for radical social change, to attack the Bible, her actions and attitudes provoked debate and dissension. Her politics, prejudices, rhetoric, associates, and attire-raising practices alarmed many.

Thesis

In spite of the controversy of Stantons ideas and values, she had made a great contribution to womens rights wonderment figuring for equal opportunities between men and women and gender equality.

Main body

In the late 1890s and the early 1800s, women obtained a low social position and were deprived of their rights. The culture of the era was marked by a radical, multifaceted social reform movement steeped in the tradition of Christian evangelism. In the name of the perfectibility of man and the coming of the golden age, there was an upsurge in resolve to change life-to abolish slavery, the family, and marriage. Stantons supposed that womens suffrage should be based on wealth, education, and refinement (Stanton 23). She supposed that black men and immigrants should be excluded from this amendment. Stanton called it educated suffrage which meant that educated and literate men and women should receive a right to vote.

Her behavior outraged the socially conservative element of the population. Eventually, it offended her liberal allies as well, including her husband and her successors in the suffrage movement. Although she appeared to be a respectable woman, Stanton was accurately perceived to be a revolutionarynot a suitable role for a nineteenth-century woman. Having a revolutionary as an ally was a source of embarrassment to Stantons colleagues. Stantons angry opposition to a reconstruction program that enfranchised black men but excluded black and white women created a conflict in the ranks of suffragists. It resulted in the creation of rival organizations, the National and the American Woman Suffrage associations. The National Association, founded by Stanton, had a broad platform that addressed other womens issues in addition to demanding a constitutional amendment to enfranchise women (DuBois and Dumenil 33).

Suffragists feared that Stantons radical feminism and religious heresy would damn their chances for success. This first phase in the long march toward liberation corresponded to a struggle for social and then political rights in an era when traditional values were being questioned. In the America of Andrew Jackson, the mood was one of social reform and utopian aspirations toward change in the areas of religion and family, and with regard to what Stanton and other abolitionist writers of the time called the peculiar institution (Stanton 38) of slavery. For many women who joined the various reform societies, the search for an identity and a status in their own right set them imperceptibly on the road to independence, even before they formed their own movement in 1848. In a letter written from Seneca Falls and dated 20 June 1853, Stanton counseled her humorously, Susan, I do beg of you&to waste no powder on the Womans State Temperance Society. We have other and bigger fish to fry. (Stanton 52). Stanton was one of many activists, who believed in womens moral superiority and fueled demands for an independent movement (Buhle et al 82).

With characteristic audacity, Stanton proposed a call for womens right to vote, the only one of twelve resolutions not to be unanimously adopted. It was Stanton who stood up before the 300 people crowded into the small Seneca Falls chapel to read this historic text, which covered the full extent of womens subordination in the United States and detailed discrimination in the workplace, at school, in the family, in citizenship, and in religion: it was an act of accusation and provided a carefully considered catalog of demands. (Buhle et al 89). Stanton believed in the need for reforms to ensure profound changes in womens position in the family and the working world, and in sexuality, became more and more remote.

Early feminism in the United States had been forged in a distinctly American cultural and historical context, but the movement was to undergo outside influences as the waves of immigration increased at the end of the 19th century. Stanton thus thought the moment had come to introduce the question at the tenth national convention of the womens rights movement in New York in May 1860. However, the ensuing debates on divorce brought to light the profound ideological disagreements that existed within the movement before it was to split. But her position became marginalized in the new association, which disagreed with most of her opinions-the importance of the vote as a means to exert political pressure, educated suffrage,  the liberalization of divorce laws, and, finally, her analysis of the role of religion and the Scriptures in the oppression of women, as presented in The Womans Bible (1898). During these years, advocates of womens suffrage placed particular emphasis on the civilizing mission of women, an argument that had served them in the 1820s and 1830s to clear away into the public arena (Buhle et al 72).

At the beginning of the 21 century, women experience discrimination and social inequality in many spheres of life including wage differences and Title IX. The dilemma of inequality in employment is one of the most imperative issues these days. The society in which we live has been created historically by males. Sexual discrimination can also be indirect. Indirect discrimination happens if requirements are the same for everyone but have unfair effects on certain people due to their gender, marital status, or pregnancy. So as to inspect this state of affairs one must make an effort to get to the root of the problem and have got to recognize the sociological factors that cause women to have a much more hard time getting similar benefits, wages, as well as job opportunities as their male counterparts (Buhle et al 122).

Title IX stipulates that all persons despite their gender have equal access to education programs. Thus, many young women now claim that they have fewer opportunities to succeed at their work because of poor education and programs studied at colleges and Universities. Men usually are perceived as career orientated in contrast to women. Men are more readily supported by colleges and Universities than women. In spite of equal rights opportunities and affirmative action policies, women occupy lower-paid jobs in contrast to men. As a whole, the disparity between the expected behaviors of women and the appropriate professional behaviors makes it extremely difficult for most women to prove to their male peers and supervisors they have what it takes to be leaders (Buhle et al 122).

Conclusion

In spite of controversial ideas and beliefs, Stanton supported the womens rights movement and raised womens consciousness and self-determination. Education unquestionably played a key role throughout the century in womens drive for their elevation and emancipation. Stanton called for women to leave the confinement of the home and to make their voices heard in the political and social spheres.

Works Cited

Buhle, Mari Jo, and Paul Buhle, editors, A Concise History of Woman Suffrage: Selections from the Classic Work of Stanton, Anthony, Gage, and Harper, Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1978.

DuBois, E.C., Dumenil, L. Through Womens Eyes: An American History with Documents. Bedford/St. Martins; First Edition edition, 2005.

Stanton, E.C. Correspondence, Writings, Speeches. Schocken Books, 1981.

Introduction

The socially constructed types of class, race, and gender not only locate groups and individuals within, national, local, and global social structures but specifically establish social identities that ultimately shape cultures and experiences of people. The prevalence of poor and underprivileged people, people of immigrants, and gender along with increasing concern about class and race, situate the overall work of the field in an interlocking system of oppression and power (Lorber, 2005).

Social inequality is experienced and described along with lines of class, race, and gender supports to determine who requires literacy instruction, who acquires it, how these learners ultimately experience it, and how does it affects their lives. Both policymakers and individuals in the society of the United States anticipate literacy as a remedy that overall impacts and eventually reduces economic and social inequality. In this paper, we shall discuss the role of educators and how education contributes to the enhancement of peoples cognitive growth. The paper argues and probes the phenomenon; can education play its due role to eliminate class, race, and gender inequality.

It is pertinent to mention that educators may be authorized to teach in different ways that, in fact, reinforcing instead of transforming inequality and differences of class, race, and gender orientation that impact the life chances of different learners. This social background along with the social locations and identities of learners and teachers, the political economy of finances for its programs, and typical differential reward its learners gain from educational accomplishment- increases concerns especially for adult educators in the areas of curriculum policy, and pedagogy.

The Dynamics of Class, Race, and Gender

The dynamics of class, racism, and gender inequality affect the lives of people in the United States. Educational research on inequality read as if class and racism impact only those in different minority groups. The racism experienced by individuals of color in the school of the United States could not exist in the absence of simultaneous privileging of whites by the same educational institutions.

Class, race, and gender impact the power of people to negotiate educational institutions for reaping benefits and rewards. This is specifically reflected in the poverty and predominance of individuals of color among those with a low level of education. Socioeconomic conditions are the robust predictors of educational accomplishments across gender and race, and educational accomplishment is a strong indicator of employment success.

In the last five decades, a series of educational policies and reforms, initiated particularly at the national level, have been implemented into domestic school systems. All such reforms focused to move education much closer to the theme of equality of educational opportunity. Given the significance of racism, class, and gender in the history of the United States, most of the federal education reforms and policies during this period endeavored to equalize the often egregious types of inequality based on class as well as race (Canford, pp. 409-438).

Desegregation

Since 1954, significant progress has been made towards the desegregation of the countrys public schools has been limited and uneven. Blacks experienced insignificant progress in desegregation up to the mid-1960s when a series of executive actions, judicial decisions, and a series of federal laws, in response to the movement of civil rights, resulted in huge gains, particularly in the South. Such development and progress continued until the year 1988 when the impacts of a series of decisions by a federal court and different national and local political developments particularly precipitated trends in the market towards the segregation of Black students.

Latinos historically were less segregated than most of the African Americans. From the mid-1960s to the 1990s, however, there was a continuous increase in the ratio of Latino students who, in fact, attended segregated schools. Resultantly, education for them is now more segregated as compared with Blacks. Given the history of legalized and legitimate segregation in the south, it is sarcastic that the school systems in the South are now most segregated in the country, whereas those in the northeast are by ability grouping. There exists a robust relationship between social class and race. Moreover, racial isolation is mostly considered the development of residential segregation along with socioeconomic background.

Evidence from current research suggests that children often benefit socially and academically from well-managed programs. Most of the black students enjoy ordinary academic gains, whereas the academic accomplishments of white children are often not hurt, rather helped in some cases, by desegregation. Moreover, in the school systems which has experienced desegregation attempts, the racial group and class in educational results have normally been reduced, although not eliminated (Acker, pp. 441-464).

The most significant short-run academic accomplishments are the long-run consequences or costs for black students. In contrast to those who attended schools regarded as racially isolated, black adults experiencing exclusively desegregated education particularly as children can more possibly attend multiracial colleges, work in high-status jobs, evaluate their capabilities more realistically while making a choice of an occupation, live in an integrated community or neighborhood, and to report interracial associations.

Despite these modest outcomes in the final decade of the twentieth century, American children, mostly, attend schools that are segregated by class, race, and ethnicity. Consequently, for the last fifty years, federal interventions focused on accomplishing equality of educational chances by school desegregation and have just taken insignificant steps towards accomplishing that aim; children from different classes and racial backgrounds should constantly receive segregated and unequal educations.

Gender Discrimination

Gender discrimination also exists in many areas of education taking different types. For instance, curricular materials, in K-12 education, feature a specific preponderance of mens character. Typical traditional gender roles are exhibited by male and female characters. Vocational education not only at the high school but also at the college level remains segregated by gender up to some level (Kramer, 2004).

Administrators in schools, at every level, are male even though most teachers in secondary and elementary schools are female. The situation in high school is more complicated. In academia, faculty women are often found in the lower ranks and there are few chances for them to get a promotion. They continue to earn less as compared with their male counterparts.

Similar to the policies, procedures, and laws focusing on eliminating inequalities of race in school outcomes and processes, those designed to reduce or eliminate race inequality in education opportunities have just narrowed them. Moreover, access to education in the U.S is also not equal for people of a different race, ethnic, gender, and socioeconomic background.

Although many programs focusing on eliminating inequality of education have not succeeded over the last fifty years or so, there exist only signs of considerable progress; measured specifically in median years, the gap existing in educational accomplishment between whites and blacks, and females and males have almost disappeared. However, the primary aim of educational reform is not just to provide entire groups the chance to receive the same quantity as well as the quality of education.

As per the dominant theme or ideology, the eventual aim of such reforms is to support, provide, and ensure equality in education for facilitating equal access to housing, jobs, and different features of the American dream. As such it becomes vital for examining the phenomenon of whether the practical elimination of the gap in attaining education has specifically been accompanied by a comparable reduction in different other measures and actions of inequality.

Income Factor

Income, of the different ways in which inequality may be measured, is regarded as most useful. Most of the social standing by individuals and overall access to the decent aspects of life depends to a large extent on income. The dramatic progress, unfortunately, in reducing the gap in educational acquisition has not been particularly matched by a similar reduction of the gap existing in income inequality.

Median personal earnings by gender and race signify that white men earn more as compared with any other group while black men trail them. Moreover, all women earn considerably less as compared with white men. Studies highlight that it is only white and black women with an alike educational record in the same job earning almost the same. The difference between the almost elimination of the gap found in acquiring median education and the continuing gaps in the middle-income group is another evidence that eliminating the inequality of education is inappropriate for addressing wider sources throughout the community (Wilson).

This discrepancy can be narrated by the nature of the political economy of the United States. The major reason for income inequality is the operation and structure of capitalism in the United States, a set of institutions that rarely have been impacted by different educational reforms. Opportunities for equality in education have not led to a matching reduction in income inequality as educational reforms have not created extra well-paid jobs, impact gender-segregation and also occupational structures racially segmented, or restrict the mobility of capital between different areas of the country or between other countries and the United States. For instance, no matter how well education is received by minority youth or the white working class, it does not change the phenomenon that there are thousands of well-paid manufacturing jobs which does not include inner cities of the north, the sunbelt, or even foreign nations (Mcquillan, pp. 477-496).

A segment of scholars argue that many service jobs either remain or manufacturing positions have been made available in the context of capital flight. Yet they pay less as compared with the previous manufacturing jobs, are mostly temporary or part-time, and most do not provide any type of benefit. Even youth in the middle class have apprehensions about the nature of jobs they anticipate after completing formal education.

Impact of Education Reforms

Without changes in the operation or structure of the capitalistic economy, many scholars believe that educational reforms are not successful in improving the economic and social conditions of disadvantaged groups. This is the major cause that educational reforms have an insignificant impact on the social inequalities that motivates them in the first place.

Educational reforms in the country have not accomplished overall equality for many reasons. While gender, class, and racial gaps found in attaining education have narrowed to a huge extent, educational accomplishment remains differentiated by gender, class, and race. Most of the aspects of auricular content and school processes are associated with class, race, and gender inequality. Yet gross measures related to educational outcomes like median years at the level of the school, cover these symbols of inequality.

It is pertinent to mention that educational experiences are not considered the same, for example, four years completed at the high school in an area like Beverly Hills are altogether different from the same period spent in a school located in an inner-city; race, gender, class, and family background significantly impacts whether an individual attends college and which higher education institution is attended by him/her. For example, female trail men slightly in depiction in institutions of high status as it is less likely for the females to attend doctorial or engineering programs and mostly possible to become part-time students (Malkin).

Gender segregation in the areas of study remains highly linked, with females less likely as compared with men to study in mathematical and scientific fields. Moreover, there is considerable ethnic, class, and racial segregation between higher education institutions. Latinos and Asian-Americans are considered as more segregated from whites as compared with African-Americans. Asian-Americans and whites are most likely to join universities of higher status than Latinos and African-Americans.

These patterns of class, race, gender, and race inequality in higher education have implications for race, class, and gender gaps in income and occupational attainment. Recipients of science and math degrees are most likely to acquire lucrative jobs. A degree obtained from a state college is not considered as competitive compared with an elite university in the private sector. Part of the benefits of attending prestigious schools is derived from the current social networks to which an individual can join and has access (Zinn).

Credential inflation is another example of continuous inequality for opportunities in the education field. Although minorities, women, and different members of the working class nowadays acquire higher levels of education than they previously did, members of privileged or advantaged social groups attain even much higher education levels.

The educational requirements necessary for well-paid jobs- with the highest salaries, comfortable working conditions, extra benefits, autonomy, etc- are increasing. People with more education attained from the best institutions are mostly among the top candidates for the highly-paid and high-status jobs. As people from privileged backgrounds are almost at all times in a much better position to obtain enviable credentials, whereas working class, minorities, and women are at a competitive disadvantage.

Works Cited

Acker, Joan Inequality Regimes, Gender & Society, 20 (4), 441-464, 2006.

Canford Its Time to Leave Machismo Behind! Challenging Gender Inequality in an Immigrant Union, Gender Society, 21(3): 409-438, 2007.

Kramer, Laura The Sociology of Gender: A Brief Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2004.

Lorber, Judith, Gender Inequality: Feminist Theories and Politics. Oxford University Press, 2005.

Malkin, Stuart. Gender Bias, Gender Discrimination, Gender Equality, Web.

Mcquillan & Shreffer, The Importance of Motherhood Among Women in the Contemporary United States, Gender society, 22(4): 477-496, 2008.

Wilson, Flannel Organizational Behavior and Gender. Ashgate 2Rev Ed Edition External cooperation programs.

Zinn, Maxine Gender Through the Prism of Difference. Oxford University Press Gender Equality, 2005.

Gender equality. Facts. Web.

Monitoring Gender Equality, Responsibility, Accountability & Monitoring, 2001. Web.

Introduction

The role played by gender can be described as socially constructed. The behavior and personality of an individual is defined by the society he or she comes from. Television perpetuates most of the gender stereotypes in the societies. Cultural expectations portrayed male as highly achievers and dominant while female are supposed to be obedient and accommodating

A conventional gender stereotype is encouraged mostly by Television since it focuses on dominants social values. Gender inequality is commonly practiced by most of the television programs which are dominated by men the same way it happens in our societies. This influence gender sensitivity and instead instinctively reproduced a consistent masculine perception in the programs being shown (Craig, S. (ed.), 1992).

Main body

It is believed that most of the programs aired are explicitly built and interpreted from a muscular angle. Observers frequently identify with the male characters rather than females in the narrative. This kind of inclined viewing of television is imperceptible and primarily indisputably biased.

Most of the television programs portrayed mens world and females tend to shift from their own view. Actors and directors have argued that female presenter or characters in the programs are not likely to be given attention by the observers. However, it is important to note that female have got more physical personality as compared to men. According to Durkin, K., (1985) female especially between the age group 8 and 12 give more attention to the male characters than the female one, while boys are not ideally influenced by the sex of the character in the programs.

Sigourney Weaver in Aliens is one of such programs aired that have low number of women playing a key role. However, men dominate the scene and are shown to be more authoritative and aggressive as compared to female. They more often drive, drink, smoke, participate in most of the games and implement policies. They dominate world of things rather than affiliation.

There are few female shown on this program compared to male. The ratio of male characters to female is 4:1. Male also are seen to be positioned in most demanding role. This is in contrast to the fact that in the real sense female out numbered male in the current world. Therefore, demographic realities are not clearly shown by the television programs as expected.

Most female in this programs are restricted to few roles. Male play extensive and stimulating roles, while domestic roles are done by female. Majority of the males are shown as employed, have higher status and are less often found at home. Even at the work places few females are seen to holding high positions in the organization. They lead unhappy and hopeless personal lives. This distribution and status of women as shown in the programs reflect the actual thing in the real world. Curran, J. & Michael G., (ed.) (1991) observed that feminine is known to lag behind in almost everything with only a few exceptions.

Conclusion

The portrayal of male and female on television can be greatly regarded as conventional and stereotypical in nature. This encouraged gender roles polarization with female seen as being emotional, cautious and supportive and observance. Male on the other hand are associated with rationality, competence, personal, merciless and efficient character. In this case this program largely reflects customary patriarchal concept of gender. Conventional masculinity for example, is viewed as natural, usual, and worldwide, where as in the real sense, this is just particular construction. In this regard attention should be taken to regulate and abolish programs being aired on television and gender stereotype quality be put into practice.

Works Cited

Craig, S. (ed.) Men masculinity and the media: Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1991.

Curran, J. & Michael G. (ed.) Mass media and society: London: Edward Arnold, 1991.

Durkin, K. Television, sex roles and children: Milton Keynes, 1981.

Essay I

Chapter 1

The main topic of the first chapter in Kang et al.s (2017) book is the advent of the feminist movement and its crucial impact on the development of other movements linked to civil rights and different improvements related to the quality of life. The thesis of Chapter 1 is that the ability to recognize the complexity of the current world and capitalize on the notions of equality and partnership could help people achieve more in the field of gender and sexuality studies.

Kang et al. (2017) introduce the readers to multiple concepts related to gender studies such as lived experiences, identity issues, social constructionism, intersectionality, and the structures of power. The authors start by stating that many populations are marginalized based on their unique characteristics. Kang et al. (2017) list the many feminist schools and thoroughly explain that the idea behind this ideology is not to degrade men but to help the community recognize the fact that many women are perceived incorrectly. The authors carefully outline the issue of identity as well, making it easier to understand how female struggles contribute to the lack of a higher quality of life across different societies. Ultimately, Kang et al. (2017) take social structures and dissect them to explain the need for increased visibility for women and altered structures of power.

The four main points that can be found in Chapter 1 are as follows:

• There may be numerous challenges related to how women could address the fact that knowledge is shaped by the political and social context in which it is made (Kang et al., 2017, p. 7);
• Not all women are the same in terms of their thinking, behaviors, and ideas, which makes it clear that the notion of global sisterhood is surreal (Kang et al., 2017, p. 14);
• There is a need for change based on the concerted efforts of individuals, social movements and social institutions change (Kang et al., 2017, p. 19);
• Existing inequalities are neither inevitable nor immutable (Kang et al., 2017, p. 22).

Kang et al. (2017) utilized the meta-analysis methodology and addressed numerous sources of literature, developing a thorough argument based on existing evidence. The most viable weakness of the introductory chapter is that it did not include any real-life experience to reinforce the ideas present in books and articles dwelling on the issue. Nevertheless, the strength of this chapter is that it gets the readers acquainted with the complex subjects easily and helps them follow the key argument on why womens rights movements exist. Chapter 1 is a perfect introduction for a book that touches upon a rather sensitive subject from different perspectives. I believe that Chapter 1 is the epitome of why one would want to gain more insight into the complexity of the modern world and help all people live peacefully, evading any injustice.

Chapter 5

Chapter 5 of Kang et al.s (2017) book dwells on the development of feminist movements over time and explains how and why they became important for human history. The chapter consists of four subsections and features numerous links to how every feminist movement is centered around the concept of praxis. The thesis of Chapter 5 is that the feminist movement continually aims to communicate with politicians and other decision-making bodies to deepen their commitment to assisting women in terms of achieving equality and fair treatment.

The chapter starts with a brief explanation of why feminist movements became essential for women and men who struggled with their identity and place in society. The first feminist movements, for example, were outlined as developing the cult of true womanhood (Kang et al., 2017, p. 107). Another subsection dwelled on the movements that took place during the 20th century, making it evident that females were affected strongly by the majority of activities that took place during that time. The civil rights movement and transnational feminism were also discussed by Kang et al. (2017). Therefore, the authors draw the line at the end of Chapter 5 and summarize the overall impact of social justice and feminist movements.

The four main points that can be found in Chapter 5 are as follows:

• Feminist movements have generated, made possible, and nurtured feminist theories and feminist academic knowledge (Kang et al., 2017, p. 105);
• Certain social actors with power can construct the story and possibly misrepresent actors with less power and social movements (Kang et al., 2017, p. 108);
• Inequality also inspires coalitional activism that brings people together across race, class, gender, and sexual identity lines (Kang et al., 2017, p. 117);
• The emphasis on coalitional politics and making connections between several movements is another crucial contribution of feminist activism and scholarship (Kang et al., p. 123).

Kang et al. (2017) systematized the majority of their findings to present a decent conclusion. The key strength here is that the chapter focuses on how feminist movements could improve the state of affairs while also outlining the potential areas of practice for non-feminist bodies. The core weakness of Chapter 5 is its inability to answer many questions that the authors themselves had posed at the beginning of the book. Regardless, it is a valuable source that provides readers with the perfect amount of information required to motivate them to act. I think that Chapter 5 is a vibrant mix of personal attitudes, evidence, and future feminist agenda.

Essay II

Chapter 2

The topic of Chapter 2 is the presence of constructions of difference and the necessity to challenge existing binary systems. The thesis of the chapter is that certain understandings typical of different genders are often erroneous and should be altered to an extent where dichotomies would become obsolete.

Kang et al. (2017) dwell on the systems of gender and sexuality to outline the socialization process and long-standing relationships between genders. Also, the authors touch upon the subjects of transgender people and intersex characteristics. Chapter 2 is an in-depth review of social and psychological sources of the impact that develop sexualities and either maintain or erode masculinities. The issues of class and race are also reviewed by Kang et al. (2017) to help the readers gain a better understanding of how inequalities continue to grow. As a concluding paragraph, the authors chose to list several viable alternatives to the binary systems.

The four main points that can be found in Chapter 2 are as follows:

• The problem with the society is that ideas of men and women being complete opposites invite simplistic comparisons that rely on stereotypes (Kang et al., 2017, p. 34);
• Existing conventional behaviors are reproduced in part through socialization processes (Kang et al., 2017, p. 36);
• The fact that the culturally dominant binary model fails to accurately encapsulate the wide variety of sexual and gender lived experiences makes it harder for unconventional individuals to find their place in the society (Kang et al., 2017, p. 41);
• Irrespective of how a person behaves within any hypothetical group or society, our experience of gender is always shaped by our race, class, and other identities (Kang et al., 2017, p. 52).

When completing Chapter 2, the authors collected certain quantitative data to make their arguments more resilient and redefine the field of gender studies by proving that several long-standing conceptions have to dissolve. The essential strength of the current chapter is that it provides readers with an extensive amount of information that could be processed with the help of critical thought. It may easily alter ones opinion regarding the subject and make them more open-minded than before. The key weakness of Chapter 2, on the other hand, is an excessive focus on the role of class in the process of gender role establishment. Instead of it, Kang et al. (2017) could have addressed the preconceptions related to race, culture, and societal peculiarities.

A thorough overview of Chapter 2 makes it safe to say that Kang et al. (2017) possess an extensive knowledge base that allows them to share their race- and class-related arguments with the readers. Even though there are numerous notions that require explanations or clarifications, the authors never fail to support their claims with evidence and break down their argument into smaller portions in order for the readers to grasp the meaning and read between the lines. The suggestion would be to expand the section with alternatives to binary systems to aid the readers in terms of addressing the complexity of the contemporary world.

To my mind, Chapter 2 is an accurate representation of the modern society because it features numerous links to how socioeconomic factors force certain individuals to engage in specific behaviors that are not characteristic of people of other races or even community backgrounds.

Chapter 3

The topic of Chapter 3 is the presence of definite institutions, cultures, and structures that are either directly or indirectly linked to feminist movements and gender studies. The thesis of this chapter is that socialization is one of the essential sources of influence that should be considered when outlining the behavioral and cultural norms for younger generations.

Kang et al. (2017) discuss the notion of social structures in rich detail and make it evident that monolithic entities similar to movements, institutions, and formations may either strengthen or reduce the dynamism of the society. They also dwell on the ideology behind the concept of family and establish the incredible influence of family background on ones view of the world. Another factor was the media, and Kang et al. (2017) stated that the majority of insights shared via social media and corporation-run sources tend to be deceitful. The authors discussed the value of actions completed in the areas of medicine, health, and correctional systems. Overall, Chapter 3 is a thorough overview of external factors that destroy diversity and make it harder to approach marginalized populations.

The four main points that can be found in Chapter 3 are as follows:

• One of the biggest issues with modern society is that mainstream institutions often privilege and reward the dominant culture (Kang et al., 2017, p. 60);
• Many modern societies fail to recognize the inherent value of families because masculinity is equated with breadwinning and femininity is perceived as the essential trait of homemaking (Kang et al., 2017, p. 66);
• Irrespective of the massive challenges existing in the field, media consumers from different standpoints can and do modify and reject the intended meanings of media (Kang et al., 2017, p. 70);
• Institutions have an ideological facetthey are not only shaped by a particular cultural-historical period but also society is shaped and impacted by their interests, as well (Kang et al., 2017, p. 82).

The methodology for the current chapter included a meta-analysis of the literature and an inquisitive case study that touched upon the lives of marginalized individuals and offered the readers several crucial insights into why institutions across the US represent a threat for the non-binary strategies and populations. The key strength of Chapter 3 is that Kang et al. (2017) back up their controversial claims with evidence and make sure that the readers realize the issues that are inherent in the legislation, policies, and even society. The weakness, on the other hand, is that Kang et al. (2017) pay too much attention to how different populations are marginalized on different levels instead of suggesting the possible ways of overcoming the issues.

Chapter 3 of Kang et al.s (2017) book is a strong claim regarding the value that individuals not addressed by classical dichotomies could bring to society. Not only do the authors discuss the challenges that are characteristic of the sidelined, but develop an extensive argument on why these populations should receive increased assistance from the majority of external sources that address the needs of the perceived superior populations much more often. Personally, I believe Chapter 3 to be the most important out of the whole book because it treats diversity and equal opportunities with the necessary respect and sheds enough light on why culture and societal structures matter.

Essay III

The topic of Chapter 4 is the role of gender in the global economy. Kang et al. (2017) addressed the process of how gender contributes to the development of new jobs and innovation of their more common counterparts. The majority of ideas shared by Kang et al. (2017) revolve around the topic and appeal to readers via real-life examples. The thesis focused on the idea that multinational corporations would not be able to survive without the input of a diverse workforce, which also means that sexualized and racialized differences could bring several advantages to the table instead of hindering the US economy. This thesis is also reinforced in Chapter 5, where Kang et al. (2017) dwell on how the possible improvements in the economy could help minority populations overcome the challenge of remaining invisible even when actively promoting specific values.

In order to contribute to a detailed discussion of the thesis, Kang et al. (2017) outlined the role that marginalized populations played during the era of the strongest glass ceilings that averted women from taking on top positions in their companies. The authors of the book also dwelled on the existence of gender- and race-based limitations that forced the general community to display discriminating behaviors and disregard the matter of diversity as a whole. Kang et al. (2017) touched upon the issues of sexualization and racialization when discoursing the US welfare state and the process of feminizing poverty across the country. The authors put a special emphasis on the roles that many members of marginalized populations missed (or could not reach) due to the numerous prejudices and diversity-related problems. The global economy maintains a specific relationship with gendered, sexualized, and racialized types of labor, forcing many representatives of minority populations to quit and find jobs that fit the common societal image that had been polished during past years.

The four main points that can be found in Chapter 3 are as follows:

• As the authors stated in their book, women are stereotyped as having natural caring instincts, and, if these instincts come naturally, there is no reason to pay well (or pay at all) for this work. (Kang et al., 2017, p. 92);
• The lack of diversity and fair interpersonal relationships leads to a situation where most individuals who receive welfare are stigmatized and construed as undeserving, while the corporations that receive subsidies are seen as entitled to these (Kang et al., 2017, p. 94);
• Globalization is one of the most beneficial contemporary concepts in terms of business and production because it makes it possible for social change activists in different countries to communicate with each other, and for people, information, and products to cross borders, with benefits for some and costs to others (Kang et al., 2017, p. 96);
• The bigger issue is that gendered, sexualized, and racialized differences characterize the globalized labor market and make it harder for the policymakers and governments to close the gap in work and pay (Kang et al., 2017, p. 101).

Chapter 4 features a strong meta-analysis of existing literature that is converted into a set of claims that support the idea that many existing jobs are overly sexualized and racialized to satisfy the modern stereotypes and respond to the interests of the contemporary community. Even though the chapter does not feature a lot of statistical data, the authors adequately support their claims with real-life examples (or even examples from mass media and movies). The level of meticulousness with which Kang et al. (2017) collected and presented the data shows that they are well versed in the subject and have the capability of engaging the readers in the process of critical thinking.

While Kang et al. (2017) provide the readers with a great deal of vital information, the key weakness that can be pointed out is the lack of information regarding how minority populations from other countries mitigate the effects of prejudices and whether their experience could be utilized to overcome similar issues across the US. Another issue with Chapter 4 is that it draws the least attention to emotional labor, as Kang et al. (2017) choose to dwell on welfare and globalization instead. Even though these topics are also crucial, there has to be more background on why women are considered to be significantly less suitable for white-collar jobs than men with similar talents. Nevertheless, the strength of the book under review is that Kang et al. (2017) set up a powerful argument that perfectly reflects the needs of marginalized populations and makes it clear why the efforts of social change activists are so important to the modern economy. One more strong point is the authors ability to take on the experience collected throughout the 20th century and link it to the evidence that has been published by many reputable sources during the 21st century.

Based on the information presented in Chapter 4, it may be concluded that the world currently faces numerous challenges related to the process of coping with the effects of racialized, sexualized, and gender-induced thoughts, behaviors, and ideas. Even though Kang et al. (2017) acknowledge the need to address the gaps that exist in the up-to-date economy, they do not provide readers with any advice on how to mediate the negative effect of biased attitudes displayed by most community members across the country. There is a definite call to action at the end of Chapter 4 that engages the readers in the opportunity to close the majority of gaps with improved policymaking and new movements that would take on the areas of labor, feminism, and gender equality. Nevertheless, these problems are not going to disappear instantaneously, forcing social activists and the government to work together and achieve mutually pleasant outcomes. Chapter 4 is not the last section of the book, but it sets the tone for improved motivation and engagement, empowering the readers to become a part of the proposed change.

According to what I have learned studying Chapter 4, I would like to state that the role of globalization should not be underestimated because it serves as one of the most powerful unification instruments. Many social activists focused on labor inequalities could be interested in learning about the strongest suits of globalization to help the world get rid of pink- and white-collar divisions and provide all people with equal job opportunities irrespective of their sexuality, race, or gender. Under the condition where policymakers can consider all the factors mentioned above, there would be more room for the development of positive workplace environments where achievements or performance and not personal peculiarities would be appreciated more.

Reference

Kang, M., Lessard, D., Heston, L., & Nordmarken, S. (2017). Introduction to women, gender, sexuality studies. Independent.

Inequalities in various aspects of social and economic life, and the question of overcoming them, are increasingly the subject of political decisions and the subject of academic research and papers. In addition to social justice and human rights values, they emphasize the importance of equal opportunity as a condition for social cohesion and social inclusion. This also applies to health inequalities, which have received considerable attention from the World Health Organization over the last decade.

In this essay, I would like to discuss gender inequalities in health care, as it is an issue of personal interest to me. I do not like hearing how girls are not advised to go into medicine because it is a serious mens job or people do not take nursing jobs seriously and think they are too easy. Various gender inequalities in healthcare area occur in all countries. Inequalities are caused not only by living conditions but also by socio-cultural factors (values, norms, stereotypes) that shape the position of both sexes in society and peoples thinking and behavior about health.

Massive discrimination against women in the healthcare sector worsens the quality of care for people because of the deteriorating working conditions for this group of employees. This is because nurses and doctors who experience discrimination and unfair treatment are unable to provide appropriate care. This factor nullifies attempts to ensure the highest possible level of health for all people. I believe that society must stop discriminating against women in doctors posts and that the problem is severe enough to warrant a lot of media attention. In this way, society will ensure decent working conditions for women doctors and, hence, proper treatment for the population.

The issues of race and gender inequality have been topical for centuries, and they caused a large number of conflicts throughout history. These issues were the focus of attention in numerous studies, attempting to determine whether there are scientific grounds for such disputes. The purpose of this paper is to analyze race and gender as social constructs that are not justified by any scientific evidence.

Nowadays, genetics has become a discipline of vital importance for science. Ever since the beginning of DNA research, humanity has hoped to find the answers to fundamental questions. Race and gender identity have been the issues that were at the center of the debate around whether there is a genetic component to it. The views on that matter have shifted significantly across history, as science evolved, and more profound research was conducted.

As recently as two centuries ago, the scientific society was divided into two large groups. According to Tallbear (2013), polygenists believed that each race had a separate origin, while monogenists saw all races as one human species. The first point of view had more support, but the science of that period was entangled with popular stereotypes, which is reflected in the work of Louis Agassiz and Samuel Morton, prominent polygenists. The former described Native Americans as exclusively proud and courageous people, while the latter described people of African origin as submissive (Tallbear, 2013). However, the science at that time was not sufficiently advanced to conduct research that would be profound enough to present evidence for such statements. According to Tallbear (2013), it was a widespread belief at the time that the brains of different species were different, those of Europeans being larger, without adjusting for age, sex, body size, or nutritional status (p. 35). The existence of genes was unknown at that time, so blood served as the main symbol of cultural and racial differences. Tallbear (2013) writes that, when the blood types were discovered in 1900, they were first seen as indicative of race, but this theory was quickly debunked, once it was confirmed that all races possessed all three blood types. The research shows that there are no inherent genetic features of a particular race.

Similar to race, gender identity issues have also been researched within the framework of nature-society opposition. It is often claimed that men and women are inherently different. According to evolutionary psychologists, they are driven by different factors when considering a potential marriage. For example, women place more value than men on good financial prospects of a future partner (McKinnon & Silverman, 2005, p. 118). McKinnon and Silverman (2005) argue that this tendency comes not from inherent natural factors but from a gendered division of labor, in which, in all societies, men and women are embedded (p. 118). In other words, each gender is assigned a predetermined role from a social tradition, which, in turn, shapes the minds of men and women and their preferences. Therefore, this influence comes from the outside rather than from within.

All in all, the issue of nature-versus-nurture has been discussed for centuries. As science became more advanced, the role of the social framework was regarded as more important. At the same time, there has been little to no evidence to support the idea that racial and gender differences are embedded in human DNA. So, race and gender can be considered social constructs to a large extent, meaning that genetics-wise, all humans are the same and equal.

References

McKinnon, S. & Silverman, S. (Eds.). (2005). Complexities. Beyond nature and nurture. The University of Chicago Press.

Tallbear, K. (2013). Native American DNA: Tribal belonging and the false promise of genetic Science. The University of Minnesota Press.

Christopher Bells Talk

Bell talk of the daughter who enjoyed dressing as a hero, particularly male champions. Bell says that there are several feminine superheroes available for them to choose from when dressing up. However, masculine superhero goods are very accessible but not feminine. Doctrines are imparted to the community through public pedagogy, which is how people master processes and have knowledge of others and the world (Qian & Fan, 2019). Disney made a fortune from the female dolls and clothing they produced initially, and the company was afraid to observe their initial Disney princesses lose through the universal pedagogy. Bell noted that toys and clothing from the upcoming movies were marketed to the prominent male heroes, in contrast to the female characters.

Bell claims that businesses are telling young ladies they will always be left behind, regardless of their accomplishments. For example, a black widow exits a speeding flight on an electric-powered Harley Davidson motorbike, as depicted in the Avengers action set Cycle Blast Quinjet (Qian & Fan, 2019). However, unlike in the film, Captain America was on the motorcycle in the action figure collection instead of the black widow because the company believes that no lady would purchase the movie. Society should make characters of all sexes and races diverse physical features since most champions or heroines are slimmer than typical individuals.

HeForShe Movement

The purpose of the movement was to encourage several men and boys to support gender balance. Watson supported the involvement of men in conversations and in the campaign to fight and better the lives of women and girls worldwide. The movement promotes a sense of unity that males and females must collaborate to tackle what Watson refers to as a civil rights matter (Qian & Fan, 2019). For significant transformation to occur, males must likewise free themselves from the constraints of their sex roles. The assumption that men and women are two opposed beings with opposed ideals is neither enlightened nor constructive.

Question

Why is it crucial to consider gender issues when designing and implementing programs?

Reference

Qian, Y., & Fan, W. (2019). Men and women at work: Occupational gender composition and affective well-being in the United States. Journal of Happiness Studies, 20(7), 2077-2099.

Life expectancy statistics show that females generally live longer than males. This indicator has variations in African and Asian countries, where medical, epidemiological, and social factors affect womens access to care and quality services. In general, the main reason for gender differences in terms of life expectancy is hormonal variations and susceptibility to chronic diseases. Thus, women outlive men due to body characteristics and fatal disease prevalence.

Women live longer than men in most countries of the world, including the United States. The central reason for this disparity is the peculiarity of hormonal effects, in which females are more resistant to inflammatory and infectious processes (Austad & Fischer, 2016). As known, these triggers affect health status and, accordingly, chronic diseases and life expectancy. Resistance to infection and inflammation provides various immune perspectives in which women are more susceptible to therapy and desired health outcomes.

Men have a more beneficial life expectancy in some countries. It is worth noting that there is no single assessment system that shows the reasons for gender differences in a particular region or population in general. Sociocultural traditions, which have historical roots, is one of the reasons for men to outlive women. It was noted that the patriarchal model of society, female stigmatization, and inequality in access to health services in African and Asian countries lead to poorer womens health and reduced life expectancy (Crimmins et al., 2019). Thus, gender differences are rooted in quality and access to care and the social background in which males and females form specific behavioral patterns.

Life expectancy depends on chronic diseases and the socio-cultural habits of a particular community. Women live longer than men because they are less susceptible to infections due to hormone resistance. On the other hand, the patriarchal model and medical inequalities affect womens health around the world, which significantly impairs their quality of life. Thus, gender inequalities result from a variety of biological and social factors that affect the position of males and females in the medical field.

References

Austad, S., & Fischer, K. (2016). Sex differences in lifespan. Cell Metabolism, 23(6), 1022-1033. Web.

Crimmins, E., Shim, H., Zhang, Y., & Kim, J. (2019). Differences between men and women in mortality and the health dimensions of the morbidity process.Clinical Chemistry, 65(1), 135-145. Web.

In the article The influence of peers during adolescence: Does homophobic name-calling by peers change gender identity? the authors claim that negative name-calling among peers can lead to a change in gender identity. Firstly, this is because negative experiences with peers of the same sex result in the need to identify with peers of the opposite sex. Secondly, during the period of growing up, the adolescents identity is not yet fully established. Therefore, they are constantly re-evaluating whether the identity formation is going in the right direction. DeLay et al. (2018) recognize that homophobia can be directed at homosexual and heterosexual adolescents. This is presumably because the purpose of victimization is to hurt someones feelings, not point out real flaws.

Gender identity development is a critical stage in developing a personality occurring during adolescence (DeLay et al., 2018). Since homophobic name-calling is a form of victimization, this practice should be frowned upon or banned in schools. Ioverno et al. (2021) note that bullying GNCV may represent a defensive reaction to demonstrate bullies gender conformity (p. 215). Therefore, work with bullies should be carried out competently and with the participation of a psychologist.

Interestingly, Ioverno et al. (2021) highlight how this statement is especially true for male bullies. That is because their own gender conformity can affect the selection of victims based on their gender conformity (p. 216). It is critical to understand this mirror interaction to resolve the issues of gender victimization. Equally important, victimization of adolescents, including LGB, trans, and heterosexual high school students may lead to anxiety, depression, and substance use disorders, especially among sexual and gender minority youth (Valido et al., p. 602). This is another valuable observation that indicates the need for concomitant prevention practices of substance abuse among adolescents. No less important, substance abuse should be perceived as the consequence of psychological problems.

References

DeLay, D., Lynn Martin, C., Cook, R. E., & Hanish, L. D. (2018). The influence of peers during adolescence: does homophobic name-calling by peers change gender identity? Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 47(3), 636-649.

Ioverno, S., DeLay, D., Martin, C. L., & Hanish, L. D. (2021). Who engages in gender bullying? The role of homophobic name-calling, gender pressure, and gender conformity. Educational Researcher, 50(4), 215-224.

Valido, A., Rivas-Koehl, M., Espelage, D. L., Robinson, L. E., Kuehl, T., Mintz, S., & Wyman, P. A. (2021). Protective factors of homophobic name-calling and sexual violence perpetration and victimization among LGB, trans, and heterosexual high school students. School Mental Health, 13(3), 602-615.

Introduction

Discussing the issue of gender representation, it would be relevant to refer to the modern social cultures trends that define the difference between such notions as gender and sexuality. It is also necessary to discuss the following problems within this context: common attributes that are used to determine femininity/ masculinity; the evaluation and distinguishing of behaviors that are appropriate for men and for women; peoples attitude toward based such norms and values of behavior and the way they are exposed to in peoples daily cultural lives.

Main body

Another issue under consideration lays in the social perceptions changed historically about gender, sex, and sexuality, both in American culture and in other cultures throughout the world. In order to be able to analyze the above-mentioned problems, it is necessary to refer to the following resources that trigger the audiences thoughts on the function and role of representation in popular culture: Never Just Pictures by Susan Bordo and childrens television show Avatar.

Gender is a key category that is used to identify and characterize human beings, and, generally, it is basic criterion when discussing the issue of representation. It is important to outline that such characteristics as an understanding of ones identity, and other peoples identities and basic features are usually referred to as concepts of gender. Here raises the essential question of what determines feminine or masculine features, characteristics, and representations.

With the regard to the above-mentioned facts, it is necessary to note that not only human beings, but also various objects that are used by them and surround them, are represented by media resources as the distinctive features of boys or girls only. This, particularly, happens in advertising and television shows for children. Thus, it might be stated that people grow up convinced and insured of what is appropriate and socially required characteristics for each gender.

Carrying on the topic of the discussion, it is important to point out that television indeed influences the learning of specific social concepts, the behavior of its characters teaches the audience indirect lessons. With the view to this, the problem of gender representation has been a continuing concern as television frequently presents basic images of masculine and feminine, even in such progressive and popular among children television shows as Avatar.

Following this, it is such a well-known fact is worth mentioning: in given childrens show, as well as in entire television, male characters indeed outnumber females two or three to one. Female characters usually play stereotypic roles; they tend to be represented as less active. Childrens television programs and shows might are sex-stereotyped with female characters basically underrepresented, and, as a rule, less central to the show.

With the regard to the above mentioned, it must be said that there exists a certain connection between children viewing such television shows and having a stereotypical understanding of gender roles. This happens because of the childrens desire to be alike sex television characters. But here raises a great possibility to operate with counter stereotypical images that may successfully combat gender and sexual stereotypes.

Referring to Susan Bordos Never Just Pictures and to Avatar, it should be pointed out that the media as a whole, and television, particularly, shapes social and cultural criteria of what it means to be a boy or girl, male or female. In everyday life, people, especially children, encounter various male and female role models in the course of televisions information consumption.

Although such role models may seem, at first, to be different, they do not represent the meaning of ordinary male and female characters. This leads to the stunting individual growth of a person. Here happens a situation, when by accepting role models, as recognized criteria, people, especially children, exalt them and regard them as desirable to be. Here must be provided some basic issues generally related to gender criteria; typically masculine ones might be listed as follows: tough, brave, hard, and sweaty; feminine ones might be described as follows: fragile, thin, soft, beautiful, and fragrant.

Following this, it would be relevant to cite Bordos point of view about the above-mentioned problem: Children in this culture [modern culture with its twisted values and social conditions] grow up knowing that you can never be thin enough and that being fat is one of the worst things one can be. One study asked ten- and eleven-year-old boys and girls to rank drawings of children with various physical handicaps; drawings of fat children elicited the greatest disapproval and discomfort, over pictures of kids with facial disfigurements and missing hands (Bordo, 2002, p. 265).

Taking Bordos viewpoint on this problem into consideration, it is necessary to that twisted modern trends and beauty ideals established by fashion designers and their models and encouraged greatly by media, led to the eating disorder among young girls and women (and even young men). This disorder, and other problems connected to it, became a widespread and common form of cultural perception.

Discussing the above-provided information, it is worth mentioning that while representing women, media resources focus mainly on their physical beauty, missing and excluding other values of women. It should be also pointed out the lack of powerful female characters on television and the unnatural portrayals of them. All these lead to false admiration from the audience and misguiding perceptions as such portrayals have no relation to the real womens lives and experiences.

Speaking of men, it is necessary to mention that they are finding it as hard to live up to their media representations and descriptions as women are to their ones. It might be stated that media representations of male ideals came in a great force when mens audience had been targeted with fashions product promotion As well as women, men are encouraged to strive to be alike models from magazines, to look and behave in a similar way. But such an aim is considered really hard to achieve. And as well as in the case with women, such striving leads to different disorders, social perceptions, and problems.

Following this, it would be relevant to say that there is a complex connection between those problems and cultural perceptions and images. It might be stated that body ideals perpetuate peoples anxieties, fears, and insecurities. Such glamorous images and ideals cause painful feelings and envy attitudes of those people with not perfect bodies and appearance toward ideal models.

But, there might be also represented another explanation of this. The above-mentioned, perfect images draw up some imaginary solutions to peoples anxieties, fears, and insecurities, so they can fantasize about who they could be, but not, actually, are. This fact explains the power of those ideas and images, their unconquerable position in the media sector through the years. Bordo, referring to Freud, regards this problem in the context of death fashion, which represents release from anxiety over not having ones needs met (Bordo, 2002, p. 269).

Conclusion

As a conclusion, it should be outlined that problems of gender representations, sexuality, artificial division on feminine and masculine lay, actually, deeper than just fashion trends, ideal images, and their influence on people. It is necessary to outline within this context that cultural images play here a great role, as they are deep themselves and supported by those who gain huge profits from twisted fashion concepts and trends selling their products and goods.

Works Cited

Avatar: The Legend of Aang. By Michael Dante Di Martino. Nickelodeon, 2005.

Bordo, Susan. Never Just Pictures. Every Day, Everywhere: Global Perspectives on Popular Culture. London: McGraw-Hill Humanities Social, 2002, pp. 265  269.