The quote in question represents a view of many people (both males and females). This was a dominating opinion in the past, but even now people still tend to share this viewpoint.
Thus, females were to be in charge of their households without any meaningful rights or responsibilities outside their houses, as people believed that females could not do anything but could only take care of children and their husbands. Females “were assumed to lack political consciousness entirely or inadequate measure” (Basu 3). People could hardly imagine a female scientist.
Some feminist researchers believe that male domination is the result “of men’s desire to transcend their alienation from the means of the reproduction of the species” (Scott 1058). In other words, men managed to take over power over all aspects of women’s life to make everybody forget about the real dominance of females or rather equal importance of the two genders.
Of course, this is only an assumption but it can be, at least, partially, true. The viewpoint that women are inferior appeared and established centuries ago. Religion is one of the primary means to maintain the world order established.
Hinduism and Islam can be seen as some of the most oppressive religions, as there are numerous stories about women’s rights restrictions. Interestingly, these religions postulate the equality of men and women. However, in many texts and in practice, women are assigned to perform only certain roles.
Being a Christian, I have almost no experiences concerning the role of women in Islam and Hinduism. I only know some stories I heard or read in books and newspapers. What I think about the role of females in Islam and Hinduism may be different from reality. Nonetheless, I believe my major viewpoint on the matter is quite correct.
The quote can characterize Islam and Hinduism as females are treated as unequal and inferior to men. Only a few women occupy meaningful posts in politics, business, science, sport, education, medicine. The rest of females have to stay home, be proper wives (or future wives) and mothers. They can only dream about some sort of freedom that can be achieved through performing some roles in society.
Most strikingly, loads of women do not even dream about it as they are taught to be supportive, submissive and feel inferior. Education (especially in areas where Islam is state religion) is based on religious texts and young people learn about the world absorbing the views of those who claim that women do not have abilities or desires to perform any meaningful role outside their households. Thousands of young people start sharing that view and believing that it is the only right world order.
In conclusion, it is possible to state that many people (both men and women) think that females are not capable of being active members of society by occupying high posts and completing certain tasks. This is especially true for areas where people practice Islam and Hinduism.
Women in these religions are seen as inferior (even though in many religious texts, equality is a major principle). Luckily, the modern world is changing and women understand that they can and should take up more responsibilities to make the world better. The progress of women in countries where Islam and Hinduism are official religions show that males and females are becoming more prepared for real gender equality.
Works Cited
Basu, Amrita. “Appropriating Gender.” Appropriating Gender: Women’s Activism and Politicized Religion in South Asia. Ed. Patricia Jeffery and Amrita Basu. New York: Routledge, 1997. 3-14. Print.
Scott, Joan W. “Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis.” The American Historical Review 91.5 (1986): 1053-1075. Print.
An individual’s view and expectation of their gender and that of the opposite gender is a social construct. People have to identify with the typical definition in their society as a means of defending themselves against being labeled as opinionated (Butler 2004).
Ethnicity of an individual affects how they interpreted the cultural aspects of the community they live in. Moreover, the population of a similar ethnic group as the individual in their community determines the level of influence that the ethnic group has on the popular culture of the community. This then influences the individual construct of gender.
Being a man or a woman is more than a biological fact because the attributes that a person’s learns to associate with manliness or womanliness are not in born. People learn how to behave like a man of a woman and what to expect of a similar gender or an opposite gender.
As individuals grow up, they acquire a definition of their gender through normal day interaction. This can be by observation, direct influence by others and a negative reaction to an opposite stimulus. For example, children learn to behave like boys as they are advised by their parents and guardians of how boys should behave.
The treatment they receive and the manner in which they see other children behaving reinforces their character as boys (Butler 1993).
The transformation of the duality of gender does not occur in one instance. Although the realization of one being a boy or a girl is instant, the modification of ones attitudes and the overall personality undergoes a gradual shaping dependent on the rate at which the individual receives stimulus from their cultural environment.
Different ethnic groups and social communities will turn towards the periphery, certain characteristics, in people’s personality, according to gender. For example, in an ethnic group it may be okay for boys to play with girls up to a certain age where they become men and should no longer be associated with girls in a playful manner.
In a similar way different ethnic groups as diverse roles assigned specifically to male or female members and belonging to a given group influences how an individual regards gender roles and the expectation of their personality.
In accordance with posit presented by Holmes (2007), one becomes a woman despite the fact that they are born female. The embodiment of the social expectation of woman hood makes one a women. Therefore, it becomes right to indicate that gender as perceived in the contemporary world is a social construct.
Women are seen as objects because the historically men have shaped the universal view of gender. Children learn from their families and communities to observe girls and women as less capable of their individuality and therefore unable to shape up the societal view of gender.
Women appear to exist to be watched by men and in return, they endeavor to increase their likelihood of being watched. On the other hand, men seek to be the most tactical in identifying the most watchable women.
Therefore, the men choose the correct image that is likeable and the women try to fit into the description provided. All this is a social adjustment that is not hinged on the body of the male or female but the social conditioning of the expectation of being a man or a woman.
The interaction of cultures as people migrate has rusted in a more complex definition of gender roles and personalities. As a result, new thoughts have arisen advocating for different social construct of the genders (Ashe 2007). However, such effort does not abolish the fact that gender is a construction of the historical social setting.
Reference List
Ashe, F 2007, The new politics of musculinity: men, power and resistance, Routledge, Abingdon, OX.
Butler, J 1993, Bodies that matter, on the discursive limits of sex, Routledge, London.
Butler, J 2004, Beside oneself: on the limits of sexual autonomy, Routledge, London.
Holmes, M 2007, What is gender?: sociological aproaches, SAGE Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA.
Our modern age is characterized by a great struggle for democracy and equal rights for all layers of society. People are trying to get rid of racial and sex prejudices. That is why there is a tendency in society to give more and more attention to women, their rights, and role in society.
Being isolated for a long period of our history, women now are coming out of the shadow, becoming more and more significant for the social and political life of the world. However, it is still difficult for them to obtain equal rights with men. Under such conditions, women should obtain more power to help the rest of them in the whole world and try to change it for the better.
The problem is that even nowadays, in the age of tolerance and democracy, women have fewer chances to obtain a good education or find a good job because of still existing sex prejudices. Traditionally, women are expected to become teachers or get some other occupation, which is considered to be feminine (Online Guide to Women in the Workforce: Past and Present, 2013). However, things changed due to some historical events and activists among women who did not agree with the existing state of affairs.
The aftermath of WWII led to labor scarcity, and women obtained their chance. Moreover, guided by feminist thinkers like Gloria Steinem, women began trying themselves in the sphere of business (Online Guide to Women in the Workforce: Past and Present, 2013). This fact just underlines the importance of a good leader which can inspire woman to fight for their rights.
There are not many women which can influence society. However, Gloria Steinem is one of them. She is “a writer, lecturer, editor, and feminist activist” (Who Is Gloria? n.d.).She has influenced greatly the development of feministic movement and improvement of the state of women all over the world.
Being an ardent supporter of ideas of feminism, she devoted all her life to attempts to release our society from manifestations of sexism. She created a special informational center whose main aim is to guarantee children nonsexist, multicultural education (Who Is Gloria? n.d.). With this in mind, it is possible to call her a person, which can help the rest of women to improve their status and become more confident in their forces.
However, there is an opposite opinion in a coherent society. Its adherers consider women to be not able to perform some masculine work and that is why they should concentrate on traditional feminine duties, such as raising children, caring about household and being a good wife for her husband.
Adherers of this idea have their own evidence. They state the fact that very few women have real power in the modern world, that is why they think that it is not womens main duty. However, these people forget about some historical peculiarities which influenced womens fate greatly. That is why, in a coherent society which proclaims ideas of tolerance women have chances to change their life.
Having analyzed the data, it is possible to come to certain conclusions. First of all, it should be said that even nowadays women still have problems with finding a job or realizing their potential. That is why they should struggle for their rights. They can be inspired by powerful women, who have achieved some successes in society. Gloria Steinem can be one of them. Being very powerful women, she tries to get rid of sexual prejudices and help women all over the world. She can really make women want more and struggle for their rights.
Reference List
Online Guide to Women in the Workforce: Past and Present. (2013). Web.
A variety of the world’s nations can be characterized by specific traditions and rituals. Many cultures also have their national consumes. In several European and Western countries, national dresses are considered an archaic tradition that is appreciated and given respect to occasionally on the days of national celebrations.
At the same time, there are nations that promote wearing traditional garments as the only right way of dressing. Among such countries, there are many Islamic, Buddhist, and Hindu states. There is an opinion that the promotion of modest dresses and valuing of virginity enforces the devaluation of women in society. In my opinion, these two phenomena are not necessarily related and “appropriate” garments also can be viewed as the symbols of women’s independence and dignity.
As stated by Leila Ahmed, in Islamic cultures, the issue of wearing hijab is not only of a religious character, but it is intertwined with cultural, aesthetic and anthropological views of certain ethnic groups (Marginalia Review of Book). Hijab in Islam represents many different notions.
For example, it can be seen as a symbol of women’s obedience before men, as well as an element of fashion. The former view is rather common in the contemporary world, as the vast majority of Western feminists tend to view veils as the results of male domination and oppression of women. At the same time, many Muslim women, including the ones that live outside of the Islamic world, state that wearing hijab is their initiative because being covered helps them feel protected and secure.
The value of virginity can be found in many cultures, yet it is not always connected to certain types of clothing. When virginity is viewed as the main feature that makes a woman valuable, this certainly is a sign of devaluation of a woman as a person and a society member. When virginity is promoted as a reasonable and responsible lifestyle, it adds value to women prioritizing activities other than sexual behavior.
The dress called “appropriate” in the cultures dominant in Islamic countries includes long garments as well as hoods and veils covering women’s chests, heads, and faces. In this case, such clothing is not only excellent protection from sun radiation very dangerous in the desert areas, but also a good way to be dressed in a stylish, yet dignified way.
Women all around the world argue about the meaning of showing too much skin and the message it carries. Feminists typically protect women’s freedom and independence, yet they often forget that revealing outfits are mainly designed to attract the opposite sex, while modest and strict clothing is viewed as classy and elegant. This way, the women’s preference of modest clothing is the sing of their freedom from the social pressure to find a mate at any cost.
Of course, the cases when a certain way of dressing and behavior is politically forced on people based on religious reasons should be seen as a dictatorship. I support the secularist opinions, which suggest that political leaders should not employ religion as the tools to manipulation their citizens (Columbia university). The “appropriate” clothing and “valued” sexual behavior are rather limiting. Strong morals and values can be taught to individuals without using civil and corporal punishments to control the social conduct of the nation.
Differences between genders often become the basis for discussion of many sociological issues. Mental health problems are studies from this perspective as well. Many researchers investigate the types of problems that women and men have in their life experiences. One of the themes that sociologists are interested in is the idea of gender disparity in upbringing and its effect on one’s mental health. By producing gender differences, definitions of masculinity and femininity may significantly affect one’s psychological state and affect one’s mental health.
Definitions and Disorders
Definitions that people create for themselves in order to create a form of understanding for any pattern or object often shape one’s experience with this object. For example, the definitions of femininity and masculinity affect people’s attitudes toward certain behaviors and actions. Thus, by presenting the ideas of feminine and masculine behaviors to different individuals, society attempts to shape their personalities, which may lead to various outcomes.
Thus, women and men may experience such aspects of their lives as building social relationships, dealing with vulnerabilities, and creating coping mechanisms differently. Moreover, people may be affected by stressors unique to their gender. According to Hill and Needham (2013), women experience more affective disorders such as depression and anxiety, which deal with one’s performance, while men are considered to have more behavioral disorders such as antisocial anxiety disorder or substance abuse. However, researchers note that these propositions are not based on viable research as various studies yield mixed results (Hill and Needham 2013). Thus, it is possible to assume that people of both genders may encounter problems connected to performance and behavior.
Response to Stressors
Experiencing various disorders and stressors may also mean that people act in different ways according to their gender and social upbringing. However, while many people believe that men and women respond differently to stress, some studies suggest that ways of coping may be the same for both genders. For example, Hill and Needham (2013) write that men and women often respond to stressful conditions in a number of ways, including psychological distress and substance abuse. While some researchers show that men are more likely to choose substance abuse in stressful conditions, other scholars find that substance abuse is more strongly associated with women.
Gender Bias
These studies are based on beliefs of fundamental differences between women and men, which often guide researchers to their conclusions. For instance, Rogers and Pilgrim (2014) write that the concept of gender bias may affect one’s perception of mental health and significantly influence one’s understanding of it. In fact, the authors argue that the over-representation of females in research affects both women and men, influencing the diagnoses for people of both genders.
Thus, some diagnoses may be attributed to men more often than to women, while others are predominantly associated with female individuals. For instance, Rogers and Pilgrim (2014) highlight that such diagnoses as anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa are overwhelmingly female. In fact, these two diagnoses may be connected to modern society’s definition of femininity. The visual representation of femininity becomes a unique stressor that affects women’s mental health.
Conclusion
The notion that femininity and masculinity as concepts may significantly affect one’s understanding of mental health is supported by various evidence. While various studies cannot confirm the idea of gender disparity in people’s responses to emotional stressors, diagnoses stay gendered in many situations. Thus, it is possible to assume that an individual’s behavior may be affected by these concepts on personal and societal levels. The mental health of people of both genders is influenced by their upbringing as well as the ideas of individuals that surround them.
References
Hill, Terrence D., and Belinda L. Needham. 2013. “Rethinking Gender and Mental Health: A Critical Analysis of Three Propositions.” Social Science & Medicine 93(2013):83-91.
Rogers, Anne, and David Pilgrim. 2014. A Sociology of Mental Health and Illness. 5th ed. London, UK: McGraw-Hill Education.
Management or top positions in an American organization are among the fastest-growing occupations during the period of the past 20 years. Unfortunately, these occupations include jobs not traditionally held by African American women who comprise the new workforce. Consequently, one challenge for American companies is to incorporate a more diverse labor force into high-status, high-skill management roles.
In Part-I of this paper, we examine the current status of African American women in management, including some current changes. We discover potential remedies for the problems that endure, including programs and practices currently being applied in U.S. companies, as well as research directions that may increase our understanding of related issues.
The literature on African American women is substantial, evidenced in part by the number of literature reviews done.
There is substantial evidence that African American women encounter a “glass ceiling” in management. The glass ceiling is an idea popularized in the 1990s to describe a barrier so subtle that it is transparent yet so strong that it prevents African American women from moving up in the top positions of an organization or management hierarchy. Nowadays, women fill nearly a third of all management posts, but most are stuck in jobs with little authority and relatively low pay.
African American women do not fare any better in management in government or educational institutions. The American government reported only 8.6 percent, women, in Senior Executive Service levels, with most female employees clustered in low-paying, non-prestigious GS 5–10 levels. In the education sector, Sandler’s 1986 findings show that “on the average, colleges and universities nationwide employ 1.1 senior women (dean and above) per institution” (p. 14).
Those African American women who have moved into management often find reward differentials. There is proof that at higher occupational levels, women are less satisfied with their package than are men (Varca, Shaffer, & McCauley, 1983). One study of 2,600 workers found substantial wage differences between men and women in managerial positions (Drazin & Auster, 1987); another reported that “women at the vice presidential levels and above earn 42 percent less than their male peers” (Nelton & Berney, 1987, p. 17). Packages of Black men in management come closer to those of White men (Ploski & Williams, 1983).
The exodus of African American women from corporate America is a disturbing trend sometimes attributed to differential treatment in management (Ellis, 1988; James, 1988; Leinster, 1988; Taylor, 1986). Women began their own businesses at six times the rate that men did between 1974 and 1984 (Leavitt, 1988). Of the 100 leading corporate women identified by a Business Week survey in 1976, nearly one-third had left their corporate jobs for other pursuits ten years later (DeGeorge, 1987).
In the corporate life οf the United States, several cultural differences in the women belonging to Hispanic (Latina), African American, and Asian American groups affect their evaluations. And this is the main reason behind a very short presence οf women from these communities in management. For instance, studies have demonstrated that African American men may view overweight women less negatively than their White counterparts (e.g., Harris, Walters, & Waschull, 1991), which may influence African American women’s acceptance οf higher body weights.
In addition, some researchers have found that, for a subset οf African American women, obesity, along with eating “right” (i.e., not engaging in restrictive dieting), and engaging in stress-reducing activities, was associated with a perception οf health (e.g., Keller & Hargrove, 1992). One study οf 100 African American female and 100 White female college students provides evidence suggesting that anorexia and bulimia in African American female college students are associated with the extent οf their assimilation into mainstream culture and their acceptance οf mainstream culture ideals οf attractive as thin (Abrams et al., 1993). Thus, identification with African American culture and its ideals, rather than with mainstream Euro-American culture, may be a protective factor for overweight or obese African American women.
The extent οf assimilation into the mainstream Euro-American culture versus identification with African American culture seems to influence both the acceptance and internalization οf the mainstream thin standard and the likelihood οf engaging in restrictive, disordered dieting behaviors (Harris, 1994; Klem, Klesges, Benet, & Mellon, 1990). Differences in acceptance οf and identification with mainstream standards and culture, socioeconomic status, as well as individual characteristics may influence the degree to which African American women internalize mainstream dominant standards for thinness and beauty.
As noted byHarris (1994), clearly, neither African American women in general nor obese/overweight African American women are a homogeneous population. Many obese or overweight African American women may be content with their physical selves and may not experience any significant obesity-related health problems. Despite Harris’ (1994) finding that African American women reported greater overall body satisfaction than Euro-American women, Hsu (1987) suggests that restrictive eating disturbances among African American women may be increasing.
African American women who experience significant health problems or concerns related to obesity or overweight and/or who internalize the thin ideal standard evaluate themselves negatively in comparison to the ideal and may experience body dissatisfaction and considerable personal distress concerning the management οf their weight and appearance.
Part-II
Even though Terri Hansen dreamt οf one day owning her own business, she always wanted to keep things simple.
“I only wanted to have five employees,” confessed Hansen, the owner, and president οf four Oshkosh-based businesses that employ about 100 people in the Fox Valley.
After earning her master’s degree in nursing at the University οf Wisconsin-Oshkosh in 1980, Hansen embarked on an administrative career that only reinforced her desire to start a small company.
“I ended up being the director οf nursing for four counties,” she said. “I had this enormous responsibility but no authority to change the things that needed to be changed.”
So at age 28, she and partner John Westphal launched Supportive HomeCare Inc. The home-based health care firm blossomed in Oshkosh so quickly it soon had more clients than it could easily handle.
Hansen purchased the company outright in 1987 and a year later started her second business, Creative Management & Marketing Resources Inc., with her friend Diane Penzenstadler.
“It was always our dream to start a company together,” Hansen said. “Diane’s expertise is in marketing and graphic design, so she’s the brains on the creative side. My background is more in business management.”
By design, CMMR is equipped to provide small businesses with everything from brochures to human resource management.
“When you run your own business, you end up learning a lot about things you don’t necessarily want to know,” Hansen said οf her motivation in developing CMMR. “You end up having so much knowledge to share – knowledge that could save other business owners a lot οf grief.”
The importance οf endurance is a lesson Hansen said she learned firsthand.
In 1986, the private health insurance industry stopped paying claims for home care services, even as Medicaid and Medicare began reducing the amounts they were willing to pay for home care. As a result, Supportive HomeCare lost a large portion οf its business.
Instead οf pulling back, Hansen chose instead to launch two new businesses. One, Home Maids, established in 1992, arose from requests for cleaning services by busy professionals and other people without special medical needs, she said. The other, Supportive Home Companions, is an unlicensed corporation founded in 1995 in response to progressively more stringent governmental restrictions placed upon licensed home care providers.
“The state and federal rules are incredibly demanding and expensive for the home care provider, and most offer no value to the client,” Hansen said. “For instance, if a client wants to cancel her service for a day because her family is visiting, we have to call her doctor to get his permission not to come. Otherwise, we’re in violation οf the doctor’s orders.
“I always have to be very careful that I don’t allow what the government is doing to change our core business philosophy,” she said. “We are here to serve our customers, to provide quality care at a reasonable price.”
Hansen’s ability to overcome adversity as a small business operator was recognized in 1991 when Supportive HomeCare beat out 800 other nominees to win Wisconsin’s Blue Chip Enterprise Initiative contest, sponsored nationally by the U.S. Chamber οf Commerce and Connecticut Mutual Life Insurance Co. Hansen became the first female president οf the Oshkosh Chamber οf Commerce in 1994 and earned the local chamber’s top award for volunteerism the following year.
John Casper, executive director οf the Oshkosh Chamber, said Hansen made a profound impact during and after her presidency. “She is aggressive in her approach to business, and when she gets involved in something, she really pours herself into it,” Casper said. “She gave οf her time and experience in helping the chamber raise its standard and do a better job in all areas. As a business person, her greatest strength is in being able to understand the demographics οf the market, then tailoring a service or product designed to fill that void.”
Hansen’s ambitious streak remains. She plans to expand the list οf services now offered by her home care companies.
“We’re looking at adding a handyman service, where someone can come over to fix a light switch or weed a garden – the non-technical jobs around the house,” she said. “I had a client ask if we would come out and plant a garden for her, and I said, ‘Absolutely. I’ll come over and do it right now if you like.’” Hansen credited her employees for much οf the success.
“I’ve been successful because οf the quality people who work with me,” she said, adding that some οf her managers have worked with her for 15 years. “I could leave for a month, and they could run the whole business without knowing I was gone.”
That’s one οf the benefits οf having more than five employees.
Part-III
In the periods of 1940s and 1950s, very few women were seen in the management of American corporate life. In the early decades of the twentieth century, many American households were equipped with the new labor-saving appliances that facilitated housework. Despite this technological assistance, many American women faced with rising standards of cleanliness and the society’s aim of “professionalizing” the business of raising a family found themselves engrossed with the time-consuming task of running a household. Such an unalterable social disposition disabled women from pursuing a career or any other interest.
They were confined to this extremely narrow framework of possible social existence. However, some women of the United States had experienced a different perspective on possible social activity during the years of World War I, when due to the lack of workforce, women were employed in munitions factories or tended to family farms while the men were away. When the war ended, many of them were reluctant to give up their jobs and return to the dreadful routine of managing a household. Ironically, society had no problem in accepting the idea of single women working. On the other hand, married women were to remain homemakers and mothers.
The pressure to conform was tremendous, and some Canadian magazines such as Canadian Home Journal and MacLean’s professed that women who tried to work and raise a family at the same time discovered true happiness only when they left their jobs behind. The female identity was restricted to the centuries-old picture of a mother and a housekeeper. The ideal of “domestic bliss” turned out to be a prison imposed on women, who found themselves trapped in the cage of the stereotyped vision of a woman as incapable of becoming anything else apart from a mere housewife.
“Another Poem About the Madness of Women” by Tom Wayman and “This is a Photograph of Me” by Margaret Atwood present us with disturbing and touching images of women trapped in their own houses and women who are in a terrible struggle to recover their identity as complete human beings. Tom Wayman depicts a woman demented by the repetitive work she performs in her house. Society, and even her family, are blind to her basic human need for freedom.
It is a woman whose husband and children devise a treatment of her madness, which consists in her passing through a department store and getting out through the door which opens on the opposite side of the street. She must walk through the crowd of hurrying faces and displays of merchandise, which are a metaphor for the distant and uncompassionate society which has no regard for her. This image is followed by the depiction of the women in pioneer Iowa, trapped in their houses, alone all day.
All they can see from their windows are cornfields, “high as a man,” which stretched for miles around their houses. Eventually, in the isolation of their homes, they perceive the cornfields, that is, the man-dominated world outside their dominion of house, as a “whispering and hissing” monster. The imagery of the poem brings us back to suburban America, where the woman taking out the garbage bags sees nothing but houses all around her and perceives that there is a woman, just like her, in each one. Wayman accurately states the position of women degraded into housekeeping automatons who lead a life deprived of any possibility to outgrow the nightmarish framework that society imposes on them.
Margaret Atwood’s “This is a Picture of Me” expresses the writer’s perception of the position of women in society- “a small frame house.” The poem seductively draws the attention from the blurry imagery to the description of the lake in the background. All the important things in the poem are revealed in a roundabout manner, and, in the same way, the fact that the speaker of the poem is drowned lurks in the brackets. This deepens the feeling of some things being left out and marginalized. Concealed behind the social scenery lies an invisible and lifeless woman. Her image, that is, her identity, is so distorted that she becomes noticeable only after a long time.
Women are dehumanized and dispossessed of any possibility of abandoning the pattern that oppressive and exploitative male-governed society had imposed on them. Atwood’s poem is a desperate search for identity, which has been stripped of female individuals in patriarchal societies. The aim of this elaborate and age-long subjection of women to the mechanism of men’s vision of the world is to disable women from perceiving their real nature and to alienate them from the rest of society. Women have successfully turned aside, left there hopeless and forever bound to the stereotype of a mother, and a housewife, which contributes to the survival of men-dominated reality.
Since the Great Depression and with the enormous prestige of victory in World War II, the party of government has been more or less in charge, controlling Congress and the organs of our culture. It was not seriously tested until 1980, and even so, it then survived the Reagan years almost intact. President Reagan refused to challenge it in critical areas–federal spending grew rapidly–and liberal control of Congress continued.
The Bush and Clinton administrations saw a return to liberal normalcy, and it was argued that the Reagan elections had been anomalies or merely personal victories for the old actor. It turns out, of course, that the Reagan victories reflected a broad popular revulsion at the liberal critique of America and the attitudes and program associated with it. This is why George Bush won when he appeared to be Reagan III but lost when he seemed to desert the cause, and why every incumbent defeated in 1994 was a Democrat.
The reason for optimism is that 50 years of lecturing by their supposed betters have not persuaded the American people that the eternal verifies of yesteryear–family, work, and faith, and the greatness of America–are instruments of repression. There is a new consensus forming that recognizes how much is lost when the government subsidizes illegitimacy, restricts religious activity, promotes radical views of male-female relationships, divides citizens according to race, or vigorously attempts to undermine the sense of a common history and culture. Both the size and power of government and the ends it so often seeks now meet resistance and criticism unthinkable 25 years ago.
What we are seeing is an end to the disjunction between the citizen acting as a voter and the citizen acting in private life. As parents or children, neighbors or colleagues, employers or employees, Americans never lost respect for the “old” virtues.
If the citizen as a voter cast his ballot for liberal candidates, it was to deploy a safety net, expand opportunity, or fight injustice. But liberal government grew beyond these limited goals decades ago, and the gap between the virtues the citizen celebrated in private life, and the goals he supported with his vote began to grow. Now it is too large, and the voter is using his ballot to insist that government reinforce rather than subvert the virtues he cherishes in private life.
Regaining lost ground will be most difficult, for it is much easier to damage society than to repair it. Even the strongest consensus in society and the largest majority in Washington cannot quickly fix broken families or schools, reduce urban crime, or lower the abortion rate, when it took decades to break down the restraints and undermine the social and moral standards that once prevented the spread of those pathologies. There will be many more Bill Clintons: candidates who prove that La Rochefoucauld was right in calling hypocrisy the tribute vice pays to virtue. But now that American society has begun to reassert its belief in the existence of vice and virtue alike and in the worth of its own values, traditions, and achievements, there is reason to believe that the prospect for the country is a good one.
For more than a decade, the quantification οf utility loss resulting from increased hiring οf members οf lower-performing groups has become an issue for both researchers and policymakers concerned with selection fairness. Because the job performance οf minority hires is typically found to be, on average, lower than the job performance οf majority hires (Bernardin, 1984; Campbell, Crooks, Mahoney, & Rock, 1973; Ford, Kraiger, & Schechtman, 1986; Gael & Grant, 1972; Gael, Grant, & Ritchie, 1975), our focus is on the impact οf increased minority hiring on job performance. Specifically, this article examines the performance loss resulting from hiring minority applicants at a rate in excess οf that is recommended by a valid, top-down, single-list procedure (i.e., fair according to the Cleary, 1968, definition).
This may occur when organizations attempt to increase the group’s representation within the workforce or when organizations are forced by the courts to hire minorities at applicant representative rates, or even at rates in excess οf the minority representation, to compensate for past discriminatory organizational behavior (e.g., Arnold v. Ballard, 1975; Commonwealth οf Pennsylvania v. O’Neill, 1972).
Our objectives do not include arguing for or against increased minority hiring. Obviously, an organization needs to consider other factors beyond the impact on performance when addressing this issue. Other factors include the benefit to the minority group, indirect benefits οf a diversified perspective that cultural diversity provides, and costs associated with litigation οf unfair discrimination lawsuits. These and other factors may, ultimately, outweigh the importance οf performance. However, the cost οf performance is an important facet and should be explicitly quantified and integrated with other information in deciding on the appropriate level οf minority hiring.
Previous research has addressed the impact οf increased minority hiring on performance. The earliest research restricted itself to available selection fairness models and their associated levels οf minority hiring (Hunter, Schmidt, & Rauschenberger, 1977). The results from that research are still valuable today, as witnessed by current references to such selection models. For example, Hartigan and Wigdor (1989) recommended the use οf fair-selection-model adjustments to minority scores to give equal employment opportunity to able minority applicants and able majority applicants. Although this recommendation can be psychometrically supported, the choice οf which οf the alternative fair-selection-model adjustments is most appropriate is difficult for at least two reasons.
First, different definitions οf fairness will yield different adjustments (e.g., Cole, 1973; Darlington, 1971; Thorndike, 1971). Second, a purely psychometrically based adjustment may not address the employer’s concerns related to the impact on performance. Employers are not, for example, primarily concerned with the psychometric issue οf the impact οf validity on the hiring οf minority applicants. Rather, they are most concerned with the performance loss associated with increasing minority representation to meet legal and socially perceived levels οf fairness.
Hunter et al.’s (1977) research were useful for quantifying performance losses within the levels οf minority hiring recommended by four fair-selection models (e.g., Thorndike’s, 1971, Constant Ratio Model). Their research illustrated the relatively low performance and corresponding monetary utility losses associated with each οf the models in comparison with the corresponding gain in minority representation.
Cronbach, Yalow, and Schaeffer (1980) presented data critical to this discussion. They proposed and analyzed the gains and losses associated with the full continua οf minority hiring. Although their framework was useful because it quantified expected performance losses as a function οf the entire range οf minority hiring, their performance measure was dichotomously scaled. Their primary measure οf utility was the proportion οf “satisfactory” workers among those hired.
However, the concept οf a minimum performance score discards valuable information about one’s performance. In addition, a performance cutoff point does not logically exist in most situations. Simply because the hiring decision is dichotomous does not mean that job performance must also be dichotomous. Cronbach et al.’s scaling οf performance were less realistic and less useful for estimating performance loss than a continuous scaling οf performance.
In contrast with Cronbach et al. (1980), Kroeck, Barrett, and Alexander (1983) used a continuously scaled performance measure in their application οf the Cronbach et al. model. However, they focused on the level οf recruitment necessary to increase minority hiring while avoiding hiring applicants below a specified minimum standard. They discovered that recruitment would have to be increased by a substantially large, and at times unrealistic, factor to avoid performance losses from increased minority hiring.
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What impact does mass media have on children’s growth in regards to gender messaging? The media portrayals of gender roles often create certain gendered attitudes and character traits among children. Gender stereotyping, packaged as humor, is common in popular children’s channels, films, video games, and television shows.
The young viewers watch and internalize overt attitudes and behavior contained in media messages resulting in ingrained gender stereotypes. Certain misconceptions, such as ‘boys will always be boys’ and ‘girls are always neat, conveyed through the media have a big influence on young children’s attitudes and behavior.
Besides overt expressions, young children receive a barrage of subtle messages that portray the society’s gendered attitudes and expectations. The media are responsible for “defining and framing gender stereotypes in the society” (Whitaker & Bushman, 2013, p. 89). Children process gender messages in the media and develop attitudes about what is right or wrong.
This paper argues that media exposure has negative impacts on children’s gender socialization and attitude formation. Media messages convey skewed expectations of male and female behavior and role, which unrealistic gender stereotypes and identities.
Comparison of Media
The 1980s are characterized by the evolution of personal computers, which became available in schools and homes (Lou et al., 2012). Computers were revolutionary in the sense that they enabled children to access more media content and interact online. The interactive element was missing in traditional media forms such as television. In addition, the advent of computers transformed media content as messages begun to contain sexual and gender elements.
In the 1990s, media channels, such as kid’s films, video games, and television shows begun to convey sexual content and gendered messages. Parents protested against the inclusion of sexual themes in children’s programs claiming that such exposure was detrimental to their social growth.
As a result, it was decided that all films, cartoons, music videos, and TV shows be rated to regulate the content conveyed to young audiences (Lou et al., 2012). However, due to flawed enforcement of the rating systems, children continue to access sexual messages. In addition, gender stereotypes, as portrayed in mass media, continue to influence children’s attitudes, behavior, and popular culture.
Gender Stereotypes
Gender and sex mean two different things; the former refers to the cultural and societal qualities attributed to a social group while the latter defines the distinctive biological traits of male and female (Whitaker & Bushman, 2013). While sex has a biological basis, gender develops through social interactions.
Femininity and masculinity are defined according to set social standards that define ideal male or female behavior. People learn these sexualized roles through gender typing, whereby culture defines what is appropriate or inappropriate for either gender (Lou et al., 2012).
Peers and parents play a crucial role in early gender identity development and socialization. The way parents treat their children, including the type of toys they buy for them and media messages received, influences their attitudes and behavior (Lou et al., 2012).
Young children learn to associate clothing, toys, and activities with feminine or masculine identity based on messages portrayed in the media. Society expects boys to pursue activities associated with power and influence while girls are expected to show loyalty and care to others (Lou et al., 2012). Thus, despite biological predispositions, society has a big influence on children’s behavior and interests. The media maintain these gender stereotypes through the messages they convey to young children.
Gender stereotypes occur in media ads and commercials, teen films, music videos, video games, storybooks, and kid’s television programs, among others (Eisend, 2010). Media portrayals of gender attributes include independence, competitiveness, and assertiveness for males and gentleness for females.
Men are also taught to assert their authority over women, while women are expected to sensitive and caring to others. Moreover, women are displayed as weak and compliant while men are depicted as aggressive and powerful. Thus, qualities that involve empathy, such as affection, nurturing, and collaboration are considered feminine. On the other hand, aggression and independence are masculine qualities.
Women are also victims of sexual objectification by the media. Commercials carry sexualized and distorted images of feminine and masculine bodies. Other forms of media, such as video games, use female characters with big bosoms and attractive bodies (Smith & Cook, 2012).
Women are also under pressure to look young, pretty, and single, and dress in a sexy manner. Besides, discussions in popular television and radio programs feature issues related to shopping, relationships, and attractiveness with less emphasis on economic or political themes. Lou et al. (2012) observe that the media portrayals associate women with household/family roles and men with careers.
However, other studies associate single women with careers and married ones with marital roles (Smith & Cook, 2012). In general, the media often link women to family or romance regardless of their marital status. Other media forms associate femininity with youthfulness, independence, and tenderness.
Impacts of Mass Media Exposure on Children
The media has, inarguably, a big influence on children’s gender socialization. The young audience is more likely to be influenced by gender stereotypes contained in media products than adults are. Moreover, it is more difficult to change ingrained media stereotypes in children than in adults.
According to Eisend (2010), media stereotypes affect girls negatively by eliciting feelings of poor self-image and dissatisfaction with one’s appearance. This hampers their personal growth, restricts access to opportunities, and affects career progression. The media also foster the continuity of gendered attitudes in the society regarding behavior and gender roles.
Exposure to popular media also influences children’s attitudes. A study by Madden et al. (2013), which examined how television influences attitude formation, found a positive correlation between TV viewership and personal values and feelings. Regular exposure to television messages produces ingrained values and attitudes that are difficult to change in young viewers.
Based on these findings, Madden et al., (2013) conclude that the media makes children to see and interpret traits, activities, and behavior with ‘gendered lenses’. Gender stereotypes can affect the young audience’s “perception of social reality” (Madden et al., 2013, Para. 5). Children imitate what they see or hear on the media, resulting in a popular culture built on gendered stereotypes.
Media influence is more pronounced during the adolescent stage. A study by Ramasubramanian (2011) established that people harbor negative stereotypes against “female relationships and gender roles” associated with out-group members (p. 501). The gender stereotypes in teen films contribute to the development of negative attitudes in the teens.
Teens are vulnerable because adolescence is a crucial stage in identity formation. Normally, during this stage, early secondary sexual changes in boys improve their social standing while those without the characteristics are labeled immature. Thus, teens face pressure from the social environment to conform to particular qualities associated with either masculinity or femininity. In most cultures, showing emotions is a feminine quality that men should not embrace.
Advertisers capitalize on societal gender roles to sell products. Eisend (2010) argues that media commercials reflect societal ideals regarding female and male behavior, attitudes, and activities. Eisend (2010) further observes that the recurring themes in girl’s magazines involve topics related to “fashion, beauty, romance, and food” (p. 421). Thus, the ads placed in girls’ magazines promote attractiveness, housekeeping, and relationship building.
In contrast, societal masculine ideals encourage boys to suppress feelings of empathy or weakness. Boys are not expected to display compassion or fear, as these are deemed feminine. This attitude has adverse effects on the behavior of boys. Whitaker and Bushman (2013) found that boys are exhibit negative attributes such as violence against girls and depression due to the societal requirement for suppressing emotions.
Additional evidence shows that boys have a higher dropout rate and are more likely to suffer from attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder than girls are (Whitaker & Bushman, 2013). Boys adhere to societal ideals to gain the approval of their male peers. Eisend (2010) argues that society relegates women to lower social ranks and thus, men do not value women’s approval. Failure to meet the set masculine ideals subjects boys to shame and thus, they strive to attain them. However, this leaves them hardened and less self-aware.
On the other hand, studies report that early media exposure is beneficial to children’s cognitive and social development. Research shows that young children can learn from educational television programs leading to improved cognitive development (Smith & Cook, 2012). However, situational and individual factors modulate learning and cognition by influencing a person’s attitudes.
Ramasubramanian (2011) establishes that “pro-social video games enhance positive internal states, which result in positive social development” in young children (p. 503). The internal states, in turn, enhance a child’s evaluation and critical thinking skills leading to better decision-making. Positive internal states also enhance children’s mental resources and socialization skills during interpersonal encounters. Thus, positive internal states can result in thoughtful pro-social decisions.
Other positive effects of early exposure to pro-social media include enhanced constructive behavior (empathy), helping a female experiencing harassment, and reduction in hostile emotions (Ramasubramanian, 2011). In addition, counter-stereotypical media portrayals can modify ingrained negative attitudes towards people of the opposite sex (Ramasubramanian, 2011).
Gender role socialization can also be modified through repeated exposure to positive media images. Television shows portraying women taking up careers considered masculine can change the attitudes of young girls pursue them. Moreover, media programs containing pro-equality messages can encourage women to seek for gender equality and affirmative action in unequal societies.
Conclusion
Media plays a central role in early gender socialization. In particular, gender stereotypes and attitudes existing in society are transferred to children through the media. These stereotypes have negative effects on behavior and attitudes of children towards out-group members as well as on gender roles.
On the other hand, positive media products can promote socialization and cognitive development in children. However, it requires enhanced parental involvement to promote the positive media effects. In sum, the proliferation of media forms coupled with reduced parental involvement has led to negative gender stereotypes and identities in children.
References
Eisend, M. (2010). A meta-analysis of gender roles in advertising. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 38, 418-440.
Lou, C., Cheng, Y., Gao, E., Zuo, X., Emerson, M. R. & Zabin, L.S. (2012). Media’s contribution to sexual knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors for adolescents and young adults in three Asian cities. Journal of Adolescent Health, 50(3), 26-36.
Madden, M., Lenhart, A., Duggan, M., Cortesi, S., & Gasser, U. (2013). Teens and Technology 2013. Pew Internet & American Life Project Report.
Ramasubramanian, S. (2011). The impact of stereotypical versus counterstereotypical media exemplars on racial attitudes, causal attributions, and support for affirmative action. Communication Research, 38, 497-516.
Smith, S. L., & Cook, C. A. (2012). Gender Stereotypes: An Analysis of Popular Films and TV. Geena Davis Institute for Gender and Media.
Whitaker, J. L., & Bushman, B. J. (2013). “Remain calm. Be kind.” Effects of relaxing video games on aggressive and prosocial behaviour. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 3, 88-92
Gender issues in health between women and men are different and there is a disparity in how the health systems respond to men and women issues. Women in most countries are disadvantaged and encounter many problems with their health issues.
Women have specific health issues that are not determined only by biological factors. Just as men, women need to access resources for basic survival but in most cases, women are disadvantaged in terms of their social economic status. Moreover, women face more problems because of the discrimination they encounter based on their gender.
For example, parents invest less time and money towards their girls but give their sons the best education. In other instances, girls may be forced to get married at an early age to help the family get some money in terms of bride price.
Therefore, due to the disadvantages women face they are limited in their ability to seek medical assistance in case they fall ill. Different genders in South East Asia face many specific health issues.
Poverty
Poverty is one of the gender specific health issues in South East Asia. Poverty is the largest cause of human suffering on earth and a merciless killer. It destroys every aspect of human life by reducing the life expectancy of its victims. Poor people cannot access medical services and the tragedy is greater for poor women than men.
Furthermore, women experience economic inequality and they do not get the same compensation for their labor like women. Women earn less than men do for equal or greater amount of work they do hence their earnings are low (Devasahayam, 2010).
Therefore, a large number of the population lives in poverty for example about half of the population in Nepal and Bangladesh live below the poverty lines (Rashen & Shah, 2006). The poor populations lack basic needs such as meals and clothing.
Studies show that about seventy percent of the people living in poverty are women in the world. Women living in rural areas live in abject poverty. Statistics show that about two hundred and fifty million women in South East Asia live in absolute poverty.
Dimensions of poverty
Lack of basic needs is not the only dimension of poverty because it has many other dimensions. The other dimensions are lack of opportunities to access education and other human developments. The lack of the opportunities hinders the poor people women included from enjoy healthy lives, decent living and meaningful lives. The poor people lack self-esteem and dignity and even lack the respect of other people.
Poverty affects people beyond monetary terms and affects their lives negatively. They suffer from human poverty that means they are unable to have access to information and resources (Ghosh & Siddique, 2001). Poverty makes it difficult for girls to access education and employment in the future.
Women who lack education are not able to take care of their health and that of their children who die during their childhood as shown in the following figure
On the contrary, in Bangladesh where efforts have been made to bring about gender parity the child mortality rates have gone down significantly (Levine & What Works Working Group, 2004).
Moreover, women are restricted in terms of physical mobility hence they cannot go and look for employment as men do and thus their chances of improving their economical status are limited.
The lack of opportunities deny women the chance of living dependently and they are unable make important decisions concerning their lives.
Women suffer most in poverty because even if they are in the same level of poverty with men, they do not have an equal chance of escaping from the poverty trap like men. Such women would not be in a position to improve their health because of their vulnerability to poverty.
Vulnerability
The women in South East Asia experience health issues because their gender makes them vulnerable to poverty. For instance, most of the women are illiterate; they have no access to assets or resources and are few in the labor force.
In Pakistan, they lack access to resources and opportunities because that nature of social practices and legislation that is discriminatory against women (Khan & Laaser, 2001). In Nepal women, face discrimination because of their caste and those in the lower caste maybe restricted from health care services (Ohashi, 2001).
Position of women
The position of the women in the South East Asia countries puts women in a difficult position when it comes to their health issues. The countries in the region are at a crossroad between modernity and tradition. Many of the societies have strong traditions and women are unable to push for autonomy in most of the patriarchal societies.
The women may be willing to participate more in the economy and advance their education but they efforts are not enough in societies that have strong traditions because they are accused of tampering with the status quo. The health issues of women are not very important in such societies such as in Pakistan where women have a high mortality rate than men in their twenties (Perveen, 2011).
Son preference
Some of the societies prefer sons hence daughters face seclusion in the society and their health issues are sometimes beyond their control. For example, many women do not have a say in their marriages and hence may not have control of their reproductive health.
The men may decide how many children a woman will bear without the regard of the woman’s health. In societies that value sons a woman will be forced to keep giving birth until she bears a son and the multiple births will affect her health negatively.
The son preference in some of the countries such as India, threatens the survival of the girl child (Gender Inequality, n.d.). Studies have shown that many girl children die during childhood and the trend is attributed to neglect of the girls in preference of the boys.
Discrimination against girls
The girl child discrimination hurts the women further especially in the case of infanticide. Female child are killed before they are born because they are unwanted.
The women who practice infanticide put their health at risk as they may die of complications during the procedures yet they have to go through the practice as society demands they not give birth to baby girls (Who Regional Office for the South-East A, 2009).
The practice of infanticide is still being practiced in India even though the numbers have gone down significantly. Selective abortions of female fetus continues in India as most of the women who opt to go for sex test end their pregnancies if it is female but those carrying a male child proceed with the pregnancy to term.
Seclusion of women makes denies them an opportunity to access health care services. The practice is called purdah. It happens because the women are not allowed to go away from their homes especially in Bangladesh and Nepal. Married women cannot leave their homes unless they are in the company of a male (Kantor, 2002).
In addition, they are not allowed to speak to males who are not close family members. The women who observe purdah cannot allow a male doctor to attend to them hence if there are no female doctors such women will not get medical attention.
The fact that many women lack opportunity to advance in education means that few become doctors if they get a chance to study. The women in seclusion thus do not have the medical personnel to take care of their specific health issues (Sen, 2010).
Other women have never sought medical care in their lives. Seclusion denies the women an opportunity to interact with the world and lack access to information regarding health issues and is not in a position to take care of their health and prevent ill health.
Early marriages
Early marriages occur in some communities. Young girls get married to older men and hence are exposed to sexual abuse. The young girls become vulnerable to physical and psychological abuse from the men who marry them. The health of such young girls is risked, as they have no say over their reproductive health. The young girls give birth at young ages and their health is put at jeopardy (Suad & Najmabadi, 2003).
Property inheritance
Many societies do not allow women to inherit property. The women thus do not have assets and resources. The lack of resources and assets affects their health negatively because in times of sickness they cannot obtain medical attention due to lack of money.
Women who own property are more likely to feel that they have a right to take care of their health and go ahead to take care of their well-being. For example, Hindu women from Bangladesh cannot inherit property from their fathers.
The women who inherit property such as land do not have full control over it and give it to their brothers or male relatives hence in reality the property does not help to improve their economic status. Consequently, such women do not access health care, as they should (Naʻīm, 2002).
Poor housing
Poor housing conditions also affect gender specific health issues. People living in poor housing face potential health risks due to overcrowding in houses that lack proper ventilation (Howard, Bogh & World Health Organization, 2002). The houses many also lack basic amenities such as it is for a big population living in Jakarta and Colombo in India.
They live in houses that lack supply of water, proper waste disposal, poor drainage and sewage. Their living conditions expose them to diseases. It is important to note that even if both men and women live in poor conditions women are more at risk of getting ill health.
The women spend most of their time indoors because they are homemakers and take care of children but the men spend most of their time away from houses as they work outside homes. Therefore, women are exposed more to pollutants at homes than men.
Moreover, women suffer physical abuse that is contributed by overcrowding in the poor living housings and their health affected adversely (Howard, Bogh & World Health Organization, 2002).
Work conditions
The kind of work one does affects one’s health. Men and women do different jobs due to their gender as dictated by society. Many women work at home; provide food for the family and general maintenance. Some women have to walk long distances in search of water and firewood and their health maybe affected by such chores (Gender Issues in India, 1995).
On the other hand, women not only work at home but they may have to work outside home to earn a living for the family. The women are overworked and have no time to rest, which is very important in ensuring one remains healthy.
They must work for their children and their bodies get weary and become vulnerable to diseases. The women unlike men may have to work in hazardous working conditions thus exposing them to illnesses. They work in the hazardous conditions because they are often taken to work in less desirable tasks, which are considered suitable for their gender.
Thus, women are exposed to more risks that affect their health than men because of the roles they play such as bearing and nurturing children and the type of jobs they do.
Conclusion
Gender inequality leads to lack of access for the disadvantaged gender specifically the women. They face many specific health issues because of their gender. The problems women face in health can be reduced by closing the gap between the genders and promoting gender parity so that women can have access to healthcare.
Women should be empowered in order to take control of their health and seek medical attention regularly. The government can help the women through legislation of bills that protect women against discrimination in various matters such as education and inheritance so that can be in a position to improve their health.
A healthy woman will bring up healthy children hence healthy nation.
Reference List
Devasahayam, T.W. (2010). Gender trends in Southeast Asia: women now, women in the future. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.
Ghosh, R.N. & Siddique, A. (2001). Human resources and gender issues in poverty eradication. New York: Atlantic Publishers & Dist.
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Kantor, P. (2002). Female mobility in India. Journal of International Development planning Review, 24(2)1-15.
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Naʻīm, A. (2002). Islamic family law in a changing world: a global resource book. New York: Zed Books.
Rashen, M. & Shah, F. (2006). Bangladesh gender profile. Web.
Sen, G. (2010). Gender equity in health: the shifting frontiers of evidence and action. New York: Taylor & Francis.
Suad, J. & Najmabadi, A. (2003). Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures: Family, body, sexuality and health. Netherlands: BRILL.
Who Regional Office for the South-East A. (2009). Health Situation in the South-East Asia region, 2001-2007. New Delhi, India: World Health Organization.
According to Barbour, between 2 and 4 million women regularly experience some form of gender-based violence (GBV) in the hands of their male partners (1). For most of these women, the conversation regarding gender-based violence evokes painful memories. In heterosexual relationships, the woman is usually the victim of GBV. Notwithstanding, in rare circumstances, the GBV may be directed against men. Also, some men are subject to gender-based violence to a limited extent, particularly those in same-sex relationships. As this paper reveals, rape is one of the commonest ways in which people with gender-based prejudices against others propagate it. Sadly, rape leaves the victim with bitter memories and self-hatred.
Main Idea
While GBV is mostly associated with women in heterosexual relationships, people in same-sex relationships experience similar, if not more harmful, forms of abuse by their partners.
Preview of Relevant Concepts and Theories about Rape
Rape is one of the regular forms of violence directed towards women. Insecure men perpetrate rape with an inherent need to hurt vulnerable women. Such behavior may arise if a man always feels threatened by women who he perceives to be more powerful compared to him, for instance, those who are more educated. Various theories attempt to explain why rape occurs. The biological theory suggests that rape is perpetrated as a means of increasing the perpetrator’s reproductive success (Eagly and Wood 759). By nature, men are motivated to spread their offspring over a large population of females. Some theorists believe that this genetic wiring may explain why some men choose to rape. The commodification theory for its part views sex as a property where rape is treated as theft. In other words, sex is a property, which a rapist seeks to steal from the woman.
Another theory, and probably the most accurate, argues that rape is a gender-based crime that is perpetrated by men who hate women and vice versa. Scholars who support this theory claim that rape has a gender motivation since it portrays certain disrespect for the victims who are usually of the opposite sex (Eagly and Wood 758). Such disrespect is bred by the male entitlement to obtain sex from women, regardless of their willingness/unwillingness to engage in sexual intercourse. Today, the Hate Crime Statistics Act creates a category of crimes known as “hate crimes against women” (Eagly and Wood 758). This Act must have been necessitated by the need to protect women from harm that may be caused to them by delusional men. It is not a surprise that rape is consistently classified as a crime under this Act. Shockingly, rape is also the misdemeanor with the highest prevalence in this category of crimes.
History of the Battered-Women’s Movement
Domestic violence against women has not always been illegal in the United States or anywhere for that matter. It was not until 1871 that Alabama and Massachusetts first illegalized wife-beating, hence making it a punishable offense. By 1920, all states had succeeded in enacting laws that criminalized wife battery. However, the Battered Women Movement (BWM) would begin years later, following the success of the civil rights and anti-war campaigns that challenged the existing status quos. By 1971, a rape center had begun in St. Paul Minnesota where victims of rape could report their ordeal (Htun and Weldon 548). Since then, numerous women across all professions have joined hands to condemn violence against women. Out of their efforts, the BWM was born and spread to afford a voice to millions of women across the world.
BMW and Intersectional Identities
BWM recognizes that gender-based violence is perpetrated to all women, regardless of their age, race, and social class. For this reason, the movement seeks to draw its membership across the board. The common enemy is recognized to be male supremacy. Hence, BWM does not seek to protect the men who are victims of abusive relationships. Rather, BWM appreciates that far more men than women are the victims of GBV. As such, they need special protection.
However, BWM is not representative of the interest of all women across racial and social divides. Various researchers have argued that the presumption that domestic violence affects women equally is simply erroneous. According to Olive, the BWM is informed by the experiences of the white middle-class woman, yet the marginalized women of color have unique experiences (4). As such, women in different cultures experience varied forms of domestic abuse. As such, their experiences differ considerably. To this end, researchers such as Olive call for adequate research that can capture and represent the interests of all women (4). Importantly, research must take into account the effect of culture on violence against women.
Jackson Katz, an activist against gender violence, has termed violence against women as a “men’s issue” (Katz et al. 700). Interestingly, men often view the debate as to the reserve of women, a view that has led most of them to believe they cannot be of help to the movement. What Katz et al. imply is that men should appreciate that they are part of the problem and hence work to ensure that a permanent solution is achieved (701). Luckily, times have changed and that numerous men have already joined the BWM and other similar movements to stop gender-based violence. These men can be in the light to lead other men toward embracing violence-free relations that are built on mutual respect.
Mobilizing Men in the Movement to end Rape and Domestic Violence
From its onset, the movement appreciated the potential positive impact of having “feminine allies” who could reach their fellow men more directly. Therefore, men who are members of the BWM are tasked with sensitizing other men on the importance of a gender violence-free society (Donnelly 34). Further, these men take it upon themselves to speak to their fellow men about the emotional and physical pain that battered women have to go through every day. It is the hope of the movement that men who perpetrate gender violence can hearken to the calls of their fellow men and end violence against women. Another way in which men can help the movement would involve listening to women who have experienced GBV. Also, men should develop the habit of speaking proudly of their women. This strategy will challenge other men to appreciate their women and hence cease from abusing them. Finally, men can choose to help by donating funds to the movement and other campaigns that seek to end violence against women.
Violence in Same-Sex Relationships
Gender violence in same-sex relationships is the most recent form of intimacy hostility. Unlike in traditional relationships where the victim is always a woman, here a victim is a man. Many complications arise regarding violence in same-sex relationships. First, due to the stigma associated with same-sex relationships, victims of violence may find it difficult to report their ordeal (Barbour 4). This situation exposes them to extended violence in the hands of their partners. Further, society is wired to believe that gender violence can only be perpetrated against women. Therefore, the idea of a man being abused is rather strange, a situation that again causes abused men to remain silent (Barbour 4).
In 2010, the US Center for Disease Control and Prevention found that violence in same-sex relationships occurred as frequently as in heterosexual affairs. Some researchers argue that same-sex violence is more prevalent. The failure to enact laws that recognize and protect men means that most cases go unreported. The absence of a form of deterrence when it comes to same-sex violence could be a cause for the high prevalence. While the BWM recognizes same-sex relationships as potential breeding grounds for domestic violence, little has been done to bring the victims onboard. As a result, many of the gay victims do not associate with the movement.
Conclusion
GBV has remained a painful issue for many women throughout human history. Rape is prevalent, yet a highly degrading form of violence perpetrated against women. In full realization of the need to create a gender violence-free world, many men have already joined the BWM. The involvement of men in the fight against women is expected to be beneficial to the organization and the fight against domestic violence in general. However, the fight against GBV cannot be won if stakeholders do not appreciate the occurrence of the same in same-sex relationships. Given the high prevalence of GBV in these relationships, the BWM must be more dedicated to confronting both the stigma and violence associated with gay relationships.
Works Cited
Barbour, Ericka. “An Ecological Analysis of Same-Sex Domestic Violence between Gay Men.” Kaleidoscope, vol. 10, no. 1, 2012, pp. 1-10.
Donnelly, Jack. Universal Human Rights in Theory and Practice. Cornell University Press, 2013.
Eagle, Alice, and Wendy Wood. “Feminism and the Evolution of Sex Differences and Similarities.” Sex Roles, vol. 64, no. 9, 2011, pp. 758-767.
Htun, Mala, and Laurel Weldon. “The Civic Origins of Progressive Policy Change: Combating Violence against Women in Global Perspective, 1975–2005.” American Political Science Review, vol. 106, no. 3, 2012, pp. 548-569.
Katz, Jackson, Alan Heisterkamp, and Michael Fleming. “The Social Justice Roots of the Mentors in Violence Prevention Model and its Application in a High School Setting.” Violence against Women, vol. 17, no. 6, 2011, pp. 684-702.
Olive, Victoria. “Sexual Assault against Women of Color.” Journal of Student Research, vol. 1, no. 1, 2012, pp. 1-9.
Androcentrism is putting men at the centre of focus. In such a case, men control all issues concerning decision making in the society (Lorber 13). This notion gives the male gender power while the female gender is not recognized in the society. As such, this paper will discuss the numerous issues that women have faced for many years and it will also discuss the transformations that have taken place over the years for social change.
Discussion
Androcentrism allows masculinity to be superior in the society. Children are socialized in a way that defines their position in the society. In the society, androcentrism allows misrepresentation of women in many sectors especially in areas of employment and governance issues (Lorber 17).
Men are socialized to be leaders and they occupy top position in the society but women are required to support men in their quest for power and leadership. Because of this, women have been discriminated and their views are not represented.
In the media and film industry, men are given bigger role, they are the stars and directors in most cases, and the main theme in a movie revolves around men and their ideas. Where women appear in movies, they are represented as sexy or beautiful and because of this, women are considered as sex objects and their bodies are given more focus than their brains.
For a long time the society has accepted that men are more superior and this is evident in the society. Most literature uses the title of man to refer to either men or women and words such as “humankind and guys” are used to refer to both genders and this way the women are overlooked.
This notion portrays men as strong, aggressive, and intelligent compared to women (Griffin 97). In fact, social media advertisements use women’s bodies but in cases where strength is to be portrayed only men are used.
Areas of politics, law, and policy making have been dominated by men too. In the society today, we have more men as presidents and senators and this implies that women have been misrepresented in issues of governance (Griffin 99). In the world, Rwanda is the only country with majority of women in parliament while in countries like the US it remains at 17% and 22% in United Kingdom (Lorber 83). This statistics clearly indicates that men still have high influence in issues of governance.
Women have been painted as human beings who are supposed to appraise men in their positions; this has been portrayed in entertainment industry and tourism sectors. In these areas women are treated as “comfort women” (Lorber 59). In fact, women are sex workers because that is how they have been socialized.
In some communities, women have been used as a source of income and this is evident since girls are offered to strangers as sex trade and this issue is very common in the tourism industry. In times of war, women are sexually exploited, because they are left behind with no protection or skills to defend themselves.
Because the society is dominated by men, women have been denied many opportunities in the society since they have not been valued. Women lack access to very important resources. For instance we have few female engineers because some jobs have been reserved for men but women are indirectly discouraged from taking them (Lorber 71).
This has led to a wide gender gap since even employment opportunities are not equally accorded to men and women. In areas where women are employed their jobs are referred to as “jobs for women.” Secretarial, nursing and teaching have been referred to as female occupations.
Women also practice domestic roles including taking care of children and this role is preventing women from being other better occupations. Men have dominated issues of leadership and this has lead to wide gender gap between men and women in the society.
For many years, women have been suppressed because the society is dominated by men. A few years ago, women felt the need to seek equal opportunities in the society to enjoy rights just like men. This led to formation of feminism theory and development of feminism movements to empower and campaign for women.
According to this approach, equality between men and women exists when both genders are able to have rights in terms of power control and influence in the society. As such, women empowerment means addressing all issues that have brought imbalance between men and women so that women can have equal participation in all issues of development.
Feminism theory is an extension of the feminism (Sjoberg 185). Feminism is a concept that emerged long time aimed at defining, establishing, and protecting social, economical, and political rights for women (Mohanty 514). Apart from this, feminism advocates for equal opportunities in the society for women.
Generally, the feminism theory emerged because women wanted to have equal rights in a male dominated society (Sjoberg 211). Feminism theory exists in various categories that have emerged from the feminism movements including theories about origin of inequality and social development of sex and gender.
In deed, feminism movements have campaigned for women rights including education rights, property ownership, voting rights, and equal employment opportunities among other civil liberties (Sjoberg 196).
Notably, the theory of feminism addresses three major areas. The first is the liberal feminism that advocates equal opportunities for men and women through political and legal reforms (Lorber 37). Liberal feminism looks at the interaction between men and women as it seeks to transform the society for better.
Generally, this topic addresses numerous issues such as voting, education, medical care, eradicating sexual and domestic violence and reproductive rights for women (Lorber 47). The second category is the socialist feminism which is a broad category that addresses the role of women in the society. According to this approach, women have been oppressed in the society and therefore there is need to address this concern (Lorber 51).
The third category is the radical feminism which aims at creating a balanced relationship in the society. According to the radical feminism approach, there is need to overthrow patriarchy by campaigning for equal gender roles (Lorber 82). After a wide campaign, there have been transformations that have granted women liberty.
Transformation is the change in beliefs and practices of people to gain a different perceptive. Despite the fact that for a very long time we have lived in a society that discriminates women, there have been tremendous achievements towards equality and equity between men and women.
Although women and men’s needs are not the same, the society has understood the needs of women and has recognized them as people with their own identity (Diamond 22). Women have been accorded the rights to acquire education in any field of their choice.
Employment opportunities have been increased for women in an effort to bridge gender gap. Additionally, Development of affirmative action by the United Nations has reduced gender inequality (Diamond 51).
Today, much attention has been given to women and a platform for them to speak has been created. In fact, policies on governance and leadership have put in place to include women in policymaking. Restructuring of social institutions has put deliberate measures to liberate women and today women have the right to own property without any objection from men (Diamond 61).
Many countries have women as parliamentarians and politicians and this gives women the ability to have political power. Awareness on the importance of including women in political, social, and economic activities of a country has been recognized today. Because women constitute the highest population of the world’s human resource, they have a lot to offer to the world if their effort will be appreciated (Diamond 32).
Conclusion
About one century ago women were still claimed as a man’s property and therefore they did not enjoy many rights (Mohanty 511). As such, women did not vote, they were not allowed to own properties, and they did not have equal right to education.
According to statistics, more than 70 per cent of illiterate people in the world are women and they are still suffering the consequences of social stratification (Lorber 21). Over the years, women have been forced to be caretakers at home. However, through much struggle women have campaigned for gender equality and today we have seen a lot of changes although equality has not been fully achieved in the society.
Works Cited
Diamond, Morty. From the inside out: radical gender transformation, FTM and beyond. San Francisco: Manic D Press, 2004. Print.
Griffin, Penny. Gender, governance and the global economy. Australian Journal of International Affairs 64. 1 (2010): 86-104. Print.
Lorber, Judith. Gender Inequality: Feminist Theories and Politics. London: Oxford University Press, 2009. Print.
Mohanty, Chandra. Feminist Solidarity through Ant capitalist struggles. Chicago Journals 28. 2 (2003): 499-535. Print.
