Category: Gender

During the period of European modernization, which occurred between the 16^th and 17^th centuries, people experienced a series of persecutions and executions for social, cultural, and political reasons. Witch-hunting is one of the forms of persecution and executions that people suffered and endured as they ushered modernity. Numerous factors contributed to the occurrence of witch-hunting in Europe. Religious reforms increased fears, hatred, and confusion concerning evil as a threat to Christendom and further fueled witch-hunting, leading to significant social-political ramifications (Pastone, 1980). The perception of witchcraft and sorcery as evil resulted in the extermination of witches in Europe. People who were perceived to be heretics were identified and persecuted through the process of witch-hunting. Since women had a significant influence on the workforce, the persecution of witches aimed at the degradation of women and subjecting them to slavery (Federici, 2004a). Witch-hunting increased slavery and the slave trade as vagabonds, beggars, and women were arrested and recruited as slaves. Since witch-hunting has numerous social-political effects, this research paper examines how it shaped gender relations and identities in modern society.

Gender Relations and Identities

Patriarchal System

Although witch-hunting happened in the 16^th to 17^th centuries, it has contributed significantly to the social construct of patriarchy in families, communities, and societies. Patriarchy is a social system that categorizes women to belong to an inferior gender and men a superior gender (Bridges & Pascoe, 2016). When men observed that women were gaining significant influence in economic, social, and political circles, they employed witch-hunting as a strategy to undermine and offer them inferior social privileges. Federici (2004a) argues that women were scolded as ‘witches’ and severely punished when they unsubordinated the patriarchal system in societies where they lived. Men used witch-hunting as a scheme to promote their patriarchal power and undermine women at family, community, and society levels. Women who got empowered and enlightened during the 17^th century were accused of making laws and regulations that focused on curtailing the supremacy of their husbands (Federici, 2004a). Consequently, men and husbands heightened their resolve to use witch-hunt and punish women to disempower them.

As witch-hunting established an entrenched patriarchal system in the 16^th and 17^th centuries, its effects have persisted up to now. The essence of the patriarchal system is to position men in privileged positions in society and emasculate women to be unequal counterparts in various facets of society. At the family level, patriarchy is evident in modern society because there are still gendered roles in families (Rosen, 2017). While men have taken superior jobs, women are left with inferior job opportunities in most cases. For instance, in leadership positions, women comprise a small proportion when compared to the dominant male counterparts owing to the patriarchal privilege. Women still require affirmative action in political seats for them to match the proportion of the dominant male figures. Moreover, in the families, husbands wield superior powers since they rule and dominate their wives. Hence, the patriarchal system that persists in modern society stems from the witch-hunt and persecution of women during the 16^th and 17^th centuries.

Domestic Workers

Witch-hunting led to the perception of women as domestic workers who do not contribute to the labor force. The demand for manual labor and the existence of slavery excluded women from the labor force during the 16^th and 17^th centuries when witch-hunting dominated the labor market. Federici (2004b) explains that women were placed in the lowest status in the labor market because their domestic duties of sewing, brewing, and farming were considered ‘unproductive’ work, while the same tasks performed by men were considered as ‘productive’ work. Whenever women performed tasks considered work, they were deemed to be assisting their husbands in the production process. As a way of disempowering women in society, the government overlooked tasks performed by widows and single women. The witch-hunt ideology that women cannot make significant contributions to the workforce led to their marginalization (Bridges & Pascoe, 2016). For women to join the workforce, they had to explain their needy situations, their inability to get support from their husbands and issue apologies for violating cultural norms.

In the current society, the devaluation of women’s labor is frequent because there are gendered roles in the job market. Witch-hunting ensured that women remained inferior in society and relegated their abilities and roles to domestic levels (Rosen, 2017). Currently, tasks are gendered because men perform more labor-intensive tasks than women. For example, men dominate the construction and security industries because their activities are more labor-intensive than in other industries. Furthermore, in the political arena, men are dominant since society perceives them as powerful and competent leaders, while women remain inferior, less powerful, and incompetent in leadership (Bridges & Pascoe, 2016). In the labor market, male workers continue to dominate in most sectors because society considers the women’s workforce unproductive. Thus, devaluation of women’s labor is persistent in modern society as men do not only earn more than women but also dominate prestigious jobs and workplaces.

Objects of Reproduction

Since women have the power of reproduction, witch-hunting treated them as objects that the state could use to manipulate and control the growth of the population. The decreasing population dwindled the labor force and the primitive accumulation of wealth through slavery. Consequently, the government employed the strategy of ‘witch-hunting to ensure that women reproduce and increase the population. According to Federici (2004a), the government accused women who obstructed population growth as ‘witches’ who offered their children as sacrifices to the devil. Laws that target reproductive crimes were formulated and targeted on women who do not want to sire many children because they obstruct population growth, reduce the labor force, and contribute to poverty (Stabile, 2015). Based on the social axiom that the population determines the ability of a nation to create riches and wealth, the government framed policies that encourage population growth and punished offending women (Bridges & Pascoe, 2016). In essence, women lost their ability to control reproduction because the government viewed them as objects to be manipulated and controlled to increase the population of a country as desired.

In modern society, governments across the world continue to perceive women as objects of reproduction since they target them when controlling the population using contraceptives. With the perception of women as objects of reproduction, researchers have focused their innovations on the production of contraceptives and family planning interventions for women. Stabile (2015) argues that maternal decisions of reproductive health have been subjected to paternal interests and government policies. Although women have the autonomy to make decisions regarding their reproductive health, they have to consider prevailing policies and the influence of paternal pressure. Therefore, as modern society determines reproductive health, it controls women as objects of reproduction.

The Ideal Woman

Before the occurrence of witch-hunt in the 16^th and 19^th centuries, society had a real woman, as reflected by the abilities and roles. However, witch-hunting transformed a real woman into an ideal woman who fits the demands, needs, norms, and customs of patriarchal society. According to Federici (2004a), the realization that women were powerful and gaining influence over men elicited witch-hunt. The real women were hardworking, independent, influential, and powerful in numerous aspects of life. During the witch-hunt, society humiliated and terrorized women by associating them with demonic and evil practices and forces. Federici (2004b) asserts that witch-hunt weakened political, social, political, cultural, and economic aspects of women, leading to the construction of the ideal women. The weakened women submitted to the patriarchal forces, which demanded them to be submissive, obedient, passive, and chaste. Although during the period of witch-hunt the society labeled women as rebellious, mentally weak, insatiably lusty, savage, and insubordinate, their identity changed once they were weakened and overpowered. Hence, women started to take a new identity of the ideal woman by adapting attributes imposed on them by the patriarchal society.

The ideal woman persists because society continues to impose attributes, values, and characters on women. Federici (2004a) explains that after the witch-hunt, the society sustained their pressure on women to adopt values and attributes, such as obedience, passive, moral, and chaste, for them to attain the ideal state of the modern woman. At present, the ideal woman has become a powerful social construct, which influences the way women attain maturity, realize marriage, manage families, pursue careers, and enter into leadership. Women cannot achieve these varied social statuses without adopting and possessing attributes and values that define an ideal woman. Thus, patriarchy determines attributes, values, and characters that define the ideal woman instead of the real woman.

Slavery

Women were subjected to slavery during the 16^th and 17^th centuries as witch-hunt focused on disempowering them in society. The decreased growth of population and high demand for labor subjected women to slavery conditions in various agricultural plantations. Witch-hunt caused the mistreatment of women as social outcasts and subjected them to forced labor in sugar plantations. Federici (2004a) reports that convicted and indentured women, as well as those considered not fit for marriage and disqualified as domestic workers were taken as slaves to perform manual labor in the urban service sector, plantations, and public construction works. In essence, women who were considered in low social class were witch-hunted and enslaved to provide cheap manual labor. The white women integrated into the slave community, competed in the production, socialized intimately, and formed their families. However, the institutionalization of slavery relieved the witch-hunt against women as black slaves took over the labor market. Therefore, witch-hunt changed the identity of women as social outcasts and promoted their exploitation in the labor market as productive slaves.

The social-political effects of witch-hunt are evident in the way women’s slavery persists in the labor market, particularly in agricultural plantations. The labor-intensive agricultural activities involving the production of tea, coffee, coffee, and sugarcane continue to exploit women in the production process because they provide cheap labor. The labor industry has classified women as competent manual laborers based on their ability to accept slavery and work in poor conditions (Stabile, 2015). Poverty and the pressure to provide for their families compel women in modern society to work under depriving conditions in the plantations. Owners of extensive plantations in Europe and across the world continue to exploit laborers as slaves, particularly women because they offer cheap labor. The adoption of ethical and legal practices has forced plantations to comply with the demands of corporate social responsibility in the labor industry.

Perpetrators of Infanticide

The decreasing population in Europe and the increasing demand for labor and markets for products made the government advocate for policies aimed at boosting reproduction. During witch-hunt, as women were perceived as major perpetrators of infanticide, they were criminalized for violating reproductive policies and norms. Federici (2004b) explains that women were accused of infanticide and reproductive practices of birth control and pro-creative sex were criminalized and demonized to encourage population growth. As a consequence, women lived at the mercies of unfair government policies, which hindered them from enjoying their rights to reproductive health. The belief of human sacrifices to appease the evil through witchcraft and sorcery contributed to the accusation of women as the perpetrators of maternal infanticide (Postone, 1980). In ensuring that women do not commit maternal infanticide, strict surveillance was undertaken to prevent the termination of pregnancies. Owing to witch-hunt, even midwives were not trusted to deliver women. As a result, male doctors were allowed to control and supervise the delivery process, while midwives were given a passive role in the delivery rooms (Federici, 2004a). Hence, witch-hunt permitted the state to violate the reproductive rights of women during the 16^th and 17^th centuries.

Comparatively, in modern society, the issue of abortion is a continuation of the witch-hunt process. Since the focus of the witch-hunt was to deny women their rights, the emotive and controversial topic of abortion in modern society stems from historical practices. While some countries consider the importance of maternal health, other countries insist on the overriding significance of fetal health. Essentially, modern society continues to accuse women of infanticide and abortion, irrespective of maternal health conditions and medical advice. To overcome prejudice associated with reproductive health, women hide their medical issues and do abortions secretly.

Communal Good

The witch-hunt led to discrimination of women in society, making them earn the identity of communal good. Following the devaluation of their labor and economic efforts, women were subjected to impoverishing conditions of life for they could not access labor markets and offer productive labor to employers and slave masters. Men exploited and expropriated women for the social-sexual contract. According to Federici (2004a), women became communal goods since their activities were treated as unproductive work, bodies became sexual objects, and human labor was perceived as a natural resource for everyone to exploit and derive selfish benefits. Since women were languishing in poverty, they had no power to prevent exploitation and abuse by men, employers, and slave owners. The social-sexual contract predisposed women to sexual abuse and prostitution since the patriarchal society allowed men to dominate and undermine women. Therefore, witch-hunt ensured that women became helpless and venerable to exploitation and sexual abuse by men who enjoyed economic and social privileges in society.

Currently, women possess the identity of communal good because men, employers, and society collectively abuse and exploit them for selfish reasons. For example, prostitution is still present despite the empowerment of women in various facets of life. Men exploit women sexually by perceiving them as sexual objects, which they purchase and consume to satisfy their selfish interests. Whenever women try to object sexual advances, men employ witch-hunt tactics, such as denying empowerment privileges at work and using assaults (Stabile, 2015). In the labor market, women receive poor and skewed treatment for employers to assign them manual tasks and pay them miserable wages, especially in the informal sector where labor laws do not apply. Given that women are weak, they do not have physical, financial, legal, and political powers to agitate for their rights. Consequently, men enjoy impoverishing and undermining women by taking them as communal goods for leisure and pleasure.

Dependents

During the 16^th and 17^th centuries, women gained the identity of dependents because they relied on their men for social, economic, and political support. According to Federici (2004a), women were classified as wives, mothers, daughters, and widows who are dependents of employers and men in a patriarchal society. Women did not attain a respectable social status in society without getting married and accepting to depend on a man. From the economic perspective, women did not have the privilege of working and earning wages since their work was treated as unproductive and insignificant. Men used family as a social institution in concealing and appropriating women’s labor, as well as excluding them from businesses and property ownership (Federici, 2004a). In the political arena, women were denied to hold leadership positions because their tasks were confined to family and domestic activities. In essence, independent women were perceived as rebellious and insubordinate to patriarchy.

Modern society considers women as dependents of men owing to the entrenched patriarchal order. Since the family is the fundamental social unit, it comprises of a man as the provider, in addition to women and children as dependents. The work of the man is to ensure that his dependents get the basic needs of food, shelter, and clothing, and social protection from adverse elements in society. Married women are recognized and respected because they have submitted themselves to men, independent women are ignored and disrespect for they appear rebellious and insubordinate to the patriarchal order (Stabile, 2015). Moreover, men have dominated the labor and commercial sectors, leaving women as not only assistants but also dependents. In politics, women depend on men to enact affirmative legislation for them to get elective and selective positions. Overall, for women to make significant social, economic, and political achievements, they have to depend on patriarchal powers, which permeated every sector in society. Therefore, the identity of dependent paints struggles that women undergo in emancipating themselves from the patriarchal system.

Agents of Witches

During the 16^th and 17^th centuries, women were considered agents of witches as they exercised practices and activities associated with sorcery and witchcraft. Thousands of women were accused and persecuted for witchcraft and sorcery based on the perceptions of men who had identified themselves as ‘witch-finders in the society (2004b). The prevalent of witches during that time allowed identification of their practices and activities. The typical charges listed for the trial were infanticide, the engagement in perverted sexual practices, copulating with the devil, participation in orgies, and production of abnormal erotic passion (Federici, 2004b). The dominant belief was that the devil easily persuades a woman and manipulates their minds to undertake evil activities in society. The seven steps that witches employ in infecting humans are corrupting minds of men to perform inordinate passion, hindering the generative power in men, eliminating men accommodated to evil acts, transforming men into beasts, terminating the generative power in women, obtaining an abortion, and ultimately submitting children to the devil for sacrifice (Federici, 2004b). Consequently, men were wary of the potential of women to become agents of witches and perpetrate evil acts in society.

The persistent witch-hunt in modern society has placed the identity of women as agents of witches. In reproduction health, men continue to blame women for medical issues related to impotence and infant mortality. In modern society, men consider impotence as an issue that affects based on their social and cultural practices. From the perspective of a witch-hunt, society considers impotence as a curse that inflicts women who engaged in evil activities. Likewise, infant mortality is an issue that modern society associates with evil and immoral activities of devil worship.

Healers

Despite the accusation and persecution of witches, witch-hunting led to the revelation that women played a significant role as healers in society. Good witches exploited their skills and knowledge in the provision of treatment remedies for the people. Federici (2004b) holds that good witches were midwives, soothsayers, and medicine women who played a significant role in society for they helped individuals, communities, and society. An ordinary woman had many roles, including laundering, making perfumes, treating patients, and creating artifacts. Significantly, women provided treatment using natural oils, herbs, and concoctions, which proved to be effective remedies for various diseases.

The healing knowledge of women has been transmitted from one generation to another until modern society. The emergence of science stems from the accumulated knowledge and skills derived from women healers. In modern society, science borrowed medical knowledge and skills from women who provided treatments using natural oils, herbal extracts, and concoctions. Women healers continue to obtain natural remedies for various diseases from plants, oils, and natural resources. Similarly, science has realized that the natural environment offers infinite resources, which provide effective treatment remedies when exploited and appropriately used.

Conclusion

The examination of the witch-hunt, which dominated Europe during the 16^th and 17^th centuries, reveals that it had numerous social and political consequences. The witch-hunt created diverse gender identities, resulting in significant implications for modern society. Witch-hunt created a patriarchal system, which depicts men as powerful figures and women as weaklings in society. The formation of gendered roles makes women domestic workers, but it positions men as professionals. In reproduction, the witch-hunt brands women as objects to be manipulated to increase the population and provide cheap labor for capitalism. The entrenched patriarchal system creates an ideal woman with attributes and features that favor men and allow them to be slaves. Society still perceives women as perpetrators of infanticide due to high incidences of abortion and infant mortality. From a social perspective, men perceive women as communal goods for sexual exploitation and abuse, making them dependents without the ability to access decent jobs, earn wages, and gain independence. Ultimately, society identifies women as witches with the capacity to engage in evil activities. However, witch-hunting led to the discovery that women have contributed a lot to modern science because they can heal people using herbs, natural oils, and concoctions.

References

Bridges, T., & Pascoe, C. J. (2016). Exploring masculinities: Identity, inequality, continuity, and change. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Federici, S. (2004a). The accumulation of labor and the degradation of women in Caliban and the witch. In. S. Federici (Ed.), Caliban and the witch: Women, the body and primitive accumulation (pp. 61-132). New York, NY: Autonomedia. New York, NY: Autonomedia.

Federici, S. (2004b). The great witch-hunt in Europe in Caliban and the Witch. In. S. Federici (Ed.), Caliban and the witch: Women, the body and primitive accumulation (pp. 163-218). New York, NY: Autonomedia.

Postone, M. (1980). Anti-semitism and national socialism: Notes on the German reaction to “Holocaust.” New German Critique, 19(1), 97-115.

Rosen, M. (2017). A Feminist perspective on the history of women as witches. Dissenting Voices, 6(1), 21-31.

Stabile, B. (2015). Ethics of regulating reproductive technologies: Women as child bearers, rights bearers, and objects of paternalism. Public Integrity, 17(4), Web.

Abstract

This paper tries to discuss the gender wage gap that exists in the job market. Men and women are considered differently when it comes to employment opportunities. In most cases, men are given a higher priority, which leads to increasing gender inequalities when wages are considered.

Moreover, the trends in the gender wage gap in the U.S. and Denmark are also compared. There was a reduction of the differences in the gender wage gap during the 1980s, but the benefits were not felt by women employees. Thus, women have continued to suffer due to the increasing gender wage gap.

Introduction

Gender inequality is a problem that has existed for many years. Men and women have achieved different gains politically, socially, and economically. Despite the gains, various inequalities have existed. In many cases, women have suffered more, thus they bear the brunt of gender inequalities.

The problem can be seen more when it comes to wages earned by members of both genders. Within the job market, there is an increasing gap between the wages earned by both males and females. The reality that most men hold positions of power is seen as the reason for the sustained gender inequality (Wolford, 2005).

In many countries, the differences arising from the gender wage gap is much higher for higher income workers in comparison to low income workers. Thus, when high income workers are analyzed, most of them are comprised of men. Very few women belong within this category. On the other hand, more women exist within low income jobs (Wolford, 2005).

Thus, there have been various occurrences that have led to a reduction in the gender wage gap. One such factor is deindustrialization, which has facilitated the decreasing wage gap. Employment has changed from manufacturing to services (Kongar, 2008). Jobs in manufacturing require highly skilled individuals, thus many women could not access such jobs. In the North, the developing service industry also resulted in a decline in men’s salaries, leading to the decreasing wage gap.

The service industry was also characterized by a lower wage gap in comparison to the manufacturing industry. For many women, working in a labor intensive field like manufacturing was not beneficial. Such roles were traditionally considered for males. In comparison, the service industry is traditionally considered to be a preserve of women, thus moving towards this industry resulted in decreasing the wage gap (Gupta, Oaxaca, & Smith, 2006).

Government intervention

Inequalities due to employment opportunities and wages still exist, despite the establishment of various legislations in countries like the U.S. and Canada. In the U.S., men and women are at an equal level when it comes to the achievement of a degree status. Thus, the inequalities begin to arise from this point. Women have a lower chance of acquiring advanced education beyond the degree level. This is seen as a preserve of men. Moreover, men will be able to earn more within the duration of their lifetime in comparison to women.

For instance, a man with a bachelor’s degree will be able to make $900,000 more than women in their lifetime (Kongar, 2008). In order to solve the inequalities, the U.S. Congress passed an Equal Pay Act in 1963 which sought to prevent disparities in employment opportunities and wages. Thus, both women and men within a workplace were expected to receive an equal pay in pursuant to this Act (Kongar, 2008). This was an important policy, but it failed to solve issues of gender differences in the education sector.

Gender disparity exists when it comes to academic or educational success. Initially, men scored better grades in class in comparison to women. This is slowly changing as women have begun to get better scores in SAT exams. In some cases, there are no differences amongst the two genders.

Thus, the results have been able to show that indeed women are prepared for advanced education and employment opportunities. This led to the establishment of a legislation called Title IX that sought to increase educational opportunities that women can access. Thus, more women have been awarded scholarships to advance their education (Wolford, 2005).

The issues women are faced with in regard to wages start early in their careers. Women begin with lower pay in comparison to male workers, thus the issue will persist for their entire lifetime. With time, the gap widens as more men than women are considered for salary increases and promotions.

In the U.S., the salaries women earn are only 76% of men’s salaries. This has been the trend for the last 30 years. Moreover, women who have higher degrees easily get employment, but it does not translate to decreased gender wage gap because many of the women do not reach the higher levels within the occupation in comparison to males. This can be attributed to gender beliefs. Thus, women will not feel urged to ask for better pay or seek promotions due to belief in gender stereotypes (Kongar, 2008).

Trends in gender wage gap

The gender wage gap witnessed a decrease during the 1980s, but this trend was reversed in the 1990s. Thus, the wage gap decreased significantly during the 1980s in the U.S. During this time, many women were able to access employment opportunities in high paying jobs previously held by men.

Moreover, more women had experience levels that were required in most of these employment opportunities. This was attributed to the increasing number of women who had access to better education. This period was considered as feminism of labor (Kongar, 2008). It was marked by an increasing number of women taking up jobs. In comparison, there was an increasing gender wage gap within occupations in Denmark.

The gender wage gap in Denmark was increasing or stagnant between 1983 and 1995 (Gupta, Oaxaca, & Smith, 2006). This was attributed to developments occurring in the public sector and discrimination against women who held positions with high wages.

For instance, the Danish government implemented various welfare schemes to help working women. Thus, most women would be absent from work. This discouraged employers from giving women important roles within an organization. In the U.S. such initiatives were not available for women, thus they did not face discrimination from employment opportunities.

Gender discrimination has also been on the decrease in the U.S., thus more women have had access to better positions in employment. Initially, males were usually considered for important roles within businesses and companies. In many cases, they were given a higher preference for opportunities like leadership roles within organizations.

The use of computers and other technological advancements also resulted in decreasing wage gaps. Such jobs did not require physical labor, but just the ability to operate computers. This was an easy task for women, thus many found opportunities that had better wages (Kongar, 2008).

Improvements on the gender wage gap occurred more slowly during the 1990s. Thus, the female to male earnings ratio saw an increase of only 3.6 percent. Despite this, the wage gap within the service industry was still smaller in comparison to the manufacturing industry. Research has shown that if a high number of men in comparison to women switched from high-paying jobs, then the gender gap would have decreased (Kongar, 2008).

This means that more women will have access to high-paying jobs, thus reducing the existing gap. On the other hand, if more women than men took up jobs within the service industry, then the gender wage gap would continue to increase. Many jobs within the service industry pay lower wages, thus they are not sufficient to empower women financially. Therefore, changing policies that are discriminatory to women within the workplace have had an impact on reducing the gender wage gaps.

In the 1990s, a higher number of males and females still occupied positions traditionally considered to be their roles. For instance, over 60% of women still held positions in nursing and clerical work, while 69% of men occupied managerial, sales, security, health, and protective service occupations.

Many of these careers had higher wages, thus the gap was harder to reduce (Wolford, 2005). Occupational segregation occurred because of workers’ movement across occupations. This affected the size and composition of the occupations. Thus, more men began to take up roles within occupations in the service industry like nursing. This encouraged change in roles as both men and women interchanged the occupations considered to be traditional to each of the genders.

Components to explain wage differences

There are various components used in trying to explain the various wage differences that exist. The first is the use of cross-occupations effect as a component that is used to describe how women’s wages have improved over the years because of desegregation within occupations. The second component looks at across-occupations pay effect.

It considers the importance of various occupations, especially those considered to be male intensive and the wages within such occupations. These male-intensive occupations are seen to have a significant effect on the wages earned by women. The third component used in research is based on the movement of women from an occupational considered traditionally for women to one that is male intensive.

However, the entry into a male intensive occupation will not guarantee the female that they will get higher pay in comparison to their previous jobs. The final component considers within-occupations pay effect. Thus, specific occupations are considered and the differences in gender wages are analyzed. In this case, the wages received by males within the same occupations as women are higher (Kongar, 2008).

Women have also moved from traditional female occupations to male-intensive occupations, but it does not improve their wages. This arises because traditional female-occupations have undergone changes to ensure that they are gender-equitable. The strategies were put to ensure that gender wage differences were corrected. Thus, some women moved to male-intensive occupations that did not ensure gender equitable pay. Women did not gain because the occupations they got into did not have gender-equitable pay.

Conclusion

The gender wage gap has been on the increase over the years. This occurs despite the various strategies that have been applied to deal with the problem. Deindustrialization was a major factor that led to narrowing of the gender wage gap, but it was only temporary. Thus, women will continue to receive lower wages in comparison to males.

References

Gupta, N. D., Oaxaca, R. L., & Smith, N. (2006). Swimming upstream, floating downstream: Comparing women’s relative wage progress in the United States and Denmark. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 59(2), 243-266.

Kongar, E. (2008). Is deindustrialization good for women? Evidence from the United States. Feminist Economics, 14(1), 73-92.

Wolford, K. M. (2005). Gender discrimination in employment: wage inequity for professional and doctoral degree holders in the united states and possible remedies. Journal of Education Finance, 31(1), 82-100.

An Atlas of Emotions

Giuliana Bruno is known for her cartographic representation based on the notion of drawing on mapping relations to capture emotions and define gender representation in space and place. The author turns the aspect of mapping into an interesting field for critical investigation while simultaneously evoking inner emotions and physical explorations. The Art of Mapping discussed here goes beyond a normal cartographic representation.

Bruno presents different works, such as the Carte de pays de Tendre by Madeleine de Scudery, to reinforce gender factors. Mapping reflects a journey that transcends symbolic expressions into forms of ever-changing scenes. Maps are meant to capture experiences, reflect topography and scale, but conceal the abundant narratives of travelers. Thus, mapping offers an insight into understanding emotions, body, landscape, and women and their representations (Bruno 207-246).

The Carte de pays de Tendre shows tenderness associated with the landscape as told through a woman’s point of view. Hence, readers can visualize the journey and create imaginary landscapes with routes that draw out emotions in the audience. The map is used to create mental pictures in the form of imaginary landscapes that capture a long journey. As such, readers can understand the interior landscape through exterior representations where emotions capture the topography of the land. Thus, one can visit the personal by figuring and understanding the land through mapping.

The Carte de pays de Tendre map of the body depicts these experiences through affections noted in the different exploration of gender maps. Bruno presents gardens as landscapes occupied by emotions that can be explored and experienced through memorable movements. In fact, Bruno expands the notion of mapping and geography as she captures various elements, such as salons, gardens, portraits, ‘boys town’/urban settings, and films. These elements reflect the relationship between the landscape and the body to reinforce emotions and gender.

The Draft Summary for Presentation

Cartographic Representation and the Art of Mapping

• Giuliana Bruno is known for her cartographic representation. For example, different aspects of emotions are presented in the form of maps. The author generally observes that most of these representations excluded women, particularly when she refers to ‘boys town’ in which the role of women remained unclear. Thus, maps provide the perfect form of representation for capturing emotions, defining gender representation in space and place over time.
• She uses the Carte de pays de Tendre by Madeleine de Scudery to reinforce the gender factor.
• Thus, mapping offers an insight into understanding emotions, body, landscape, and women and their representation in the world (Bruno 207-246).
• Mapping creates imaginary landscapes with routes that draw out emotions in the audience
• The Carte de pays de Tendre map of the body depicts these experiences noted in the gender maps
• Bruno uses mapping and geography as she captures various elements, such as salons, gardens, portraits, ‘boys town’/urban settings, and films.
• These elements reinforce emotions and gender through body attributes demonstrated as a landscape represented by maps. The portrait by Gian Lorenzo, Monument to Pope Alexander VII, shows the global role of the church in female form. The woman is associated with the globe to show the overlapping role of gender, fashion, and geography. In this respect, one can conclude that the female position in the world is important even in making maps of the world for geographical representations while advancing society.
• Geography, as used by Longhi, captures the dwelling of upper-class women in their daily activities, including educating others about the geography of the world.
• Therefore, An Atlas of Emotions depicts women, their gender roles in shaping the geography of the world, emotions, and fashion among others.

Works Cited

Bruno, Giuliana. Atlas of Emotion: Journeys in Art, Architecture, and Film. New York: Verso, 2002. Print.

The authors of this article are Biblarzb and Stacey. It is written in the Journal of Marriage and Family. In response to the controversial debate about the role of gender in parenting, this article contains a review of 81 studies that explore the role of gender in parenting. The article compares two parent families with different or same sex co-parent, and single mothers with single father families (Biblarzb and Stacey 3).

The topic of this article is “How does the gender of parent matters?” The first issue in this article is the misleading representations of studies. The authors claim that most studies contend that each gender plays a role in parenting, especially in different sex families (Biblarzb and Stacey 4-5).

However, this article notes that married wives play a greater role in parenting compared to their husbands because of the stereotypical perception placed on gender. These studies support conventional understanding of the role of women in parenting. What is not determined is whether these disparities stem from gender only, heterosexual genders, or other factors. The authors note that gender issues need an inductive and indirect approach.

From the review of other studies, this article notes that, strengths that are basically related to heterosexual families occur to a certain degree in families with 2 female or male parent. However, this article does not have comparable studies on children parented with two male parents. However, the study anticipates similar results among two father parenthood. In addition, the article notes that each family union provides unique risks and advantages for the children (Biblarzb and Stacey 6).

In addition, the authors agree with other studies that gender does not determine the quality of parenting (Biblarzb and Stacey 11-13). Parenting skills are not determined by gender; two compatible parents deliver advantages to the children compared to single parents. This happens despite the gender orientations, biogenetic status, sexual identity, and marital status. Therefore, a family headed by two compatible and committed parents is the best for children compared to all other types of families.

Sociological points are that in single sex families, the parent is induced to assume the roles of the other gender. This means that single sex parenting fosters androgynous parenting skills in men and women alike. Secondly, each family presents unique challenges and advantages. Heterosexual couples deliberate on certain privileges and societal legitimacy; however, with a diminished paternal contribution.

Co-mothers provide a lot of advantages in intimacy, communication, and care-taking. However, lesbian families are predisposed to the risks of splitting up. This is due to their legal status and biological lopsidedness. In addition, this article notes that study on gay couples is not adequate to draw a comprehensive conclusion. Finally there are five variables that affect parenting. These are biogenetic relations with children, marital status, sexual identity, gender, and number (Biblarzb and Stacey 17).

The interpretative strategy selected for the analysis of Aliza Razell’s “Disappear” is based on the concepts of gender and gaze. As Kovács and Sári remark, these two aspects are closely related (x). Particularly, scholars note that the ideas of gaze are connected with the social constructions of “gender and gender relations” (Kovács and Sári x). The concepts of gaze and gender are manifested through the relationship between the subject pictured in the work of art and its viewer.

The theory was established in feminism, the followers of which considered that men looked at women as the objects of sexual desire (“Women, Objects of Desire”). According to Kérchy, there exist “ready-made truths about static gender identities and sexual orientations” that can prevent the viewer from seeing the work of art under a unique angle (63). Thus, the selected strategy is suitable for addressing Razell’s “Disappear” since it can help to understand the image and analyze it from different perspectives.

The concept of gaze is commonly associated with the genre of female nudity. As Mathews observes, this genre was popularized in the early 16th century (416). In Razell’s image, there is no vivid expression of nudity. On the contrary, the woman in the photograph seems to be buttoning her gown, which indicates prudence. However, it is possible to assume that the picture still shows a “passive, eroticized, feminized object” for the “active masculine spectator” (Kérchy 63).

The cleavage shown in the image is likely to attract the viewer’s gaze and may be regarded as the implication of cultural, social, and psychological attitudes towards females (Mathews 417). However, it is necessary to pay attention to other aspects of Razell’s work except for nudity implications. Such elements as pieces of jewelry, hands, and the hair are also quite prominent and attractive. Although the focus is on the model’s face, all of the elements used by the artist are important for the creation of a finite impression.

The concept of gaze helps to understand the photograph from the male perspective but, at the same time, it allows enough space for analyzing different dimensions. In particular, the model’s diverting her eyes from the camera is also a representation of this theory. Because the woman in the image is not looking the viewer in the eye, there appears a sense of sinister aloofness about Razell’s work.

The concept of gender is associated with identity and symbolic gender roles (Von Braun 18). It is argued that some artists have a peculiar talent to present their handiwork as “clearly a woman’s” one (Schumacher 12). In the analysis of the creative works by Helen Frankenthaler, Schumacher notes that gender can be a “lens” through which the audiences contemplate artists’ work (12). Taking this opinion into consideration, it is possible to attribute a similar ability to Razell. In her image, there is so much tenderness and lyricism that one is convinced that it was created by a female. Freedman mentions that the analysis of artwork is largely dependent on interpretation (157). Still, there seems to be no mistake about noticing a woman’s hand in the creation of “Disappear.”

Razell’s “Disappear” is an impressive work that allows for the deep multi-dimensional analysis. The paper aimed at viewing the work with the help of concepts of gender and gaze. The analysis of the two ideas was offered along with their connection to “Disappear.” It has been established that the photograph created by Razell may be considered as the representation of psychological, cultural, and social attitudes towards women.

Works Cited

Freedman, Kerry. “Interpreting Gender and Visual Culture in Art Classrooms.” Studies in Art Education, vol. 35, no. 3, 1994, pp. 157-170.

Kérchy, Anna. “Queering the Gaze in the Museal Space: Orshi Drozdik’s Feminist (Post)Concept Art.” Space, Gender, and the Gaze in Literature and Art, edited by Ágnes Zsófia Kovács and László B. Sári, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2017, pp. 63-84.

Kovács, Ágnes Zsófia, and László B. Sári. “Introduction.” Space, Gender, and the Gaze in Literature and Art, edited by Ágnes Zsófia Kovács and László B. Sári, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2017, pp. x-xiii.

Mathews, Patricia. “Returning the Gaze: Diverse Representations of the Nude in the Art of Suzanne Valadon.” College Art Association, vol. 73, no. 3, 1991, pp. 415-430.

Schumacher, Bett. “The Woman Problem: Gender Displacement in the Art of Helen Frankenthaler.” Woman’s Art Journal, vol. 31, no. 2, 2010, pp. 12-21.

Von Braun, Christina. “Staged Authenticity: Femininity in Photography and Film.” Gaze Regimes: Film and Feminisms in Africa, edited by Jyoti Mistry and Antje Schuhmann, Wits University Press, 2015, pp. 18-32.

“Women, Objects of Desire Plagued by the Male Gaze.” Discussing and Debating Art, n.d. Web.

Introduction

Gender refers to the socially constructed traits of men and women. The characteristics are different in each society and can change over time. For decades, gender has remained a major topic in the academic and professional circles. In this paper, the author will answer three questions on the modern girl based on three articles. The three publications are by Janice Kim, Madeleine Dong, and Miriam Silverberg.

Analyzing the Modern Girl

How Silverberg’s Texts Capture Her Historical Approach to the Issue of Gender

In the article, Silverberg states that the modern girl must be made a part of the political, economic, and socio-cultural transformations of her time. In addition, this author observes that the modern girl is more about imagining a new Japanese woman than documenting social change.¹ The two texts capture Silverberg’s historical approach to the topic of gender. Throughout human history, women have been the victims of large scale discrimination in many societies.² However, Silverberg believes that times have changed, and women have evolved to become “modern girls.” She looks down on tradition through lifestyle transformations.³

According to Silverberg, the characteristics of the contemporary girl have revolutionized the perceptions that people have about women and gender roles. As such, females should be allowed to take part in political, economic, and social-cultural activities, which lead to the growth of society.⁴ Dong concurs with the notion that women have changed over time. According to Dong, the modern girl has managed to enter into a society she did not belong to in the past.⁵ Females have moved from leisure class to middle class. Evolution has made women take up new roles, such as salespersons, clerks, and waitresses.⁶

Silverberg observes that the discourse on the Modern Girl focuses more on a hypothetical new Japanese woman than on social change. Throughout the book, the author addresses the issue of how Japanese ladies have changed over time. The book fails to acknowledge the change in the general society. Silverberg notes that females have time and money to dress in the brightly colored ensemble of western attires and attend different events.⁷ As a result, they seem to have been liberated. The statement shows that Silverberg approaches the issue of gender from the perspective of male imagination than from the angel of accurate documentation of actual social changes happening to Japanese women.

How the Approach Helps One to Understand Madeleine Dong’s Emphasis on the Anxiety Generated by the Rise of the Modern Girl’s Figure

Silverberg’s approach helps the reader to understand Dong’s analysis of the modern woman. The reason is that Silverberg’s literature shows the initial transformation among women, which leads to their changes in traits, as documented in Dong’s book. According to Dong, the modern girl has evolved a lot. Consequently, she poses a threat to the men in society.⁸

In Playthings of Different Times by Shen Baohui, the author argues that there seems to be a turnaround in power relations between men and women.⁹ The drawing also shows the disparity between powerful females and powerless men. All these factors are associated with the anxiety experienced by men across different societies. The evolution of females into “modern women” indicates that men will no longer assume their accustomed postures, which portray power.¹⁰

For example, in the illustration, the man is not standing in the usual male stance where the feet are parallel to each other and legs are apart. The arms are also outstretched from the body. The notion that helps one to understand Dong’s emphasis on women and power is clearly highlighted by Silverberg. According to Silverberg, the modern woman had freed herself from the age-old traditions and conventions.

In Silverberg’s literature, the woman is becoming more like a man both spiritually and physically. The change in attributes helps in understanding Dong’s emphasis on the anxiety generated by the transformation of the modern woman. According to the drawing, females’ posture resembles that of men. The idea is supported by the fact that women are not depicted with their feet together or hand close to their upper bodies. In the past, men were responsible for initiating actions.¹¹

Dong argues that another cause of anxiety is the fact that women no longer ‘keep to themselves’.¹² The lady makes direct gazes and flirts more to ‘wow’ men.¹³ In addition, the modern woman has the power to change her image by wearing fashionable attires, make-up, and delicate high heels. The concept of change is better understood since it is also noted by Silverberg. According to Silverberg, the modern girl has the resources to present herself in a fashionable way.¹⁴

The evolution of females, as portrayed by Silverberg, helps to understand Dong’s idea that women are ‘playthings of different times’. The drawing shows that the modern woman has conquered the man. As such, she is no longer a male’s plaything. The changes indicate that men fear they will be overthrown from their position as heads. The reason for this is because males will follow and take female roles.¹⁵

Understanding the Relationship between Other Types of Gendered Groups

The works of Dong and Silverberg help readers understand the entire aspect of the relationship between different gendered groups. The books show how the evolution of the female into the modern woman has resulted in changes in their roles.¹⁶

In Lives and Labor inside the Factories, Janice gives readers more information on the transformation of women and the shift in gender roles. In the book, Janice provides a detailed account of how factory ladies have managed to make themselves important figures in the industrial sector. In the early decades, women stayed at home to take care of children and act as men’s playthings. However, Janice shows how the modern woman has ventured into the industrial sector, which is dominated by men, with the help of parents.

The idea of women entering into the labor market is also portrayed by both Silverberg and Dong. Silverberg notes that the modern woman no longer acts as a housewife.¹⁷ The reason is that ladies have assumed new roles, such as those of sales persons.

Janice helps the audience to understand the relationship between the ‘factory women’ and the modern girl by showing how the industrial ladies have resisted oppression from their employers. The author notes that the females employed in factories worked for longer hours than what was required.¹⁸

In addition, residence within the company’s compound was customary. However, over time, factory women in colonial Korea have managed to develop tactics of resisting oppression by the industry heads. Janice notes that factory ladies calculated their actions and took advantage of fortuitous incidents within hegemonic spaces.¹⁹ The move by the female workers to fight for their rights is related to Dong’s and Silverberg’s accounts of women becoming powerful just like their male counterparts.

Janice also shows the link between the factory women and debates surrounding the modern girl by illustrating the desire of unmarried women to enter into waged work. According to this author, unmarried ladies strived to get jobs in order to cater for their parents’ homes.²⁰ In addition, ladies left home, got married, and set up independent households. The evolution of women to self-governing beings has affected the household structure. The factory ladies can be considered as the real ‘modern female’ described by Silverberg. According to Silverberg, real modern girls rise from the ranks of working women who are organized as social ladies.

The Modern Girl: A Global and Local Phenomenon

The modern girl is both a global and a local phenomenon. The reason for this is because in the three texts, there is evidence of women evolution in terms of roles in three different settings. In To Live to Work: Factory Women in Colonial Korea, Janice shows how women changed and acquired the attributes of a modern girl in Colonial Korea. In Who is Afraid of the Chinese Modern Girl?, Dong shows the evolution of women and their roles in China. Finally, in Erotic Grotesque Nonsense, Silverberg talks of the emergence of the modern girl in Japan.²¹

The modern girl is a product of global cultural shift. The reason is that the entire notion of women and change in attitudes was influenced by new cultural movements. It is also associated with the spread of western thoughts. Silverberg, for example, notes that the modern girl in Japan has borrowed a lot in terms of grooming from the western culture.

Bibliography

Dong, Madeleine. “Who is Afraid of the Chinese Modern Girl?.” In The Modern Girl Around the World: Consumption, Modernity, and Globalization, edited by Alys Weinbaum, 195-219. Durham: Duke University Press, 2008.

Kim, Janice. To Live to Work: Factory Women in Colonial Korea, 1910-1945. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2009.

Silverberg, Miriam. Erotic Grotesque Nonsense: The Mass Culture of Japanese Modern Times. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006.

Weinbaum, Alys. The Modern Girl Around the World: Consumption, Modernity, and Globalization. Durham: Duke University Press, 2008.

Footnotes

1. Miriam Silverberg, Erotic Grotesque Nonsense: The Mass Culture of Japanese Modern Times (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006), 250.
2. Ibid, 251.
3. Ibid, 249.
4. Ibid.
5. Alys Weinbaum, The Modern Girl Around the World: Consumption, Modernity, and Globalization (Durham: Duke University Press, 2008), 199.
6. Ibid.
7. Silverberg, 242.
8. Madeleine Dong, “Who is Afraid of the Modern Chinese Girl?,” in The Modern Girl Around the World: Consumption, Modernity, and Globalization, ed. Alys Weinbaum (Durham: Duke University Press, 2008), 195.
9. Weinbaum, 213.
10. Ibid.
11. Weinbaum, 35.
12. Dong, 196.
13. Weinbaum, 45.
14. Silverberg, 242.
15. Dong, 213.
16. Ibid.
17. Silverberg, 243.
18. Janice Kim, To Live to Work: Factory Women in Colonial Korea, 1910-1945 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2009), 77.
19. Ibid.
20. Ibid.
21. Ibid.

Introduction

In contemporary society, media plays an important role in the formation of social norms and pervasive cultures that have been criticized for misrepresenting reality. Various forms of media that include radio, television, film, magazines, newspapers, and advertisements play an important role in shaping the public’s perception and understanding of gender and gender roles. The manner in which men and women, as well as the roles they play in society, are presented in the media highly influence the public’s perception because of the focus on aspects such as marginalization, stereotyping, and bias (Gauntlett, 2002).

The most common topics explored by various media platforms that shape the gender and gender role discourse include relationships, sex and sexuality, transformation and empowerment, beauty, health and fitness, careers, and fashion. Of the two genders, women are the most misrepresented and stereotyped.

Themes

Society’s perception and understanding of gender and gender roles are primarily shaped and influenced by media. The role played by the media in influencing the societal perception of gender is augmented by the fact that technology is a vital aspect of life in contemporary society. For example, people use different forms of media on a daily basis, and as a result, subject themselves to different sources of biased influence that occur at both the conscious and subconscious levels (Gauntlett, 2002). The media presents biased images of men and women that promote unrealistic, limiting, and stereotypical perceptions that have been used to determine the roles that each gender plays in society. Three most critical themes that are worth exploring include underrepresentation of women, stereotypical representation of men and women, and flawed depiction of relationships.

Stereotypical representation of men and women

One of the most insidious roles played by the media is the creation of stereotypes through biased and erroneous representation of men and women. In media platforms such as television, films, and magazines, men are presented as strong, aggressive, domineering, intelligent, and independent (Gauntlett, 2002). In contrast, women are presented as weak, dependent, submissive, less intelligent, caring, and emotional (Gill, 2007).

In movies and television shows, men are depicted as confident, go-getters, powerful, competent, assertive, and worthy of respect. This representation has been taken by society to mean that men are supposed to take leadership positions because of their exceptional qualities that women lack. This bias toward masculinity has led to an erroneous creation of gender roles that have relegated women to low positions in society (Lindsey, 2015).

For example, women are considered fit for positions that do not require aggressiveness. In that regard, careers such as politics, engineering, medicine are deemed most appropriate for men (Gill, 2007). Women are deemed fit for careers in fields such as psychology, education, and arts. This misrepresentation of women as weak, emotional, and sensitive is evident from the low number of women in the fields of politics, management, and engineering. Politics is one of the fields that require tough, confident, and aggressive qualities that are mostly associated with men.

Movies and television shows are famous for popularizing the concept of masculinity. The largest percentage of movie stars are men, and a very low percentage are women. Women are given roles that are considered feminine due to societal socialization (Hengeson, 2012).

In many movies, cultural ideas of masculinity such as sexual aggressiveness, independence, toughness, and strength are explored (Gill, 2007). On the other hand, women are usually awarded supportive roles that focus more on their feminine roles. For example, women are given feminine roles, such as household chores, while men are given roles that involve violence and struggle. Men are never shown doing household chores because culturally, such activities belong to women. In addition, women are shown taking care of children, cooking, washing, cleaning, and doing simple tasks (Lindsey, 2015).

Advertisements

Advertisements are another form of media that shape and influence how society perceives gender and gender roles. In that regard, women are represented as sexual objects that exist to satisfy the needs of men. This is evident from their demeaning depiction in ads. Ads use women mainly to advertise beauty, fashion, and household products (Lindsey, 2015). This is achieved by incorporating images of women that depict their roles in society as taking care of families and working on their beauty. Many ads promote the idea that beauty and motherhood are the most important aspects of the lives of women (Gill, 2007).

Few advertisements depict women as authority figures. In fact, many ads present went as submissive and inferior to men. Women are presented with sexual objects intended to satisfy the fantasies that men have (Lindsey, 2015). The media takes advantage of women’s beauty to create certain perceptions. For example, the beautiful model is usually used for advertising high-end car models such as Ferrari and Lamborghini.

The models that appear in such ads use their beauty to make the products more desirable and attractive to customers. In advertisements where both male and female models appear together, the male model takes an authoritative role while the female model takes the submissive role (Gill, 2007). For example, the male model could be talking about the product while the female model is displaying or tossing or playing around with it. In other ads, the man simply talks about the product while the woman is shown using or enjoying it.

The media also influences gender roles by determining the ads in which men and women appear. Women usually appear in ads that promote fashion, beauty, health, and household products, while men appear in ads that promote alcoholic beverages, cars, industrial machinery, financial products, and banking services (Kosut, 2012). Women usually appear in ads that promote products that depend on their sexuality to sell or appeal to customers. In contrast, men appear in ads that promote elegance and power. In such advertisements, men are shown performing activities such as drinking, playing sports, and repairing cars and machines (Kosut, 2012).

The depiction of men and women in advertisements creates the perception that men are supposed to take leading roles and positions of authority while women are supposed to be led and act as followers (Hengeson, 2012). In addition, it shows that women are supposed to use their sexuality to advance in careers and life, while men should use their natural disposition that is characterized by toughness, aggressiveness, and authority (Lindsey, 2015).

Sports

In sports, women are highly sexualized, unlike men who are depicted as powerful, aggressive, and strong. This happens to both female athletes and female sports journalists. Sports that require aggressiveness and strength are reserved for men, while sports that do not require the use of aggressiveness and strength are reserved mainly for women (Kosut, 2012). For example, American football is reserved for men while volleyball is reserved mainly for women.

The media coverage of sports played by both genders varies significantly. For example, the media coverage of sports such as basketball, golf, football, wrestling, and kickboxing is biased toward men (Kosut, 2012). The media rarely gives adequate coverage to women sports and when it does, the coverage is primarily concentrated on the beauty of female athletes and not their athletic capabilities. Many sports programs usually cover football, baseball, and basketball that are dominated by men (Lindsey, 2015). Women sports are sidelined and receive little coverage despite the fact that approximately 40% of athletes are female (Kosut, 2012).

The media also demeans women who play sports considered masculine. For example, women who participate in boxing, wrestling, and football are considered more masculine than feminine.

The media also uses sports journalism to create erroneous perceptions regarding gender and gender roles in society. Male journalists are highly regarded than female journalists. In the case of female journalists, beauty is more important than talent and skills (Lindsey, 2015). The media has created a culture that reduces women to sexual objects and inferior human beings who are compelled to rely on their beauty and sexuality to thrive on society.

On the contrary, men are placed on a pedestal because according to their depiction in the media, their strength, toughness, and confidence make them superior to women. As a result, women are given roles that do not require aggressiveness and strength. The concept of stay-at-home mom has been discussed in the media for many years. Women stay home while their partners work and play the role of their families’ breadwinners (Lindsey, 2015). Even though there are many stay-at-home dads, the media has ignored that reality because such men ignored the cultural rules of masculinity.

Relationships

The depiction of relationships between men and women in the media promote the idea that women are inferior and men are superior (Kosut, 2012). In the media, women are presented as dependent while men are presented are independent. Women depend on men for financial and emotional support because men are strong and tough (Lindsey, 2015). This is clearly evident from the supporting role that women are awarded in movies, films, and television shows. Few movies and films portray women as lead characters. This portrayal returns women their traditional role of being housewives.

The media portrays women as the primary caregivers and men as the primary breadwinners. This promotes the idea that men’s position in society does not allow them to perform domestic and nurturing roles that are considered feminine (Kosut, 2012). For the women who work, the media gives little or no attention to them because they deviate from cultural norms. In relationships, women are supposed to take back seats and support their men in their careers and other endeavors (Lindsey, 2015). The media depicts women as ready and prepared to support and serve men. This concept is augmented by the media’s representation of a good and bad woman.

A good woman is caring, submissive, dependent, considerate, sensitive and domesticated while a bad woman is independent, tough, rebellious, assertive, and aggressive (Kosut, 2012). Assertive and confident women are viewed as unappealing to men because of their deviation from the feminine disposition. This representation influences women into acting or behaving in certain ways, develop flawed self identities, and embrace lifestyles that prevent them from living to their fullest potential (Hengeson, 2012).

Women are also shown to be men-pleasers who obsess over their looks in order to be accepted. This representation is worsened by ads that portray female beauty as characterized by thin bodies. Such standards pressure women into adopting lifestyles that endanger their health and wellbeing in efforts to attain the beauty standards depicted in the media (Kosut, 2012). On the other hand, men are also pressured into gaining muscles in order to fit the media’s standards and definition of strong, tough, and powerful. Recent studies conducted on gender and gender roles in the media have reached a consensus that there is unequal representation of men and women in the media (Lindsey, 2015). The representation is a reflection of how society views and treats both genders.

Conclusion

The representation of men and women in the media influences and shapes how society views and treats them. Men are respected and included in more aspects of life than women because the media has created a culture that defines men as superior and women as inferior. Therefore, women are given roles that are considered inferior while men are given roles that are considered superior. More men are found in careers such as politics and management because they are viewed as masculine.

Women are paid less than men and they experience more instances of discrimination and unfair treatment. In today’s society, the media plays a great role with regard to socialization of gender. This socialization affects how people interact and view the opposite sex. The attitudes and behaviors that people embrace are influenced and shaped by the representation of the men and women as well as the roles they are supposed to play in society.

References

Gauntlett, D. (2002). Media, Gender, and Identity: An Introduction. New York, NY: Psychology Press.

Gill, R. (2007). Gender and the Media. Boston, MA: Polity.

Hengeson, V. (2012). Psychology of Gender. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Publishing.

Kosut, M. (2012). Encyclopedia of Gender in Media. New York, NY: SAGE Publications.

Lindsey, L. L. (2015). Gender Roles: A Sociological Perspective. New York, NY: Routledge.

Introduction

People and media often state that sex and gender are the same issues and that a person can be identified as either male or female. In fact, the sexual orientation is not necessarily depends on a person’s sex.

Considerations and Thoughts

There are five considerations that should be taken into account when discussing gender differences: expression, biological, identity, attraction, and formication. Gender should be perceived as a social construction that focuses primarily on expression and identity. People who were born with female sex and identify as women are cisgender, while those who have differences on the mentioned points are transgender. At the same time, some people identify as queer, which means that they do not follow only male or female guidelines and characteristics.

Sexual orientation is not always dependent on one’s sex or gender since attraction to someone is not necessarily means sex with this person. It is possible to be attracted to males, females, and queer people, but have sexual intercourse only with one of these categories.

It is most striking that the question of whether sexual orientation is a choice dictated by gender or not is still debated in society. On the one hand, one can suggest that a person has a gay or lesbian gene, which makes him or her to select a partner (Meyers-Levy & Loken, 2015). On the other hand, society dictates the behaviors for two types of gender: male and female: the former should be masculine, and the latter should act and behave in a feminine way. The traditional view on gender differences expects males to be aggressive and dominant, while females should be submissive. Such an approach limits a person’s opportunities and dictates the behaviors that should be practiced, without the attention to one’s personal identification.

Sexual discrimination from other people takes place in many cases, when a person begins acting or thinking against the widely accepted patterns and norms. The deeper differences between men and women probably lay in the historical perspective of the problem.

For the same job and qualifications, women are likely to receive less money compared to men (Jacobsen, 2007). It is widely considered that females have less intelligence and abilities to succeed at work and build a career, while males seem to be more effective, yet the practice shows that it is not correct. The roles played by women in society are underestimated and intentionally given less value than those of men. In particular, care for the family and housework are regarded as female responsibilities, but career success is attributed to male achievements. As a result, women have to work harder to provide for themselves and prove the society that they can also achieve great results.

From the biological point of view, gender differences are also evident. One of the key characteristics of women is longer life expectancy, which seems to be associated with the fact that men are expected to make more decisions and take more risks (Jacobsen, 2007). At the same time, females are more likely to develop psychological health problems, but males are more prone to cardiovascular issues. These differences are also caused by the perceived attitudes towards gender and identity. Men, who tend to held stressful positions, can be seen as weak if they would visit a psychologist, which complicates their health deterioration. These examples show that sexual orientation, be it inherent or adopted by a person, is a subject of social discrimination that goes against gender as a social construction.

References

Jacobsen, J. P. (2007). The economics of gender (3rd ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell.

Meyers-Levy, J., & Loken, B. (2015). Revisiting gender differences: What we know and what lies ahead. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 25(1), 129-149.

Research of gender factors has found that in careers differences between male and female modes of action are characterized by inequality of opportunities. The models of behavior are influenced by stable stereotypes of male and female careers. At the same time, ideas about a woman’s career are formed, as a rule, in comparison with a man’s. For example, while male coaches can be found in any sports team, both male and female, the situation is quite different for female coaches. The problem of a female coaching career is often associated with restrictions in working with men (Parker et al., 2017). This paper discusses the differences between male and female coaching styles and argues that one is not better than the other, but they differ and, therefore, must be equally respected.

What concerns male vs female coaching styles, despite none of them is better or worse, they differentiate when coaching the opposite sex. That is why experts note the need to take into account the cognitive characteristics of both coaches and athletes as a serious factor in improving the quality of the training process. Compared to men, women are more disciplined and inclined to learn, diligent and meticulous. They require emotional support more than men and accept advice with gratitude (Reddy, 2019). Society sees women as more emotional and impressionable, as well as less self-confident and resistant to stressors. Women are distinguished by higher adaptability, better learning ability, coachability, and educability (Janssen, 2017). In the process of sports coaching, men are mainly focused on success and victory while women concentrate on self-improvement (Goldman, 2017). Women are more observant and resourceful in overcoming difficulties and obstacles. They are less inclined to solving promising, strategic tasks, focusing on current ones.

Men and women also differ in such an important ability for successful coaching and competitive activity as confidence, which has various manifestations: confidence in their characteristics, skills, the ability to make the right decision and achieve the planned result, and others. It has been established that women are much less confident in traditionally masculine sports (Millard, 1996). The more masculine the activity is, the lower the confidence of women in comparison with men. In typically female activities, women are more confident than men. An increase in men’s confidence is mainly provided by advantages over rivals in coaching and competitive activities (Murray et al., 2018). The development of female athletes’ confidence largely depends on the support of coaches and teammates (Rosenstein & Schwartz, n.d.). All this must be taken into account when coaching male and female teams.

Types of attitudes in male coaching also differ from female ones. Women need emotional support, and this is exactly the kind of support a female coach can provide. It is easier for women to work on long workouts than for men because men are aimed at quick results. Instead, women are more tuned in to pedantry in their work (Goldman, 2017). The methods of interaction are also different in male and female coaching. The logical method is more intended for men’s teams since men are pragmatists. Situational coaching works better for women since they need more gentle methods of achieving goals. Here, coaches should understand that they can get away from their program and be more creative.

To conclude, the differences between men and women in coaching are mostly subtle, but the cumulative effect can be quite significant. Female coaches generally possess such qualities as warmth, friendliness, empathy, and support. Male coaches are more persistent, better at decision-making and problem-solving. Differences in coaching techniques characteristics are based on biological differences, but the socio-cultural factor also has a huge impact. While women possess such qualities as enthusiasm, compassion, politeness, discipline, and openness, men are characterized by perseverance, hard work, and intelligence. It concerns both the general differences in the techniques of male and female coaches and the ways of coaching the opposite sex.

References

Goldman, B. (2017). Two minds: The cognitive differences between men and women. Sex, Gender and Medicine.

Janssen, J. (2017). Special report: Discover the 8 differences between coaching men and women – Part 1. Championship Coaches Network.com.

Millard, L. (1996). Differences in coaching behaviors of male and female high school soccer coaches. Journal of Sport Behavior, 19(1), 19-31.

Murray, P., Lord, R., & Lorimer, R. (2018). The influence of gender on perceptions of coaches’ relationships with their athletes: A novel video-based methodology. The Sport Journal, 2018, 1-12.

Parker, K., Menasce Horovitz, J., & Stepler, R. (2017). 2. Americans see different expectations for men and women. Pew Research Center’s Social & Demographic Trends Project.

Reddy, K. (2019). Male vs female leadership: Differences and similarities. WiseStep.

Rosenstein, J., & Schwartz, C. (n.d.). How to coach teammates: A key responsibility of effective leaders. Wavelength by Asana.

Basing on Michel Foucault’s view on the body as that controlled in terms of space and time, Sandra Lee Bartky in her article “Foucault, Femininity, and the Modernization of Patriarchal Power” reviews the way female bodies are controlled in terms of space and appearance and emphasizes that in modern conditions women are more than ever restricted by those factors (22).

On the one hand, standards of feminine behavior presuppose that woman demonstrates submissiveness and deference, which is done through taking more humble poses than men and smiling much more often (Bartky 22–23).

On the other hand, demands to appearance result in women considering their bodies as enemies that should be monitored through diets, exercise, and cosmetic procedures to keep up to feminine standards (Bartky 22, 23–24). In this monitoring there remains no place for self-expression since every procedure corresponds to standardized rules.

The especial tragedy of this constant monitoring situation is seen by Bartky in the fact that in their attempt to control and monitor their feminine compliance, women become objects of male ridicule (Bartky 24). Male society pretends to keep away from giving any standards or prescriptions as to female standards, and only scoffs at the typically female attention to fashion and make-up trends.

The disciplinarians of women appear to be “everywhere and nowhere”: whereas ideas and standards of female ideal saturate everyday environment at work, school, in the street or mass media, nobody takes the responsibility for intrusion of female standards (Bartky 24).

Women actually carry out constant self-monitoring and self-surveillance, and in this respect turn out to be their own disciplinarians (Bartky 26). Such situation results partially from the “revision of femininity” when not female duties and obligations characterize a woman as belonging to female society but her appearance outward behavior is the crucial factor defining her ‘membership’ (Bartky 25).

The issue of whether women display compliance with social standards of femininity or engage in self-expression by following the fashion trends is quite a debatable one. It cannot be justly claimed that such interest for the outward appearance is only a recent phenomenon: women have taken care of their appearance throughout history.

Moreover, men are nowadays doing it no less than women, attending spa salons and tracing trends in clothing. The art of dressing and applying appropriate make up indicates the taste of the woman, her sense of beauty and measure. It is true that certain part of female population is obsessed with copying some conventional standards; but that does not mean women do not express themselves through clothing or make-up. Following a standard means lacking in personal fantasy but not limiting it in any case.

Involving in the modern feminist-political debate, Rose Weitz in her article “A History of Women’s Bodies” characterizes the historically dominant attitude to female body as an object constituting men’s property (4). Seen as defective and even dangerous already from the ancient times, female body, together with its frailer constitution, was vested with such degrading qualities as “less developed brain and emotional and moral weaknesses that could endanger any man who came under their spell” (Weitz 4).

In the Middle Ages this view of female body resulted in witch-hunt, with the situation changing but a little in the eighteenth century when women still have no civil rights and fully belonged to their husbands. As a counter reaction to women increased access to education or employment, nineteen-century men proclaimed them too frail to be involved in any men-equal activity, and this degrading treatment lasted till 1970s (Weitz 6–8).

As feminists emancipation movement activated in the second half of the twentieth century, there has been observed a series of backlashes to the changing of social view on female body (Weitz 9). Firstly, women are held in great pressure as to maintaining the “acceptable appearances”: large amount of exercise, cosmetic surgery, and dieting have become essential for keeping up to the standards (Weitz 10).

Secondly, PMS condition is by large controlled via medical services since it is considered an illness to be treated. Thirdly, abortion rights are debated as contrasted to “fetal rights”: abortive mothers are often prejudiced in society as baby-killers (Weitz 10–11). Such social attitudes to appearance, PMS, and abortion issues actually limits the woman’s right to fully control her own body.

In the long run, it appears that feminist struggle for recognition of equality or even superiority of female body over the male one has led to a double result. On the one hand, women have attained opportunities to involve in activities that were previously considered typically male, such as politics or large-scale business.

Nobody is supposed to make an allowance for gender when deadlines project have to be met or important decisions taken: women take equal responsibility as men for the result of their professional activities. On the other hand, the male society still executes control over the female body by prescribing certain hardly achievable standards of appearance and by treating the monthly PMS as an unhealthy state. Those are the prejudices to be yet overcome.

Works Cited

Bartky, Sandra Lee. “Foucault, Femininity, and the Modernization of Patriarchal Power.” Sociology of the Body: A Reader. Eds. Claudia Malacrida and Jacqueline Low. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. 21–26. Print.

Weitz, Rose. “A History of Women’s Bodies.” The Politics of Women’s Bodies: Sexuality, Appearance, and Behavior, 3rd edition. Ed. Rose Weitz. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. 3–12. Print.