Category: Gender

Literature Review and Data Exploration

The issue of gender identity in the context of the topic of victimization has recently become a subject for discussing in relation to the criminal justice system of the United States. Gender identity is viewed in the scholarly literature as an individual’s perception and vision of his or her gender that cannot be related to this individual’s sex or the qualities of a physical body.¹ From this perspective, it is assumed that people can perceive or identify themselves as not only males and females, but also as having both genders or neither of these ones. This complex nature of the gender identity issue often leads to prejudice and controversies in the criminal justice system, as it is discussed in the literature on the topic. The purpose of this section is to provide the review of the literature on the subject of gender identity in the criminal justice system of the United States related to the experiences of certain individuals and the problem of victimization.

Gender-related victimization is presented in the recent literature with reference to covering several topics. They include experiences of persons having lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, or queer (LGBTQ) orientations and identity; experiences of women and perceptions of them as potential victims; perceptions of men as potential criminals and offenders. According to the research by Langenderfer-Magruder et al., experiences of LGBTQ people in the criminal justice system are understudied, and more attention should be paid to examining this topic with the focus on the aspect of victimization.² The reason is in changes of prisms through which these individuals’ experiences are discussed today. In the 1970s, the representatives of the LGBTQ community were often viewed as offenders, especially with reference to the roles of gay males. However, the current discourse is different, and LGBTQ people are often reported to be victims. The behaviors of LGBTQ persons are not discussed as deviant anymore, and police profiling has changed in this context.³ Thus, they often become victims of hate crimes, or they take roles of victims in prisons even when being criminals.

The topic of hate crimes is directly connected with the issues of gender identity and victimization in the modern literature. As it is stated by Morash, hate-motivated violence is often a cause of attacking and offending representatives of the LGBTQ community.⁴ Thus, they are perceived by researchers and representatives of the criminal justice system as a vulnerable population. Rates of crimes conducted against LGBTQ individuals are high in spite of tendencies to change the public opinion regarding this minority group and address social prejudice.⁵ One more topic for discussing in this context is the situation when anti-LGBTQ prejudice is typical of the representatives of the criminal justice system, and victimization is promoted by the police or other authorities. The problem is that the cases of police officers’ violence against LGBTQ people are underreported.

One more side of victimization associated with gender identity and discussed in the literature is related to the vulnerable position of women. Researchers state that women are traditionally viewed in society as weaker than men, and females become victims of beating, sexual violence, domestic violence, or rape because their victimization is assumed in society where males are associated with dominance and aggression.⁶ Statistics and reports support the idea that women become victims of males’ violence in spite of their social status, but there are also some correlations identified by researchers regarding this aspect.⁷ Representatives of the lower social class tend to demonstrate more aggressive or violent behaviors related to the gender identity issue.⁸ Thus, these individuals can act aggressively not only in relation to women but also LGBTQ individuals and even children. In addition, the financial status of a woman can also influence her victimization as successful women interacting with unemployed men often become victims of abuse.⁹

Femininity connected with the female gender is often viewed as the representation of weakness, and this aspect can provoke aggressive actions of individuals who regard themselves as dominant persons. Researchers state that this behavior can be oriented not only to women but also to gay persons and transgender people who view themselves in association with the female gender. As a result, researchers conclude that, in the context of the idea of victimization based on the aspect of gender, potential victims are individuals who associate themselves with women and femininity in general.¹⁰ Still, while referring to LGBTQ people, the nature of aggression or violence against these persons can be more complex, and wider reasons for hatred can be determined. From this perspective, there are two prisms identified in the literature that are related to gender and that influence victimization: masculinity and femininity.

Victimization associated with gender identity can also be discussed from the perspective of men who are usually viewed as aggressors in the case of sexual or domestic violence among other types of abuse. However, researchers state that male victims of violence often find themselves in even more vulnerable positions than females do because of the gender identity issue, the idea of masculinity, and social stigmatization against weak men. As a result, men can become indirect victims of gender stereotypes in situations when they are actually victims of violence or a hate crime, for example. Researchers also state that those males who become victims of other males’ aggression can also orient their own violent actions to women.¹¹ Similar situations are often observed when males are brought up in a community or a family where men are dominant and aggressive, and women are dependent and weak.

The review of the literature on the topic of gender identity and victimization allows for indicating certain trends in the scholarly discussion of the problem. Referring to different sources, it is possible to state that the female gender and the aspect of femininity are traditionally associated with the idea of victimization. Thus, women often become victims of gender-related violence and aggression, and they are assumed to be victims and viewed as having this role in society in general and in the criminal justice system in particular. LGBTQ individuals are also discussed today as victims in most cases in contrast to the situation observed in the twentieth century. On the contrary, males usually perform the roles of aggressors or abusers, and they tend to accentuate their masculinity. However, when males are victims of gender-related crimes, they hesitate to ask for support because of social prejudice and stereotypes. Furthermore, risks of discrimination based on gender-related biases are also high even in the criminal justice system, and this aspect influences individuals’ choice of services to use when they experience abuse.

Field Work: Interviews and Observation

Interviews and observations are discussed as primary sources in research because they provide the first-hand information regarding a particular phenomenon. In order to collect primary data on the topic of gender identity and victimization, it was necessary to plan and conduct interviews with a female person who is a victim of domestic violence and with a person who works in a crisis center in one of the US cities and has the experience of working in the criminal justice system. Furthermore, observations in this crisis center were also planned and approved for the purpose of this project by the crisis center managers.

During the first step in collecting data, it was necessary to identify the person for an interview session. M. is a middle-aged married woman who has two daughters. She does not conceal the fact that her first husband was an abuser, and she needed the help of police officers and specialists from the crisis center in order to be protected from domestic violence. M. voluntarily agreed to participate in the interview sessions and answer the questions from the list provided to her in advance. The questions formulated for the semi-structured interview with M. as a victim of domestic violence included the following ones among others: “How could your gender influence perceptions and attitudes of police officers and service providers when you needed assistance?”, “Were you assumed to be a victim in your intimate relationships?”

While answering the questions, M. informed that she was assumed to be a victim of domestic violence from her first words when she called the police. Thus, police officers and service providers regarded M. as a victim and her first husband as an offender prior to discussing the aspects of the case. M. received all the required support and assistance from service providers, but she stated that her gender was assumed as female and her position was viewed as vulnerable without focusing on these aspects. Therefore, her sex influenced other people’s perceptions of her role in the case.

The other interview was conducted with N., a middle-aged man, who previously worked in the criminal justice system and currently obtains an administrative position in a crisis center that provides services and assistance for victims of domestic violence. The questions prepared for the semi-structured interview with this individual included the following ones: “Are there any differences in perceiving and treating representatives of different genders as victims in the criminal justice system of the United States?”, “Are there any differences in treating the representatives of the LGBTQ community?”, “Are there any differences in treating the victims of domestic violence depending on gender identity?”

Providing the answers to these and other questions, N. stated that women are primarily perceived as victims in the criminal justice system of the United States, and this stereotype also affects perceiving males as potential offenders. While discussing who is a potential criminal in this or that case and choosing between a woman and a man, experts are inclined to discuss men as potential offenders, abusers, or criminals. Females are traditionally associated with the role of a victim. Working with the representatives of the LGBTQ community, some specialists from the criminal justice system can experience difficulties because they lack training in this sphere and demonstrate prejudice.

In the crisis center, the percentage of LGBTQ people who ask for assistance and support is significantly low in comparison to the rate of domestic violence in the discussed city. Thus, LGBTQ individuals tend to have limited access to support and help because of their fears to disclose their gender identity or social status with reference to their position of a victim or an offender. N. also noted that all individuals asking for assistance in the crisis center are perceived as victims or persons in need without dependence on their gender identity, and counselors are trained to provide professional help.

During three-day observations, the researcher visited the crisis center, observed clients who agreed to participate in the project with the focus on protecting their confidentiality, and made notes. The majority of clients were females who reported domestic violence and rape caused by their husbands, partners, and boyfriends. It is important to note that they identified themselves with the female gender. Women reported the cases of beating, assaults, rape, psychological abuse, and hounding. Many of them reported being victims of abuse in the past, and some of them stated that they were victims of their fathers’ violence or witnessed their fathers’ violent attitudes toward mothers. The majority of these women stated that they received adequate support in the crisis center, and service providers were tactful and attentive in treating them. The representatives of the LGBTQ community did not ask for assistance in the crisis center during these three days of observations, or they did not agree to participate in the project, and the researcher did not have access to their data.

The communication with service providers in the service center allows for stating that typical victims of domestic violence are women, and the percentage of men who ask for assistance is low. However, these statistics reported by the employees in the crisis center cover only cases related to intimate partners’ violence and abuse, and the cases when young men become victims of their relatives’ violence are not included. However, as it is stated by the service providers, such cases are frequent in spite of the fact that they are not actively discussed or addressed in society. These individuals reported that the key focus is on perceiving females as potential victims of domestic violence because of stereotypes spread in society, but many women reported that, in the past, both they and their brothers became victims of violence at home. Still, some kind of stigmatization does not allow males and LGBTQ people to ask for assistance and reveal their roles of victims.

The data collected with the help of conducting interviews and observations in the crisis center allows for supporting the information gathered with the help of the literature review. The focus on the first-hand experiences and narratives of individuals who were victims in the past or who know how to work the criminal justice system is important to analyze the concepts of gender identity and victimization in this context. The field work allows for concentrating on lived experiences of victims of domestic violence to understand what factors are associated with this problem and how modern crisis centers can address the issue. Furthermore, important observations regarding the status of LGBTQ people in this context and their access to assistance were also discussed.

Critical Review and Recommendations

Gender identity is associated with an individual’s vision of oneself as having and sharing feminine or masculine features and behaviors. Therefore, the ideas regarding masculinity and femininity are directly associated with persons’ gender identity. In most cases, following social norms or traditions, it is expected that males will behave with the focus on their masculinity, and females will behave with the focus on their femininity.¹² These gender roles are also associated with a different level of victimization that is typical for perceiving men and women as victims or vulnerable individuals. The question of LGBTQ people’s gender identity and their victimization is even more complex. The purpose of this section is to present the critical review and analysis of the problem of gender identity and victimization in the context of the criminal justice system and provide the recommendations for improving the situation in the American society with reference to available community resources and programs.

The analysis of the secondary literature and first-hand data indicates that women become victims of gender-oriented violence or become perceived as victims in more cases than it is in the situation with men who are traditionally associated with a powerful position and masculinity. While discussing victimization associated with the female gender identity, it is possible to state that women are always at risk of experiencing domestic violence, rape, sexual assaults, and sexual harassment in the workplace among other forms of abuse. Thus, their femininity is associated with the position of a victim, and this position is recognized in society with reference to the reactions of representatives of the criminal justice system to the cases of domestic violence or rape.¹³ As a result, it is possible to speak about the problem existing in society that is related with the idea that women are highly victimized and unprotected because of their gender.

The opposite side of this problem is the association of the male gender with masculinity that can receive such reverted forms as hypermasculinity and then hostile masculinity oriented against women. There are several consequences of this issue discussed in the literature and accentuated in primary sources. The first consequence is that men can emphasize their masculinity in cases when they feel weak with the help of violence. Moreover, men can avoid asking for help in cases when they become victims of violence because of social visions concerning masculinity. Thus, following social stereotypes regarding gender identity, men often choose to accentuate their masculine features and behaviors to avoid the role of a victim. On the contrary, in most criminal cases, males act as offenders, they are inclined to conduct hate crimes, and their behaviors can demonstrate dominance and aggression.¹⁴ Recognizing these aspects of gender identity, the representatives of the criminal justice system also tend to judge males referring to their dominant gender position.

The analysis of secondary and primary data also shows that LGBTQ people are victimized in many cases because of their gender identity. The rate of hate crimes against LGBTQ individuals is high, and the reason is that their sexual orientation, gender identity, behavior, and appearance do not adhere to the public’s expectations and socially accepted gender roles. One more important fact revealed with reference to the analysis of primary and secondary sources, that men perform the role of an aggressor not only in case of attacking women but also in case of acting against LGBTQ people. However, in contrast to women, LGBTQ individuals often choose not to ask for help and support because they believe their identity can affect people’s attitudes to them when speaking about not only the criminal justice system but also crisis centers. The problem is that LGBTQ people can be discriminated when asking for support because of certain biases spread in society.¹⁵ Consequently, the issue of the sexual orientation victimization is also typical of the American society as well as the issue of female victimization.

Referring to the analysis of the issue, it is possible to propose some recommendations for the improvement of the situation. The first main step is the improvement of the legal framework regarding crimes associated with domestic violence, sexual orientation or gender hate, sexual assaults, and other gender-oriented crimes. It is important for federal and state legislators to cooperate in order to develop an effective regulatory system to accentuate the responsibility for gender-based crimes and prevent such actions. In this context, it is also necessary to develop public or community campaigns in order to improve the image of women and LGBTQ people in society, shifting the focus from viewing them as victims to presenting them as independent powerful actors. In this case, it will be possible to prevent violence and crimes provoked by perceptions of women and LGBTQ individuals and their victimization. Thus, these recommendations are related to the legal and social spheres, and their realization requires the cooperation of federal and state authorities and legislators.

Another set of recommendations is oriented at improving services that are provided in communities in order to help the victims of domestic violence or sexual assaults. Currently, certain community resources and specific programs are available in the selected region in order to address the issue of gender-oriented violence. These resources include a crisis center, a hotline for victims of domestic violence, shelters for women in need and their children, and a counseling service for victims of hate and aggression. These services are sponsored by the state and local governments, non-government organizations, charity organizations, and some private companies and entrepreneurs. It is important to note that the work of these organizations and resources is mainly directed toward assisting women, and the problem is that LGBTQ people remain uncovered by these services in many cases. Another problem is that many members of the community do not know about available resources, and they feel unprotected in their difficult life situations.

Therefore, certain recommendations should be formulated in order to improve the work of available services for victims of gender-oriented violence in the community. Firstly, it is necessary to improve the public’s awareness regarding the availability of crisis centers, hotlines, shelters, and other services for victims of aggression and violence. For this purpose, it is important to spread brochures and use television, radio, newspaper, and online advertisements, as well as posters, in order to inform the public about available services and provide them with phone numbers and addresses. Victims of domestic violence or other type of aggression can be unaware of any kind of such services because they have not used them previously, and such aspects are usually not discussed with relatives and friends openly. Secondly, all proposed services should address the following requirements: the provision of safety, confidentiality, psychological, health, and material support, unbiased attitude, counseling, and legal aid.

Bibliography

Avdibegovic, Esmina, Maja Brkic, and Osman Sinanovic. “Emotional Profile of Women Victims of Domestic Violence.” Materia Socio-Medica 29, no. 2 (2017): 109-113.

Blondeel, Karel, Sofia de Vasconcelos, Claudia García-Moreno, Rob Stephenson, Marleen Temmerman, and Igor Toskin. “Violence Motivated by Perception of Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity: A Systematic Review.” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 96, no. 1 (2018): 29-41.

Gefter, Julia R., Brian A. Rood, Sarah E. Valentine, Sarah M. Bankoff, and David W. Pantalone. “Why Does It Happen? Explanations for Men’s Violence against Women by Women with Interpersonal Victimization Histories.” Journal of Gender Studies 26, no. 2 (2017): 133-150.

Langenderfer-Magruder, Lisa, N. Eugene Walls, Shanna K. Kattari, Darren L. Whitfield, and Daniel Ramos. “Sexual Victimization and Subsequent Police Reporting by Gender Identity among Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer Adults.” Violence and Victims 31, no. 2 (2016): 320-331.

Morash, Merry. Understanding Gender, Crime, and Justice. Thousand Oaks: SAGE, 2006.

National Sexual Violence Resource Center. “Sexual Violence and Individuals Who Are Identified as LGBTQ.”National Sexual Violence Resource Center. Web.

Southall, Ashley. “New York City Police Training Lags on Transgender Rules, Report Says.”The New York Times, 2017. Web.

Stemple, Lara, and Ilan H. Meyer. “The Sexual Victimization of Men in America: New Data Challenge Old Assumptions.” American Journal of Public Health 104, no. 6 (2014): e19-e26.

Tur-Prats, Ana. “Unemployment and Intimate-Partner Violence: A Gender-Identity Approach.”Barcelona Graduate School of Economics. 2018. Web.

Footnotes

1. Merry Morash, Understanding Gender, Crime, and Justice (Thousand Oaks: SAGE, 2006), 67.
2. Lisa Langenderfer-Magruder et al., “Sexual Victimization and Subsequent Police Reporting by Gender Identity among Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer Adults,” Violence and Victims 31, no. 2 (2016): 321.
3. National Sexual Violence Resource Center, “Sexual Violence and Individuals Who are Identified as LGBTQ,” National Sexual Violence Resource Center, Web.
4. Morash, Understanding Gender, Crime, and Justice, 90-92.
5. Ashley Southall, “New York City Police Training Lags on Transgender Rules, Report Says,” The New York Times, Web.
6. Julia R. Gefter et al., “Why Does It Happen? Explanations for Men’s Violence against Women by Women with Interpersonal Victimization Histories,” Journal of Gender Studies 26, no. 2 (2017): 133-134.
7. Karel Blondeel et al., “Violence Motivated by Perception of Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity: A Systematic Review,” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 96, no. 1 (2018): 30.
8. Ana Tur-Prats, “Unemployment and Intimate-Partner Violence: A Gender-Identity Approach,” Barcelona Graduate School of Economics, Web.
9. Ibid., 2-5.
10. Blondeel et al., “Violence Motivated by Perception of Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity,” 31.
11. Lara Stemple and Ilan H. Meyer, “The Sexual Victimization of Men in America: New Data Challenge Old Assumptions,” American Journal of Public Health 104, no. 6 (2014): e20-e21.
12. Morash, Understanding Gender, Crime, and Justice, 90-95.
13. Esmina Avdibegovic, Maja Brkic, and Osman Sinanovic, “Emotional Profile of Women Victims of Domestic Violence,” Materia Socio-Medica 29, no. 2 (2017): 109-110.
14. Stemple and Meyer, “The Sexual Victimization of Men in America,” e22.
15. Langenderfer-Magruder et al., “Sexual Victimization and Subsequent Police Reporting,” 322.

Introduction

The process of socialization plays an essential role in a person’s development and growth. As soon as a child is able to recognize rules and standards, parents improve their understanding of their social roles and skills that have to be enhanced. As a rule, this education contains such generally accepted norms as “boys do not cry”, “be strong as a man”, or “be like a girl”. It means that, from early childhood, people learn how to be divided regarding their genders and focus on their expected abilities respectfully. Masculinity is deeply rooted in society, and it is hard to understand if it is necessary to consider such an attitude as a problem or how to deal with it.

This essay is not just a manifestation of masculinity as gender oppression but an attempt to investigate existing stereotypes and inequalities, evaluate a mental health perspective, and clarify what improvements can be offered with time.

Personal Experience

Gender roles, masculinity, and feminism are frequently discussed topics in modern society. In my family, gender relationships are not as provocative as some people may think. Still, such qualities as respect for parents, the power of men, and maternal kindness to her children cannot be ignored. I always know that my mother is ready to listen to me and support my endeavors, and my father provides me with the necessary male advice or financial help. However, sometimes, I would like to know that both my parents can interchange their responsibilities, and I may discuss some personal concerns with my father without questioning my masculinity.

I totally agree with Beaulieu (2017), who believed that toxic masculinity hurts not just women but men as well. I do not want to complain that society, where I live, is imperfect. In fact, I am totally fine with the idea that gender differences make this world better and more interesting. What I say is that socially driven silence based on gender oppression and masculinity should never negatively influence the quality of life, and it is normal to strive for social changes, improvements, and reconsiderations.

Male Stereotypes

Despite multiple intentions to change the world and remove gender inequalities in different countries, there are certain male and female stereotypes that are hard to neglect. The researchers and writers with different background knowledge support the dominant idea that masculinity should encourage male risk-taking, sexual conquest, emotional control, and self-reliance (Beaulieu, 2017; Stępień, 2017).

These are the most common male stereotypes that rule the world and define social relationships. If a person needs protection and physical assistance, it is expected to address a man for some help. If emotional support is required, not many people believe that a man can offer it. As a result, men turn out to be the sources of negative behaviors, suffering, and humiliation. Utt (2014) admitted that society usually experiences violence “primarily at the hands of other men” (para. 31). Expression of power is a distinctive feature of many men, and if they do not have enough resources or possibilities to be strong, violent, and confident, their masculinity is questioned.

Gender Inequality

The intentions of men to prove their skills and underline their masculinity provoke new challenges in the discussion of gender inequality. On the one hand, male aspiration ideas like power, domination, and control are old-fashioned, and boys/men try to demonstrate emotionally restrained behaviors and meet expectations (Stępień, 2017). On the other hand, recent technological and social developments give rise to female power and the possibility to replace male muscles with machines (Kareithi, 2013).

Gender oppression is a real challenge for modern people, both men, and women. Unfortunately, not all straight men are ready to forget about the already accepted traditional view of gender roles and allow a new approach based on partnership and equality to happen (Stępień, 2017). Consequently, men address their aggression as a means to demonstrate their contradictions, and women believe that their aggressive behaviors can provide them with the necessary powers. Being a root of gender inequality, society is the one that suffers from this conflict and an incoming crisis of masculinity.

Mental Health

Suffering and behavioral imbalance are expected outcomes of a masculinity crisis, which results in the creation of new problems, including those with mental health. In his article, Beaulieu (2017) underlined that toxic masculinity is one of the reasons for increased rates of suicide among Canadian men. Similar numbers are observed in many countries, proving that men have a higher tendency to end their lives with suicide compared to men. In fact, masculinity oppression provokes men to hide their feelings, use power for solving their problems, and keep aggressive behaviors, which results in losing touch with real emotions and “noxious shutting down” (Beaulieu, 2017, para. 8).

Sometimes, young boys try to demonstrate the best of their masculinity that they neglect the possibility of negative outcomes that worsen their mental health. Instead of focusing on their problems, males search for new sources of humiliation, demonstrate their ‘true men’ qualities, and forget about the real causes of their concerns. Being unnoticeable today, naïve boy’s resentment may result in a terroristic attack, a rape, or a theft tomorrow.

Future Perspectives

To predict crimes, disappointments, misunderstandings, and hidden harm, modern society focuses on the discussion of masculinity crisis and related oppression. Some people believe that any step taken to remove or change the already offered and deeply rooted male and female stereotypes can break the system and change the way of living. However, Utt (2014) explained that the “problem is not just in masculinity, but in gender as a whole” (para. 11).

Therefore, it is useless to change one or two stereotypes only, “if we really want to end gendered oppression, we have to ‘blow the whole thing up’” (Utt, 2014, para. 11). People must understand that masculinity is not a requirement that cannot be broken. Although it is pleasant to look at an athletic man with clear goals and intentions to build a good future, this attitude should not be imposed on society. People are free to choose their images and make decisions without being afraid of judgment or punishment. At the same time, even the most successful man in good shape with a solid banking account can be criticized, hurt, or even raped.

Conclusion

Masculinity is a complex concept with a number of attitudes and interpretations being developed. It is impossible to create one rule and be sure every man or woman follows it, avoiding social or mental health problems. Oppression does not have boundaries, and it exists until a person allows it to happen. It seems to be easier for a person to look for the cause of a problem somewhere outside and neglect the fact that he or she is a real reason for such a concern.

References

Beaulieu, M. (2017). Toxic masculinity may be quadrupling the suicide rate for Canadian men. CBC Life. Web.

Kareithi, P. J. (2013). Hegemonic masculinity in media contents. Web.

Stępień, A. (2017). Why we need to stop talking about a ‘masculinity crisis’. The Conversation. Web.

Utt, J. (2014). A new masculinity: Why I need feminism as a man. Everyday Feminism. Web.

Introduction

Human abilities are wide and varied in many aspects that can be used to define people. The difference in sex has been found to drive the disparity in human abilities by apportioning certain gifts to the male sex and others to the female gender. Although both sexes can do certain tasks equally, research indicates that people of a specific sex do specific tasks better relative to the opposite sex.

One area that scientists have come up with a hypothesis about the abilities in sex difference is the gathering hypothesis, which tries to find out, which group has the best abilities in gathering and/or which one has the best abilities in hunting. This paper will provide evidence to prove that members of the male gender are better hunters relative to women who on the other hand are also better gatherers. The paper therefore explores the spatial abilities of the two sexes.

Men as better Hunters

The theory that men are better hunters can be traced to the ancient world of both primitives and civilization by looking at the roles that society had apportioned to the two sexes. The primitive society did not have an opportunity and ability to make any studies that would then allocate duties to men and women. However, nature did it for them. This case can be attributed to the need to survive and self-preservation.

Scientists have fronted different reasons to support the different theories they have come up with concerning this issue. The division of labor in males and females underpin the development of abilities in both sexes by allocating capacities. Neave et al. (2005) reveal how males naturally adopt Euclidean strategies when trying to find ways meaning that they have good geographical knowledge (p. 147).

Good geographical knowledge is essential in hunting because it is used for locating prey whenever it is. Without geographical knowledge, it might be difficult for males to do hunting because it involves figuring out direction and movement, as well as figuring out the shortest and worth following distance. Direction enables males in their hunting because it helps them use the shortest distance to get to the possible location of their prey.

Neave et al. also argue that males have an advantage in navigational and way-finding abilities (p. 147). Although women can also make hunters, their hunting skills and abilities fade before those of males when the two groups are put to competition. One of the advantages that males have over females, which give them better hunting skills, is in the throwing/interception abilities (Neave et al. 2005, p. 147).

Hunting requires the ability to aim accurately at a target for one to hit it. It also requires one to strike it with the first instance so that it does not escape. This aspect is the biggest difference between males and females because a bigger sample of men can hit the target better relative to a bigger sample of women (Cashdan et al., 2012, p. 278).

For instance, the hunting skills of men can be attributed to their being dominant in the arm simply because they have a better chance of hitting the target than women do because of their better accuracy and interception skills. Stoet (2011, p. 420) confirms that men have many skills that are in line with hunting techniques thus automatically making them hunters.

They have the ability to focus and direct their minds on an object they are working on. With this, they are able to achieve accuracy. Stoet (2011) concludes that throwing skills, focused attention, and general spatial abilities of men make them better hunters (p. 420). Males employ different strategies to women in accomplishing their tasks are usually found to be more innovative in doing their tasks relative to women.

Therefore, in the natural setting, which is governed by the theory of survival for the fittest, males tend to become more aggressive in their mindsets whenever they are working on an issue. The natural setting gives males a better chance of survival in relation to females.

Thus, males tend to work hard to secure their offspring and generation hence tending to be more antagonistic in getting food for their own to secure their survival. This case can be attributed to the instinctive nature that males acquire whenever they are doing their hunting.

Females as Better Gatherers

Under the natural setting, females take the responsibility of giving birth and taking care of the young ones, which therefore relegate them to laser roles that would not take away all their attention. The need to take care of young ones makes females concentrate on this task. They cannot go out the way males do to hunt (Ecuyer-Dab & Robert, 2007, p. 370).

The physical abilities of females also limit them in the tasks they can do. In this case, they become good at foraging and gathering because this task is less intensive compared to hunting. Ecuyer-Dab and Robert (2007) argue that sexual division of labor is credited with the present-day division of labor too, with traditional tasks for men and women being distinct.

In this case, women developed foraging skills over a period. It required locating food within a complex array of vegetation. This finding calls for spatial configuration of objects because, in the wild where there are so many different types of vegetation and also where most vegetation is similar, configuration of objects comes in handy as a tool for differentiating the different plants to make out which ones are edible and/or which ones are not edible.

Women tend to have a memory for fixed location. They will thus be able to point out the exact location of an object, especially if the object is important to them (Ecuyer-Dab & Robert, 2007, p.366). Food in society is important. Due to the need for self-preservation that happens with all species, males and females have an instinctive drive to preserve their generations through food security.

Women tend to remember locations well especially if the places are associated with high calories (New, Danielle, & Steven, 2007, p. 2682) because women tend to think about feeding their families as a role and responsibility bestowed on them by nature. They have been found to have vividness for static things, which enable them to make good foragers and gatherers because they are able to locate these things easily as long as they are not moved.

Movement of the same complicates matters for women because they tend to lose their vividness for moving things. This case can be attributed to natural abilities that come with physiological features for females that make their movement less fast in relation to that of men. Females cannot move as fast as males. This issue can be attributed to their biological set up because females’ bodies are meant to carry babies and in the end give birth.

Therefore, their bones, especially their pelvic bones, are not completely joined together as one unit to allow their hip to expand further during childbirth. This disjoint makes their movement a bit slower than that of males because they have a sort of play that reduces their speed. Therefore, with these inhibitions, females have specialized in what they can do best, which does not allow them to make many quick movements.

Thus, foraging becomes their best option. Although females are known to hunt in some selected cases, they are not known to hunt big games. Their hunting is mostly restricted to traps as a way of catching prey. Therefore, the limitations brought about due to physiological features have made females take to foraging and gathering as the best way to find food.

Stoet (2011) observes that the link between object location memory and gathering is guided by the fact that edible objects are found at given locations. (p. 421). Immobile resources require different computational skills for them to be located. It takes a lot more memory retrieval for one to relocate locations where food resources were once found.

The tendency for the female mind to stick with foraging has developed to the extent that it becomes automatically guided to earlier locations where food was previously found. An advantage to this case is because, in most instances as stated above, edible objects can be found in the same location repeatedly. According to New, Danielle, and Steven (2007), an experiment to asses memory for location of immobile food resources found that females’ location of such food resources is more accurate than that of males (p. 2680).

Advantages that Males have for Hunting

Males have better computational requirements for mobile prey as compared to women. This has helped to advance their abilities to hunt prey. Their vividness for dynamic moving things enables them to have better shots that can bring big prey down, which is something that females lack.

Males have more power and thrust when shooting, which has enabled them become better hunters due to their ability to shoot objects such as spears over a long distance as they require great momentum to hit a prey with an impact (New, Danielle & Steven, 2007, p. 2679). On the other hand, when comparing this ability to that of women, one finds that females have less power to shoot things like spears over an extended space.

Whenever females do the shooting, it is usually over a very short distance and off target. This case can be attributed to lack of steadiness due to their physiological features. Only in exceptional cases are females found to have as good hunting skills as those of men. Nevertheless, it is a feature that cannot be replicated to a larger group of females. Navigational skills in men are found not only in finding direction, but also in directing the tools of work (Cashdan et al., 2012, p. 278).

This finding is found in the way men can throw a weapon for hunting with accuracy to hit the target. Men apply men’s spatial abilities of navigation for hunting prey. In so doing, they become better hunters. The same spatial skills in throwing are combined in such a way that males are able to hit moving targets better relative to women. In hunting, not all the time the prey is mobile.

Thus, males’ ability to intercept is made better by their ability to calculate the speed of a moving target and throwing a weapon at such a speed that will meet the moving target at some point (Stoet, 2011, p. 420). Males’ physiological features also enable them to make better hunters due to the formation of their body muscles as well the pelvic bone structure. It gives them better movement as compared to females.

When it comes to navigation, males prefer using vectors to landmarks (Piccardi et al., 2008, p. 128). In the use of vectors to navigate, males apply orientation in their movement, which offers them a good hunting strategy because they are able to determine the movement of prey without following it directly. Therefore, they can find shortcuts that would enable them intercept the prey using the shortest distance possible.

According to New, Danielle, and Steven (2007), males can make a better direction decision, which at the end of the day gives them a better ability to direct. This element is important in hunting because, other than navigation, they are able to throw weapons in the right direction with good precision (p. 2679). Research findings by New, Danielle, and Steven (2007) indicate that the foraging ability by women is informed mostly by nutritional contents in food (p. 2681).

Gender Roles and Spatial Abilities

According to research findings by Ecuyer- Dab and Robert (2007), when one is using incidentally locations in trying to recognize objects, women tend to surpass men in their abilities to recognize objects that have not been moved from one location to another and for those whose location has been moved. This confirms that, as part of women’s foraging abilities, memory for static locations is important because it enables them to forage and gather better (Stoet, 2011, p. 422).

The role of women in child rearing also sets them to become better foragers than men because females are always under pressure to provide for the young ones as a way of ensuring their survival. Survival for the fittest requires individuals to apply ingenuity in their need to survive and hence having to find the simplest means of getting food as the basic object for survival.

Therefore, females will tend to try many different things that would ensure their offspring survives and/or will not force themselves into activities that are tedious when trying to find food because this matter would be too much a burden when they add it to child caring (Stoet, 2011, p. 422). On the other hand, men spend a lot of time away from their families especially from children thus are not burdened by the need to do things at the pace of their young ones (Stoet 2011, p. 422).

In this instance, males are able to take care of their activities without disturbance and with a lot of concentration. Hunting as a skill and practice requires the hunter to move in a stealth manner to be as close as possible to the prey as a way of getting a better shot at the target. This step cannot happen when in a company of young ones because they would not understand the activity taking place thus scaring away the prey.

Brown (2013) finds that a female’s mind has a higher tendency to capture objects in to its attention thus making it easy for them to locate with precision where certain objects of interest to them are found (p. 726). On the other hand, males’ mind has very little space for capturing objects and their locations and storing them in mind. This ability can be informed by the tendency of males to have more interest at moving objects than on stationary ones.

Hunting entails chasing after animals that do not take a single direction and hence not predictable in their flight. This case negates the need to memorize exact locations for prey because, at the end of the day, the prey will not be found on the same exact location.

Influences of Age on Spatial Abilities

When it comes to object location memory, one fundamental aspect that cannot be ignored, which is very important, is the age and sex. Females start training at a very early age on object location. The higher the age, the more experienced they become (Cashdan et al., 2012, p. 279).

Females gain more experience over a period in memorizing object location hence making them better gatherers because time will always allow them to get to know many more locations that have food objects to allow them to differentiate them better. Age for males is an advantage especially when they advance in age (Cashdan et al., 2012, p. 280).

As age is an advantage to females in foraging, it is also an advantage to males because it enables them to develop better skills for hunting. The hunting technique is something that develops with time. Through practice, a male can become a better hunter.

Although age in males might become a disadvantage again because, the more advanced the age, the more the drop in energy in the male bodies, males depend on energy as one of the most important elements for their hunting skills because, for them to throw a weapon with potent force, they must be energetic enough.

Males also require speed for them to make better hunters. This speed only grows with age and consequently subsides with age (McBurney et al., 1997). Therefore, with good skills but without energy, males’ hunting capabilities wane significantly. Therefore, age is a very big determinant in the abilities of both sexes to either hunt or gather

Conclusion

Different research has been done to prove the spatial abilities of the male and female sex. Different researchers have come out with different conclusions. What cannot be disputed is that, naturally, the spatial difference between men and females is more of a natural thing than of an acquired one because different people believe in different theories, which at the end of the day tend to draw the same conclusion.

The convergence of the same conclusion therefore negates the same theories that try to explain the same phenomenon. A simple fact remains that men and women have different spatial abilities. On the other hand, one theory that comes closest to explain the difference without raising much dispute is the biological theory that tries to explain the working of the brain and how it informs the female and male minds to takes up certain practices. This difference can be attributed to hormonal distribution as a basic way of explaining the male and female variations.

Reference List

Brown, J. (2013). A sex difference in location-based inhibition-of-return. Personality & Individual Differences, 54(6), 721-725.

Cashdan, E., Marlowe, W., Crittenden, A., Porter, C., & Wood, M. (2012). Sex differences in spatial cognition among Hadza foragers. Evolution And Human Behavior, 33(4), 274-284.

Ecuyer-Dab, I., & Robert, M. (2007). The Female Advantage in Object Location Memory According to the Foraging Hypothesis: A Critical Analysis. Human Nature, 18(4), 365-385.

McBurney, H., Gaulin, C., Devineni, T., & Adams, C. (1997). Superior spatial memory of women: Stronger evidence for the gathering hypothesis. Evolution And Human Behavior, 18(3), 165-174.

Neave, N., Hamilton, C., Hutton, L., Tildesley, N., & Pickering, T. (2005). Some Evidence of a Female Advantage in Object Location Memory Using Ecologically Valid Stimuli. Human Nature, 16(2), 146-163.

New, J., Krasnow, M., Truxaw, D., & Gaulin, S. (2007). Spatial adaptations for plant foraging: women excel and calories count. Proceedings Of The Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 274(1626), 2679-2684.

Piccardi, L., Iaria, G., Bianchini, F., Zompanti, L., & Guariglia, C. (2008). Walking in the Corsi test: Which type of memory do you need?. Neuroscience Letters, 432(2), 127-131.

Stoet, G. (2011). Sex differences in search and gathering skills. Evolution And Human Behavior, 32(6), 416-422.

Introduction

Genders do differ, and people should accept this factor to create a society free from stereotypes and prejudiced attitudes. Today, one can observe the rise of the ideas of tolerance and equality that can be taken as one of the central forces directing the evolution of communities, shaping the international discourse, and preconditioning the appearance of various civil movements and concepts. All these ideas have an important goal, which is to eliminate any forms of discrimination and cultivate an environment where representatives of all genders, cultures, races, and religions will be able to communicate free.

However, in an attempt to reconsider stereotypical patterns that had been relevant for a longer period of history, activists create the basis for the emergence of another problem as the natural boundary between genders, which comes from the anatomical and physiological differences, starts to disappear, and it is dangerous for the future generations. There are fundamental differences in males’ and females’ bodies that precondition the existence of various behaviors, aggression levels and patterns, and sexualities serving a basis for the beneficial partnership and gender relations.

Background

Prior to the analysis of the given problem, it is critical to create the background for debates and outline the position that will be offered in the paper. The main argument is that the leading cause of the difference in genders is human nature and anatomy, which precondition the existence of specific mechanisms in males and females to guarantee their survival. However, it does not mean that they should serve as the factor promoting discrimination or emphasizing the superior or inferior character of one gender or another.

On the contrary, and in accordance with modern ideas, all individuals should enjoy the same level of respect and a tolerant attitude regardless of any possible factors. At the same time, the environment of this sort can be created only with the correct understanding of people’s physiology and peculiarities of behaviors.

The topicality of the selected issue can be proven by the existence of multiple research papers devoted to it. The majority of researchers are united in the opinion that the presence of gender differences should not be disregarded, and its significance cannot be intentionally reduced as it might create a dangerous precedent resulting in the collapse of society (Bjorkvist, 2018; Freeman et al., 2017).

Thus, one of the first visible differences is adherence to various behavioral patterns in daily living. Bjorkvist (2018) assumes that it mainly comes from the existence of specific mentalities peculiar to males and females that had been formed for centuries under the impact of both social and physiological factors and preconditioned the appearance of various spheres of interests, occupations, desires, and goals. Due to the continuous evolution process, humanity has elaborated patterns that became the most effective measures to survive and reproduce. That is why we can still observe critical discrepancies between men and women.

Aggression

For instance, aggression is one of the first factors that should be mentioned when cogitating about a given issue. Bjorkvist (2018), analyzing the existence of various patterns peculiar to boys and girls at the early ages of their development, assumes that there are specific genetic determinants of both physical and indirect aggression as these types can provide certain evolutionary advantages. In his study, the researcher outlines the fact that boys more often engage in direct, violent, or physical forms of behaviors, while girls are more likely to utilize verbal tools to attack others (Bjorkvist, 2018).

The existence of this fact comes from the peculiarities of groups to which males and females belong and relations within these very units (Bjorkvist, 2018). Additionally, there is a strong influence of archetypes that exist in various societies and encourage individuals to act in particular ways, which means that boys feel free to fight and girls can use hidden forms that have usually been their basic way to protect themselves from violent actions (Bjorkvist, 2018). In such a way, the difference can be seen in the early ages, and with future development, it preserves and remains one of the factors shaping individuals’ behavior.

More detailed investigations also show that there are specific inborn traits that precondition the existence of various behavior styles. Bjorkvist (2018) concludes that prenatal hormone exposure is one of the vital factors that have a strong impact on the appearance of particular aggressive patterns. In other words, the difference between genders starts to appear in the first stages of an embryo’s evolution because of the effect of hormones (Freeman et al., 2017). Moreover, the life of any person since his/her childhood and up to the end depends on the functioning of the endocrine system and endocrine profile (Freeman et al., 2017).

The given factor serves as the main source of diversity in behaviors among people. Bjorkvist (2018) outlines the known fact that testosterone, also known as a male hormone, preconditions the appearance of aggressive behavioral patterns, the desire to compete, struggle, and engage in violent actions. That is why men, who are the leading producers of this hormone, are prone to physical aggression, fights, or rivalry.

Nevertheless, women also experience the strong impact of hormones, which shape their behaviors. Freeman et al. (2017) report that because of the effect of estrogen, which is produced in female bodies in larger quantities than in male ones, they avoid direct confrontations presuppose physical attacks or another sort of violent actions. Instead, indirect or verbal forms are chosen. In such a way, the existence of radical differences in men and women and their use of aggression styles is preconditioned by their bodies and the way they work. This fact can be used as one of the strong arguments to demonstrate that genders are not equal in all aspects, and it should be accepted to align useful cooperation.

Sexuality

Another important point that should be mentioned regarding the selected theme is sexuality. Today, it is one of the disputable spheres because of the existence of multiple taboos, stereotypes, and prejudiced opinions related to the given field. Moreover, for decades, it has been considered an uncomfortable question that cannot be discussed because of the existing social norms. Due to the attempts to eliminate unfair or old perspectives on relations, the idea of sexuality is widely discussed and investigated.

For instance, Freeman et al. (2017) assume that regardless of the attempts to change the attitude to the sphere of sexuality and promote the idea that men and women have equal desires and demands, there are still critical discrepancies that should be considered. Under the impact of civil rights movements and emancipation, the scope of gender differences narrowed in the second half of the 20th century for many variables and aspects (Lankveld, Wolfs, & Grauvogl, 2018). However, studies show that today, they still remain, and, in the majority of cases, they are not associated with some forms of discrimination. It means that the main cause of this diversity is the nature of men and women.

In general, sexuality can be determined as a person’s sexual orientation, preference, and sexual activity. It means that there is a broad scope of factors that should be analyzed when speaking about the differences between men and women in this aspect. For instance, the study by Beam, Marcus, Turkheimer, and Emery (2018) shows that both males and females have no serious divergences in their attitudes to homosexual relations, which means that under the strong impact of society and the topical discourse, they managed to elaborate patterns that will help them to remain involved and participate in the majority of processes (Beam et al., 2018).

At the same time, the in-depth investigation of this issue shows that women have overall more negative implicit attitudes to sexuality than men (Lankveld et al., 2018). Under the term implicit attitudes, investigators mean a set of judgments or relations to social objects that unconsciously appear in individuals (Lankveld et al., 2018). Additionally, Lankveld et al. (2018) outline that women also have stronger negative explicit attitudes toward sexuality. The given factors show that representatives of both genders have various preferences and perspectives on intimate relations that precondition their attitudes to the discussed sphere.

The divergence in attitudes mentioned above impacts individuals’ behavior and the way they respond to various stressors or factors. One of the causes of the appearance of these differences is the evolution and the development of specific mechanisms in the body needed to reproduce. For instance, Beam et al. (2018) state that due to the natural distribution of roles presupposing that females give birth, their behaviors and bodies are more focused on reproduction and search for an appropriate partner if to compare with men, who might have other motifs for engaging in sexual relations or other forms of partnership.

This opinion can be criticized today by some activists or representatives of another perspective, stating that sexuality is nowadays more impacted by personal preferences and some social factors (Beam et al., 2018). However, the endocrine profile also evidences the existence of some alterations when speaking about men and women.

Emotions

Finally, there is another factor that should be taken to demonstrate the difference between genders. Doyle, Voyer, and Lesmana (2016) suppose that there are significant discrepancies in the way male and female thinking works. It has always been one of the aspects used to promote discriminative patterns by proclaiming that representatives of one or another cohort are cleverer and should play dominant roles in society. Today, with the appearance and prevalence of the ideas of tolerance, the given positive is weak and almost eliminated; however, there is also an improved understanding that there are really some differences between men and women regarding this aspect.

Investigations show that females are better at memorizing things, and they can easily recall all events that happened many years ago (Deng, Chang, Yang, Huo, & Zhou, 2016). The scientific explanation of this fact states that women have a larger hippocampus, the part of the body responsible for these processes (Doyle et al., 2016). That is why they are more successful in this sort of activity and can engage in fields that demand these skills to be more successful.

Nevertheless, men are less emotional than women in everyday life. Fischer, Kret, and Broekens (2018) find that males “more strongly perceived non-target emotions to be present than women,” which is an important aspect impacting relations of gender and their responses. In general, the given study shows that there are fundamental discrepancies in emotion perception that comes both from the peculiarities of the bodies, mentalities, and the impact of society.

At the same time, men have lower scores of emotional intelligence, which results in an increased level of stress as they are not able to correctly realize factors affecting their moods and introduce appropriate measures to eliminate them or mitigate their adverse effects. (Fischer et al., 2018). The given study shows that genders remain different in this vital domain due to the critical divergence in mechanisms that are used to analyze and accept some strong facilitators. That is why men and women might have problems in understanding as things clear to one cohort can be confusing to another, and vice versa. The existence of these issues also evidences that there is no equality from the physiological perspective as bodies function in various ways.

Conclusion

Altogether, the review of the literature devoted to the issue helps to prove the idea that there are significant differences between genders. Men and women are not equal from the physiological perspective, and any attempt to cultivate the opposite point of view can be dangerous for society as they can destroy the basis for the enhanced cooperation between these cohorts and give rise to multiple misunderstandings in the future. The main causes for the appearance of these discrepancies are the functioning of bodies, the brain, and the endocrine systems that produce various hormones impacting behavioral patterns, aggression styles, emotions, and responses to stressors.

References

Beam, C., Marcus, K., Turkheimer, E., & Emery, R. (2018). Gender differences in the structure of marital quality. Behavior Genetics, 48(3), 209-223. Web.

Bjorkvist, K. (2018). Gender differences in aggression. Current Opinion in Psychology, 39-42. Web.

Deng, Y., Chang, L., Yang, M., Huo, M., & Zhou, R. (2016). Gender differences in emotional response: Inconsistency between experience and expressivity. PLoS One, 11(6). Web.

Doyle, R. A., Voyer, D., & Lesmana, M. (2016). Item type, occlusion, and gender differences in mental rotation. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 69(8), 1530–1544. Web.

Fischer, A., Kret, M., & Broekens, J. (2018). Gender differences in emotion perception and self-reported emotional intelligence: A test of the emotion sensitivity hypothesis. PLoS One, 13(1). Web.

Freeman, A., Stanko, P., Berkowitz, L., Parnell, N., Zuppe, A., Bale, … Epperson, N. (2017). Inclusion of sex and gender in biomedical research: Survey of clinical research proposed at the University of Pennsylvania. Biology of Sex Differences, 8. Web.

Lankveld, J., Wolfs, K., & Grauvogl, A. (2018). Gender differences in the relationship of sexual functioning with implicit and explicit sex liking and sex wanting: A community sample study. The Journal of Sex Research. Web.

Introduction

Gender may be defined as psychological condition and state that identifies a person as either male or female. Generally, the interaction between hormones and behavior determines gender identity to some extent. This paper will analyze some of the ways through which the interaction and relationship between hormones and behavior determine gender identity. There will also be a discussion about the roles played by biological and environmental factors in human behavior. This will be followed by an evaluation of the role of nature and nurture in determination of human characteristics and sexual differentiation. Finally, the paper will evaluate and analyze sexual identity in relation to biopsychology (Eagly and Wood, 2013).

Relationship between Hormones and Behavior

Various researchers have established that there is a close relationship between endocrine hormones and human behavior (Eagly and Wood, 2013). For example, growth hormones are usually responsible for determining how people grow, while sexual hormones such as gonads and hormones produced by the ovaries influence sexual behaviors. This is a testament to the fact that most sexual behaviors of females are usually evident during the estrus cycle.

In addition, the testosterone hormone in males is usually responsible for the development of male sex characteristics. However, female sex hormones such as estrogen and progesterone do not play a great role in the fetal sexual differentiation. Furthermore, the male sex hormone known as the androgen is mainly responsible for the development of male external reproductive organs (Eagly and Wood, 2013).

A hormone is a chemical substance that circulates in the body, which has influence on behavior and physiology. Most hormones that affect behavior are usually located in the brain although their effects are felt in various body parts. Generally, these hormones influence various behaviors such as cognitive, emotional and sexual behaviors. Nevertheless, major hormones in the body are found in the nervous system and the endocrine system (Coleman and Hong, 2008).

Various scholars argue that the main difference between female and male brain development usually depends on the sex of the person and the gender identity. For example, studies on brain structure and functioning reveal that prenatal exposure of male children to androgen hormone slows down the growth of the left hemisphere of the brain (Coleman and Hong, 2008).

Again, researches provide that the right hemisphere is responsible for most characteristics and abilities of male children and adults, mainly because the male sex hormone is associated with development of the right hemisphere of the brain. This also indicates why male students mainly show characteristics such as mathematical talents that are located in the right hemisphere. On the other hand, the female sex hormone estrogen is responsible for the development of the left hemisphere of the brain.

This is why characteristics that this part of the brain is responsible for, such as the ability to speak clearly and other verbal qualities, are mainly witnessed in females. Finally, the human brain, especially its part known as the hypothalamus, plays a critical role in sexual behaviors of human beings, since it is mostly responsible for the functioning and development of the sexual behaviors (Coleman and Hong, 2008).

Gender Identity

Gender identity is a system that involves qualities of masculinity and femininity, including the roles that the society prescribes to men and women. Generally, biological factors and environmental factors usually influence and determine sexual behaviors of humans. These biological factors also help in the sexual differentiation of individuals and enable people to understand various challenges that are involve in human sexuality. Besides, at early stages of children development, their sexual differentiation is usually influenced by the various environmental factors.

Gender identity usually allows individuals to identify themselves as either male or female. The environmental factors that affect human gender identity can be termed as nurture while the biological factors that influence behaviors and gender identity are known as nature. Although other factors such as social interaction between adults and children also play a significant role, nature and nurture are the main determinants of gender identity (Eagly and Wood, 2013).

Nature and Nurture Determination of Gender Identity

Biological factors or nature affect behavior and gender identity in that most behaviors are genetically inherited or emanate from parental hormonal influence. For example, females have chromosomes XX, while males have chromosomes XY, both of which are responsible for gender identity such that, combination of XX results into a female child while combination of XY results into a male child. This clearly shows that nature has direct influence on gender identity.

Again, hormones influence the gender identity, as those who have more female sex hormones usually portray female characteristics while those who have more male hormones usually show more male characteristics. This also shows that nature has effects and influences on gender identity (Goddings, Burnett, Bird, Viner, and Blakemore, 2012).

On the other hand, environmental factors or nurture influence gender identity, as a person tends to develop characteristics that are related to their exposure to the external environment. Although this involves both social and environmental factors, it is important that the method of child rearing be properly considered, as it may herald future behavior of the child.

For example, most children usually learn and develop through their life experiences, especially their observation of daily parental and other adults’ lifestyles. Therefore, those children who are brought up by same-sex parents develop the same gender as their parents. This shows that the method of rearing a child, including mode of dress and their surrounding environment play a great role in the development of the child’s gender identity (Goddings, Burnett, Bird, Viner and Blakemore, 2012).

In my opinion, biological factors or nature provide greater influence in determination of gender identity than the environmental factors or nurture. Evidently, identical twins will show more gender similarities than dizygotic twins will, even if reared in the same or different environmental factors.

However, some argue that both nature and nurture contribute equally to the development of gender identity. Nevertheless, biological factors or hereditary factors influencing gender identity are usually stronger and more significant in an individual than the nurture or environmental factors (Goddings, Burnett, Bird, Viner, and Blakemore, 2012).

Biopsychology Argument

Biopsychology identifies only two gender identities, male and female. However, this argument fails to take into account other gender identities such as intersexuals and transsexuals who may show both male and female sexual characteristics at the same time, as they have both female sex and male sex hormones. Despite this argument, biopsychology helps in scientific study of the brain and the various hormones that affect gender identity.

Therefore, through biopsychology, we can scientifically and biologically explain the reasons behind transsexual behaviors, as well as why person’s gender identity occurs the way it does. Moreover, through biopsychology, the contributing factors of nature and nurture in relation to gender identity can be explained scientifically and biologically, hence the explanation of the main reasons for abnormal sexual behaviors (Goddings, Burnett, Bird, Viner and Blakemore, 2012).

Conclusion

This paper has discussed various factors that influence human behaviors, as well as critically evaluated the role of nature and nurture in determining human gender identity.

From the paper, it is clear that nature refers to genetic factors that individuals inherit from their parents and these include sex hormones and chromosomal factors. In addition, the paper has also discussed about gender identity and established that biopsychology can help in solving the gender identity controversy involving transsexuals using both scientific and biological reasons behind these sexual behaviors

Besides, from the discussion above, it is clear that hormones and environment have a lot of influence on human development and hormonal control in both emotional and sexual behaviors. Again, hormones in the brain, especially sex hormones such as androgens, mainly determine sexual differentiation in humans.

Sexual differentiation is a process through which males and females develop external reproductive organs, usually this process starts from the fertilization of the ovum and continues until the development of zygote and embryo. Besides, chromosomes also play an important role in sexual differentiations.

In addition, androgen and other female sex hormones are also very important in the determination of sexual differentiation. Finally, other gender identity characteristics include those related to intersexual, hermaphrodites, transsexual, gender dysphoria, and autogynephilic.

References

Coleman, J. M., & Hong, Y. (2008). Beyond nature and nurture: The influence of lay gender theories on self-stereotyping. Self & Identity, 7(1), 34-53.

Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (2013). The Nature–Nurture Debates: 25 Years of Challenges in Understanding the Psychology of Gender. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8(3), 340-357.

Goddings, A., Burnett, S., Bird, G., Viner, R. M., & Blakemore, S. (2012). The relationship between puberty and social emotion processing. Developmental Science, 15(6), 801-811.

Human understandings of gender and sex have been evolving over the past two centuries. Since 1970, many young people have been developing new concepts and ideas about the concept of gender. These new understandings have led to the evolution of the term, thereby encouraging different individuals to undertake social roles, responsibilities, and activities that would have been identified as inappropriate. This reflection paper describes the outstanding distinctions between gender and sex.

Sex and Gender: Distinctions

Sex and gender are two terms that many scholars use interchangeably. However, Woods (2017) defines “gender” as a social construct that determines how individuals view themselves. Experts use conceptions of functions, roles, and tasks attributed to women and men to understand gender positions. The term focuses on females and males in an attempt to understand their unique expectations and interests. The concept is expanded further to describe the ethnic background, wealth, age, and health. However, researchers use the word “sex” to refer to the existing biological differences between women and men. The concept also denotes the presence of mobile gametes in males and immobile ones in women. People can determine sex by examining the absence or presence of Y chromosomes.

Personal Observations

The completed class materials have equipped me with new ideas about the above concepts and their differences. I understand that sex can be subdivided into these two categories: men and women. I also acknowledge that there are individuals who should be labeled as transgender. This is the reason why some countries allow members of this third sex type to pursue their interests.

I currently have a broad knowledge of gender. I identify it by focusing on the positions, roles, careers, and expectations of different individuals. For example, the term dictates the hierarchies of men and women in their respective societies. In many regions, men tend to monitor the directions of their families. People can use the term to analyze the existing differences among females and males based on wealth or age.

Examples of Gender and Sex

I have engaged in different conversations revolving around the concepts of sex and gender. For example, there was a time when I was discussing with my relatives the distinctions between the two concepts. I observed that the majority of them had a clear knowledge of sex. However, I noted that they used gender to refer to the biological differences existing between females and males. This is a clear indication that such terms were being applied incorrectly.

The reasoning behind such an argument is that there is a significant difference between gender and sex. I also had conversations with professionals in the fields of sociology and psychology. Such experts understood the meanings of gender and sex and used them correctly. They also defined sex using the unique features possessed by men and women. This means that the two terms were being applied appropriately.

I have viewed different television programs and movies in an attempt to understand the differences between gender and sex. For example, the film, “She’s the Man” narrates the story of a young girl who joins her brother’s learning institution. She pretends to be a boy in an attempt to join the school’s soccer team. From this film, I observed that Viola Hastings’ sex of that of a female. However, she managed to pursue a duty that was associated with boys and men. The video revealed that the concept of gender roles was changing in different parts of the world. Although women’s sexes remain unchanged, their duties have merged with those of men (Woods, 2017). The applications of these terms in such observations, films, and programs are correct since they focus on all the key aspects associated with them.

The lesson for Young Children

My proposed lesson targets children aged between 12 and 15 years. The first aspect of the plan is the definition of sex. The learners will be encouraged to give their views about the concept. The lesson will then define sex as biological and physical differences. Diagrammatic representations of reproductive systems will also be helpful throughout the learning period. The next section will focus on the definition of gender. Learners will be enlightened about the differences between these two terms. The idea of gender will be discussed using social functions and family positions. Changes experienced in the definition of gender roles will also be described. Finally, the learners will have to complete several assignments.

Importance

All people need to have a clear distinction between these towns. This kind of knowledge can guide them to pursue diverse careers and roles that fulfill their goals. It will also ensure that young people are prepared for the technological and career changes experienced in the world today (“Study finds,” n.d.). More people will also be willing to fight for gender equality.

Conclusion

The above personal reflection has revealed that people use sex and gender used interchangeably. Sex denotes the biological and physical differences existing between females and males. Gender is a socially constructed term focusing on people’s social responsibilities and duties. It is, therefore, appropriate for people to have a proper understanding of these distinctions to minimize stereotypes and pursue their career goals.

References

Study finds gender brain differences. (n.d.). Bloomberg News, p. A36.

Woods, J. T. (2017). Gendered lives: Communication, gender, and culture (13th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publication.

Ethnographic research is an evidence-based practice aimed at understanding the behaviors, practices, and norms of a given culture. The issue of gender forms an integral part of every region or community. A study focusing on this topic can offer meaningful insights for understanding human relations, identifying most of the challenges they face, and offering powerful concepts to empower them. This paper gives a detailed summary and analysis of the information gained after conducting a research focusing on the issue of gender separation in Zayed University.

Research Question and Hypothesis

Gender separation is a common practice observed in Abu Dhabi whereby sex is used to group people in different learning institutions and workplaces. A study focusing on Zayed University was capable of presenting meaningful information regarding the nature of this issue. A proper research question was considered to support the intended study.

Research Question

What are the implications of gender separation in Zayed University and how does such an initiative affect the experiences of learners?

Hypothesis

Although gender separation in Zayed University is a practice informed by the culture of the region, there are positive and negative impacts associated with the experiences, relationships, and outcomes of different students.

Background

Although gender separation remains a common practice in Abu Dhabi, some issues have emerged that make it impossible for people to achieve their potential. Such an occurrence could also deliver positive outcomes in different societies and make it possible for many citizens to achieve their potential (Baites & Fratkin, 2002). Without the presence of clear facts or aspects regarding this practice, I was convinced that a study focusing on gender separation in Zayed University could present superior insights for proposing new superior ideas to the government. The successful completion of the research could also become a new opportunity for transforming sex relations in this country.

The fact that there was a need for men and women to coexist in different environments and pursue their respective gender roles drew me to this topic. The formulated question was also right and capable of presenting positive insights for addressing this issue. This was the case since the research could present superior ideas regarding the reasons for implementing the idea of gender separation and the major issues associated with it (Baites & Fratkin, 2002). After the successful completion of the study, this topic came out: how can learning institutions consider a new model to overcome the challenges gender separation causes?

Study Analysis

As a citizen of this country, I believe that the intended study was relevant and capable of presenting useful insights that can empower and make it easier for me to achieve my potential. This is true since the issue of gender separation affects all individuals across the region and it is in accordance with the existing culture (Baites & Fratkin, 2002). The study was conducted in a professional manner and without any form of bias. I also maintained a positive relationship with the respondents and interviewees since we all have similar expectations and experiences.

However, I have always remained sympathetic since such individuals experience various gaps that are attributable to this kind of separation. With this kind of understanding, I was convinced that a detailed study would present new insights for either encouraging them to promote the existing kind of division or consider a new model. This was something necessary since the global society was embracing superior cultural beliefs and behaviors that could empower people and make it easier for them to achieve their potential (Wong, Shi, & Chen, 2018). The only bias I had before starting the targeted research was that I was convinced that the separation of gender in campuses was something inappropriate. Consequently, many learners going through such a system were finding it hard to develop evidence-based concepts for pursuing their aims in life. The good thing was that I ensured that such views and thoughts did not affect the quality or success of my study.

In terms of place, I observed that most of the learners in Zayed University were pleased and happy with their learning environments. They appeared unworried and ready to pursue their objectives. I heard most of them chatting and sharing information in a professional manner. I did not smell anything suspicious throughout the study period. The atmosphere was conducive and capable of supporting the study process. I managed to contain and manage my emotions while I was in the learning environment. The selected individuals were cooperative and willing to present high-quality feedback.

Results

The identified respondent presented meaningful insights and ideas regarding the issue of gender separation in Zayed University. For instance, it was revealed that many individuals attended mixed school and later joined separated campuses or universities (Gender, n.d.). This was the same case for the selected interviewee for the exercise. The existing culture in Abu Dhabi emerged as the main cause since many learning institutions embraced the idea of division (Baites & Fratkin, 2002). Consequently, this response was received during the study: “we are used to men and women being separated and not together”.

The individual was convinced that the existing model or nature of separation resulted in negative impacts in this society. The student presented this response regarding the current practice: “probably negative because people tend to want something they can’t have so they’ll learn to sneak around and keep secrets.” Consequently, the interviewee indicated that there was a need for campuses to have both males and females in an attempt to foster diversification. Such an approach would make it possible for many students to collaborate, share ideas, and acquire new concepts from each other (Wong et al., 2018). The approach would encourage them to start pursuing the notions of cohesion, effective listening, and efficient communication.

The respondent supported the use of trials whereby a small number of males or females were introduced in different settings to examine and monitor how they related with one another and pursued their objectives. Such a strategy would offer meaningful insights for making the best choices and implementing them at Zayed University (Gender, n.d.). The interviewee was also used to a setting whereby boys and girls pursued their goals in the same learning environments. When individuals are combined in a mixed class, chances are high that they will acquire additional skills, be able to relate with opposite gender effectively, and solve most of the challenges they face (Wong et al., 2018). This means that the country can consider and implement a new model whereby students learn in mixed settings from FS1 until they graduate.

Similarly, the study findings supported the establishment of new workplaces whereby both males and females worked together and collaborated to achieve their aims. Such an approach would encourage them to overcome the existing differences, improve cohesion, and support the notion of teamwork (Baites & Fratkin, 2002). These gains would eventually make the targeted organization or working environment successful or profitable.

From this analysis, it is evident that some unique benefits of promoting the existing gender separation were observed in this learning institution. For instance, some learners were pleased with the setup since it created the best environment for pursuing their objectives with minimum distraction. The students were also willing and ready to acquire appropriate competencies that would make them successful women or men. Consequently, they would be prepared for a wide range of obstacles and challenges in their professional lives (Wong et al., 2018). This means that policymakers and stakeholders can strike a balance between these benefits and challenges in an attempt to propose superior approaches for empowering learners and making it easier for them to achieve their potential.

Conclusion

The above discussion has revealed that gender separation is a common practice in many learning institutions in Abu Dhabi. While some groups believe that such a model is appropriate and capable of equipping students with appropriate skills that can support their gender roles, there are those who are opposed to it since it fails to consider the changes experienced in the world today. The identified respondent managed to present evidence-based ideas and concepts that different policymakers could consider and implement in an attempt to overcome the challenges associated with this kind of division. There is also a need for researchers to complete additional ethnographic studies to get a clear picture of this issue and propose superior initiatives for transforming different learning institutions and workplaces in this country.

References

Baites, D. G., & Fratkin, E. M. (2002). Cultural anthropology (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Pearson.

Gender. (n.d.). [PowerPoint slides].

Wong, W. I., Shi, S. Y., & Chen, Z. (2018). Students from single-sex schools are more gender-salient and more anxious in mixed-gender situations: Results from high school and college samples. PLoS One, 13(12), e0208707. Web.

Introduction

Gender bias in the workplace is one of the most challenging factors that affect employers and employees alike. Many employees have lost either a job or experienced a hard time during interviews because of their gender. It is true to state that the female gender is on the receiving end of this bias. Women mainly find themselves discriminated upon in the workplace.

Women either fail to get employed or they do not get promoted due to their gender. This research paper will focus on various aspects of gender bias that affect the outcome of interviews in the workplace, including the relationship between gender and organizational communication, gender bias and female leadership, gender and organizational culture, and stereotypes that enhance gender bias in the workplace.

The Relationship between Gender and Organizational Communication

Interviews are an integral part of organizational communication. Various types of interviews take place in a firm, all of which are often affected by gender bias. Organizational communication focuses on all types of communication, with the main forms including verbal and nonverbal communication. These two types are also the key components of interviews.

Verbal communication is used in all types of interviews. It can be classified as vocal verbal interview, which is an interview that uses speech, or non-vocal verbal interview, which is an interview that uses text. It is critical to point out that different types of interviews also exist, including promotional, appraisal, and selection interviews.

Verbal communication has been used in various occasions and in a number of companies to promote gender bias. Green (2) argues that verbal communication is one of the major factors one has to consider when trying to understand gender bias in working places. Employers are likely to consider the quality of talk of an individual during interviews.

However, most of the times women end up being disregarded based on the argument that they are not assertive in the way they talk. As Green (2) points out, women are considered to be lacking the necessary skills needed to convince clients or sponsors in some types of work. This puts them at a disadvantage if they are seeking promotions (Green 2).

The employers also prefer men employees due to some of their characteristics. Morris (para 3) explains that men are perceived to talk with a commanding voice, deep pitch, slow rate, and a relaxed tone. Women, on the other hand, are perceived to talk a lot softer and with a higher and unprofessional pitch. Additionally, women are considered to be powerless in arguments and have a strained tone when caught in complicated situations.

All these qualities show weaknesses in women. Morris (para 4) argues that these stereotypes have made it almost impossible for women to be invited to participate in some interviews. They have also made it impossible for women to fair well in promotional and other types of interviews.

Nonverbal communication also plays a vital role in interviews. The interviewers normally assess an individual through facial expression, gestures, and other body movements portrayed by the interview candidate. Females are perceived to show too much emotion through their non-verbal communication. They are also considered to have less desire for personal territory. This is viewed as a negative attribute in the workplace.

It reflects the ‘weakness’ that women feel, thus they cannot claim any territory as their own. Men, on the other hand, are considered to be less expressive and very aggressive in establishing their territories. This makes them valuable as it shows that they are willing to do what it takes to make the company in question successful.

Gender bias is very evident in organizational communication. The practice has been used to determine in advance the outcome of interviews, where some jobs are considered to be suitable for women, while others are for men.

Therefore, a woman would not get the position that is considered for a man even if they were interviewed for the position, in addition to having the necessary skills and academic achievements. Many companies do not shun women from interviewing for such positions. However, on many occasions, it is their male colleagues who get the job.

Gender Bias and Female Leadership

Gender bias has also had an impact on female leadership. According to Johnson et al. (117), legitimization of women leaders is important in solving the issue of gender bias and female leadership. One has to be interviewed in the workplace to get a promotion.

This type of interview is known as a promotional interview. Most companies allow women to interview for leadership positions. However, very few women get these positions due to gender bias against women (Johnson et al. 120).

Women themselves refuse to attend interviews for such positions due to their belief that they are not good enough compared to their male colleagues, despite their academic achievements and skills (Heilman and Parks-Stamm 50).

According to Heilman and Parks-Stamm (52), gender stereotypes are the main causes of the bias nature of the interviews and the workplace in general. Women are normally considered weak, both physically and mentally. Therefore, they cannot hold leadership positions.

Johnson et al. (124) argue that women take up leadership roles in companies where women are in power, as opposed to those employing more men. The researchers attribute this to the fact that men will always be given first priority in interviews in companies with more men.

Women will take leadership positions when they are competing for positions against other women. Johnson et al. (126) explain that many women have no fear or hesitation fighting for positions with other women. They, however, have the fear of fighting for such positions with men.

Johnson et al. (130) explain that legitimizing female leadership in a company can help make women more aggressive and enthusiastic in interviewing for such positions. It can make it easier for other employees to respect the females in leadership positions and to see them as equals.

Gender bias has caused many challenges for women who have shown an aggressive nature in the workplace. Women are never elevated, despite the fact that they might qualify for the leadership positions. This makes them the ridicule of the workplace, thereby affecting their moral esteem. Repeatedly, women have opted to change jobs due to this kind of treatment.

It makes it nearly impossible for a woman to have and manage a successful career. Johnson et al. (131) argue that employers must also be ready to have a woman lead them to get rid of these gender stereotypes in promotional interviews. It is possible to find that women get the leadership positions, but other employers make it hard for them to do their work effectively.

Gender and Organizational Culture

All firms have their own unique cultures. These cultures preset and establish the behaviors, attitudes, and the success of the employees. There are two types of organizations in relation to gender.

They include firms that have more women and those that have more men, each with its unique cultures. As Rudman and Phelan (20) argue, the existence of varying cultures in working places results in the presence of gender bias in the companies.

The unique organizational cultures have a direct link to the outcome of the interviews. For example, Johnson et al. (128) argue that it is difficult to hire a man in a firm that is mainly run by women. This is also the case in as far as firms employing more men than women are concerned. These trends show a form of culture inherent in the two types of organizations.

More females feel comfortable going for interviews in companies that have more women employees because they compete with other women. In such circumstances, women get many and major leadership positions. They also turn out to be very aggressive towards each other.

However, women fear going for interviews in companies employing more men because they do not like competing with men. However, Tiia et al. (319) state that women might go for interviews for positions that are perceived to be feminine.

Organizational culture also establishes the success of the employees. Tiia et al. (320) present a case of peer talk. This involves how people in the same age group talk to each other and about each other.

The study shows that women talk more aggressively and confidently among their female peers compared to how they talk when in the presence of men. On the other hand, men do not change their quality of talk, whether they are with fellow men or with women. This factor has been used in many interview cases to establish the gender of the person who will hold the position in question.

Stereotypes that Enhance Gender Biasness in the Workplace

Stereotypes are the main causes of gender bias in the workplace. It is due to these stereotypes about men and women that women cannot find employment or get promoted if they are already in employment. One stereotype that has been used to shape the outcome of interviews is that women are not suitable for jobs that need critical thinking.

This is attributed to the fact that women are seen as a bit weak mentally. This stereotype has been used to determine whether women or men will hold positions in the various industrial companies. Women are given opportunities to work as secretaries and office attendants, despite their qualifications that enable them to be financial directors and other high positions.

Another stereotype that is commonly used in the interview process is that women are not aggressive. The woman will be thoroughly questioned on how she expects to do the work if the job entails heavy work.

However, the men who are doing the same interview will be asked about other mental and creative issues about the job. This has posed a huge challenge to women because they are weaker physically compared to men. This stereotype blocks women out of jobs that require heavy lifting and working for long hours.

It is also very common to find companies rejecting women’s proposals for employment and promotions due to their ability to get pregnant. The issue of pregnancy has blocked many women from holding good positions in the workplace.

Children are seen as a huge commitment, the employer may think that the woman will not be able to commit fully to the job at hand. Many employers also believe that women have many commitments outside the work area that disqualify them from complicated jobs.

The stereotype that women express emotions easily than men has also been used against women in the job market. This stereotype is based on the fact that many employers require people who will not break under pressure. Women are known to be soft and tend to cry a lot when faced with pressures.

This makes women vulnerable, yet most companies do not want vulnerability, especially when it comes to holding leadership positions. Bellou (3) considered the impact of stereotypes on the female gender. She argued that these stereotypes are also accepted by some women. This is why women do not try to interview for job positions that are primarily perceived to be reserved for men.

Conclusion

To conclude, many companies still have a hard time fighting gender bias. This might be due to presence of gender bias in the family and school, which are the two main agents of socialization. The individual in question is likely to have gender bias if these two types of agents allow gender bias.

Gender bias is also reflected in interviews. This is always in terms of the participation and the outcome of the interviews. Many women will not participate in interviews for positions that are perceived to be masculine. In the same breath, many firms will interview, but not award women jobs that are considered to be masculine.

Works Cited

Bellou, Victoria. “Organizational Culture as a Predictor of Job Satisfaction: the Role of Gender and Age.” Career Development International 15.1(2010): 4-19. Print.

Green, Ruth M. “Gender Differences in Verbal Communication.” RUF Lehigh Summer Conference 2004, 2004. Web.

Heilman, Madeline E. and Parks-Stamm, Elizabeth J. “Gender Stereotypes in the Workplace: Obstacles to Women’s Career Progress.” In Correll Shelley J. (ed.) Social Psychology of Gender (Advances in Group Processes, Volume 24). London: Emerald Group Publishing Limited, (2007): pp. 47-77. Print.

Johnson, Cathryn, Fasula Amy M., Hysom Stuart J., Khanna Nikki. Legitimacy, “Organizational Sex Composition, and Female Leadership.” In Shane R. Thye, Edward J. Lawler (ed.) 23 (Advances in Group Processes, Volume 23). London: Emerald Group Publishing Limited (2006): pp. 117-147. Print.

Morris, Charlotte A. The Effects of Gender on Communication in the Legal Profession. 2001. Web.

Rudman, Laurie A., and Phelan Julie E. “Sex Differences, Sexism, and Sex: The Social Psychology of Gender from Past to Present.” In Shelley J. Correll (ed.) In Social Psychology of Gender (Advances in Group Processes, Volume 24). London: Emerald Group Publishing Limited (2007): pp.19-45. Print.

Tiia, Tulviste, Luule Mizera, Boel De Geer, and Marja-Terttu Tryggvason. “Cultural, Contextual, and Gender Differences in Peer Talk: A Comparative Study.” Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 51.4 (2010): 319-325. Print.

Introduction

The (often implicit) requirement to comply with the traditional gender roles persists in today’s society, in particular, affecting young children. However, this requirement may lead to several adverse consequences to individuals both when they are still children and when they grow up. This paper discusses some of these negative consequences. It is concluded that parents should be encouraged to raise their children in a gender-neutral environment in a way that is free of gender stereotypes, explicitly explaining to the children that the traditional gender roles are relative, conditional, and often artificial.

The Adverse Consequences of the Traditional Gender Roles

Complying with the traditional gender roles leads to artificial, harmful behaviors among children, and stress (Culp-Ressler, 2014; The University of Warwick, 2014)

The need to act in a manner that is compliant with the traditional gender roles is stated to make children behave artificially, performing according to these roles rather than simply acting of their own volition, which has several adverse consequences for the children of every gender (Culp-Ressler, 2014; The University of Warwick, 2014). For instance, a study conducted in the school environment has shown that boys often feel obliged to behave in the “masculine” manner, that is, to always be strong, dominant, smart, etc.

This results in the fact that boys constantly feel that they have to compete with others, engage in dominating behaviors such as bullying or sexual harassment of girls, and demonstrate their advantage in everything. It is impossible to be better than the others in every single respect, so in most situations, boys feel that they do not correspond to the stereotypes, which results in psychological stress, anxiety, insecurity, and low self-esteem (as cited in Culp-Ressler, 2014).

Besides, the constant competition and the need to achieve a higher status to be respected lead to adverse behavioral practices, such as bullying, which is stated to be unpleasant for both the bullies and the victims (Culp-Ressler, 2014). On the other hand, the girls also feel that they have to behave according to the norms; for example, they often refuse to participate in athletic activities due to their fear of being thought about as non-feminine, which may hurt their physical health. The girls also have to pretend to be less intelligent than they are in reality so as not to intimidate boys because the boys feel the need to be smarter and more dominant (The University of Warwick, 2014).

Also, the pressure to remain beautiful (from the gendered norms) and slim results in under-eating even in girls who are of healthy weight, which may have a strongly adverse impact on their developing organisms (Culp-Ressler, 2014).

Complying with traditional gender roles may be harmful to individuals when they mature (Good & Sanchez, 2010)

Also, the (implied) requirement to act in the ways that the gender roles prescribe often has adverse effects on individuals when they become adults; for instance, it has been shown that persons who attempt to act in a manner which conforms to the gender roles are likely to have lower self-esteem, lower quality of close relationships (including contingent self-worth, lower sexual autonomy, and poorer sexual pleasure), and so on (Good & Sanchez, 2010).

On the other hand, being able to meet the gender requirements may lead to higher self-esteem. And still, it is generally more difficult to meet these requirements than to fail to do so, which means that in most cases, suffering from the adverse consequences of trying to comply with the traditional gender roles is much more likely than enjoying its positive effects (Good & Sanchez, 2010). This corroborates the need to nurture the realization of the relativity of the gender norms in individuals.

Traditional gender roles pose risks to transgender and homosexual persons (Clements-Nolle et al., 2006)

Individuals who are transgender or homosexual deserve particular attention in this respect. These persons fail to comply with traditional gender norms, which causes psychological pressure. Such phenomena as gender-based discrimination and gender-based victimization, resulting from the non-compliance of these individuals with the gender norms, significantly reduce the quality of life of these persons and lead to constant stress and anxiety.

In particular, transgender individuals often attempt to commit suicide due to the constant gender-based pressure and abuse from society (Clements-Nolle et al., 2006). Therefore, it is paramount to teach such individuals from early childhood about the relativity and conditionality of these norms. Because it might sometimes be hard to tell whether a person is non-gender-compliant while they are very young, it is a good practice to explain the relativity and conditionality of these norms to any child.

The Need for Parents to Address the Gender Issues

Children learn traditional gender stereotypes at a young age, which is why the issue of gender roles should be addressed by parents early (Katch & Katch, 2010; Good & Sanchez, 2010)

It is known that children learn gender roles while being very young, and start attempting to conform to these stereotypes approximately at the age of six (Katch & Katch, 2010). This occurs as a result of the combined influence of the media, the educational system, and the children’s parents and peers (Good & Sanchez, 2010). Therefore, to avoid the situation when children feel that they need to comply with the traditional gender roles (and suffer from all the adverse consequences of it), it is paramount that parents do not raise their children according to the gender biases, but raise them in a gender-neutral environment instead.

It is also recommended that parents clearly and explicitly explain to the children that the gender roles, about which the children will learn from the media and their peers in any case, are relative, conditional, and often artificial. Of course, it is important that not only parents teach their children about the relativity of gender norms; the pressure to comply with these norms also ought to be addressed in kindergartens and schools, so that a child who is free of the gender stereotypes is not the only such person, and does not remain an outsider in their peer community.

Conclusion

Therefore, it should be stressed that the feeling that one needs to comply with the traditional gender roles and stereotypes may lead to a number of adverse consequences to individuals both when they are children and when they mature. Therefore, it is paramount that parents do not raise their children according to their gender biases, but raise them in a gender-neutral environment and teach them that the traditional gender roles are relative, conditional, and often artificial. Also, gender issues must be also addressed at school or in other environments where children communicate with their peers.

References

Clements-Nolle, K., Marx, R., & Katz, M. (2006). Attempted suicide among transgender persons: The influence of gender-based discrimination and victimization. Journal of Homosexuality, 51(3), 53-69.

Culp-Ressler, T. (2014). Forcing kids to stick to gender roles can actually be harmful to their health. Web.

Good, J. J., & Sanchez, D. T. (2010). Doing gender for different reasons: Why gender conformity positively and negatively predicts self-esteem. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 34(2), 203-214.

Katch, H., & Katch, J. (2010). When boys won’t be boys: Discussing gender with young children. Harvard Educational Review, 80(3), 379-390, 436. Web.

The University of Warwick. (2014). Girls feel they must ‘play dumb’ to please boys. Web.

Introduction

The development of the society has largely predetermined the fact that there is practically no gender inequality today. Nevertheless, a certain gap between women and men can be observed in working areas, in particular, in the remuneration of labor and obtaining responsible posts. Based on current social norms, it is not often possible to meet women who occupy leading positions and have significantly higher salaries than men. Therefore, the issue of such a gap is quite acute, and its solution will certainly help to settle some public disagreements.

Evidence of the Gap Existence

Since some professions require a rather high return, many women cannot afford to give themselves completely to work as sometimes some professions “require a kind of dedication and commitment 24/7” (Harvard Business Review 00:01:32-00:01:38). Moreover, there are some psychological factors, for example, women’s fear of great responsibility, as a result of which few of them are ready to decide on top posts with the need to control subordinates (Blau and Kahn 789). Therefore, such reasons can indicate that the gap exists, and its rationale is laid down in psychology.

Also, one of the issues is the slow growth of wages, when it is about women. According to the video “Women, Ambition and (Still) the Pay Gap,” it is impossible to say unambiguously that men deserve substantially higher salaries than women, and it is the “issue of dedication and time at work” (00:03:40-00:03:43). Career growth, as it is known, requires constant diligence from the employee. As Azmat and Petrongolo remark, women are considered to be traditionally responsible for maintaining order in the house, and this nuance hardly refers to the issue of discrimination but can be regarded as one of the reasons for the gap (33). Therefore, the facts described above make it possible to assert that the gap is not always the issue of contradiction and can be a deliberate women’s choice.

Practical Ways to Narrow the Gap

In order to narrow the gap, several methods can be used. For example, as Card et al. note, it is possible to attract women to responsible posts and encourage their successes with the help of premiums (633). It will allow correcting the situation with insufficient payment for work and stimulating women to achieve high goals. A similar method is also proposed by Joshi et al.; the authors consider the possibility of empowering women in those areas that are traditionally thought to be popular among men to equalize the opportunities of both genders (1517). It can give women a chance to receive top posts without the risk of being discriminated because of gender.

Perhaps, one of the most efficient ways to solve the issue is not only to search for potential obstacles but also to try to correct them. Thus, Mihaila claims that success in the labor market depends not on sex but on the desire to work (148). If women see clear goals and understand the value of their activities, they will certainly want to contribute to the development of a particular sphere. Accordingly, the clearer the task is, the more likely that it will be successfully implemented.

Conclusion

Thus, the problem of the pay gap is rather acute, and its solution can help equalize the chances of both sexes in the labor market. Some evidence of the relevance of the issue can be justified from different points of view. Certain practical ways can be used to solve the problem of such a gap.

Works Cited

Azmat, Ghazala, and Barbara Petrongolo. “Gender and the Labor Market: What Have we Learned from Field and Lab Experiments?” Labour Economics, vol. 30, no. 1, 2014, pp. 32-40.

Blau, Francine D., and Lawrence M. Kahn. “The Gender Wage Gap: Extent, Trends, and Explanations.” Journal of Economic Literature, vol. 55, no. 3, 2017, pp. 789-865.

Card, David, et al. “Bargaining, Sorting, and the Gender Wage Gap: Quantifying the Impact of Firms on the Relative Pay of Women.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. 131, no. 2, 2015, pp. 633-686.

Joshi, Aparna, et al. “When Can Women Close the Gap? A Meta-Analytic Test of Sex Differences in Performance and Rewards.” Academy of Management Journal, vol. 58, no. 5, 2015, pp. 1516-1545.

Mihaila, Ramona. “Is the Decrease in the Gender Wage Gap the Principal Driver of the Sustained Rise in Female Labor Market Participation?” Journal of Research in Gender Studies, vol. 6, no. 2, 2016, pp. 146-172.

“Women, Ambition and (Still) the Pay Gap.” YouTube, uploaded by Harvard Business. Web.