Category: Gender

Ambivalent sexism is bias or discrimination based on a person’s gender. Sexism can affect anyone, but it primarily affects females. It has been linked to stereotypes and gender roles, and include the belief that one gender is intrinsically superior to another, it may arise from social or cultural customs and norms. Gender discrimination is especially defined in terms of the politics, the education and workplace inequality.

Ambivalent sexism is a theoretical framework which posits that sexism has two sub-components: hostile sexism and benevolent sexism.

Hostile sexism reflects overtly negative evaluations and stereotypes about a gender for example:

• The ideas that women are incompetent and inferior to men.
• Most women fail to appreciate all that men do for them.
• Women seek to gain power by getting control over men.
• Most women interpret innocent remarks or acts as being sexist.

Benevolent sexism represents evaluations of gender that may appear subjectively positive, but are actually damaging to people and gender equality more broadly for example:

• The ideas that women need to be protected by men.
• Women should be cherished and protected by men.
• Many women have a quality of purity that few men possess.
• A good woman ought to be set on a pedestal by her man.

According to Professors Glick and Fiske, sexist ambivalence is the result of two basic facts about relations between women and men: male dominance (patriarchy) and interdependence between the sexes. Male dominance is prevalent across cultures, with men dominating high status roles in business, government, education, and so forth. Hostile sexism arises in large part because dominant groups tend to create hostile ideologies concerning the inferiority of other groups. Despite male dominance, however, men are often highly dependent upon women as wives, mothers, and romantic partners. This dependence fosters benevolent sexism, which recognizes women as valuable and attractive and how ambivalent sexism fosters barriers to women’s education, workplace and political advancement.

Educational Differences

To date little research has been conducted exploring the relationship between educational attainment and support for sexism. Such a relationship, however, is plausible given the extended literature demonstrating that education is associated with less prejudiced attitudes. Schools expose adolescents to egalitarian ideas, teach students how to stand up for their rights (e.g., equal rights for men and women) and try to instil and coax the capacity to feel compassion and tolerance for others (Davis and Greenstein, 2009; Ohlander, Batalova and Treas, 2005), and the educational position of young people is one of the first characteristics of their achieved social position.Flanders is an excellent case to study educational differences in sexism amongs adolescents. Education in Flanders is organized centrally and free of charge during compulsory education (ages 6–18) (De Ro, 2008). Secondary schooling is characterized by a rather strong ‘tracking’, and there are great differences between pupils following different educational tracks when it comes to behaviours and attitudes (Elchardus, Herbots and Spruyt, 2013). Flemish secondary school comprises 6 grades (age 12–18), and from the third grade onwards (14 years and older), pupils are divided over four tracks: (1) vocational education preparing for the labour market, from which few students go on to higher education; (2) technical education preparing for the labour market and higher technical training, from which a small proportion also goes on to higher education; (3) general education, from which almost all pupils move on to higher education; and (4) arts tracks which comprise only about 2 per cent of the pupils. In this analysis, we have grouped together tracks (1) and (2), and tracks (3) and (4). The tracking system in Flanders is quite radical: while it remains possible for students to ‘descend’ from general to technical and further to vocational education, ‘ascending’ movements in the oppo-Vandenbossche et al. 57 site direction almost never occur. There are several reasons why we expect more highly educated pupils to have less sexist attitudes than less educated pupils. First, students in technical and vocational education have a higher chance to grow up in less educated (working-class) families (Ohlander, Batalova and Treas, 2005) that endorse traditional role attitudes more often (Kulik, 2002). Previous research by Elchardus (1999) confirms that Flemish adolescents in vocational education have a stronger preference for traditional role attitudes, which are strongly linked to BS (Viki, Abrams and Hutchison, 2003). Second, there is significant gender segregation between specializations in vocational education (Lappalainen, Mietola and Lahelma, 2013). Specializations in social care and health care, almost exclusively, attract girls, whilst specializations in transport and technology, one-sidedly, appeal to boys; no such internal segregation appears in general education. Third, macho culture is linked to HS (Kaufman and Richardson, 1982) and is especially prevalent amongst boys in vocational tracks. Macho behaviour entails an anti-school culture and a lack of study orientation (Jackson, 2003).

Many scholars interpret the macho culture amongst students enrolled in vocational education as a compensation for the little prestige this type of education has in contemporary ‘knowledge societies’ (Spruyt, Kavadias and Van Droogenbroeck, 2015). The strong focus on masculinity and femininity, typical of macho culture, provides an alternative status hierarchy that allows pupils to achieve a positive social identity.

Masculine identification thus correlates with ingroup favouritism towards traditional male subtypes and complementary favouritism towards traditional female subtypes (stay-at-home mothers and feminine women) (Glick, Wilkerson and Cuffe, 2015). Therefore, we expect that students in technical and vocational education will have more sexist attitudes than students following general education (Hypothesis 3).

Ambivalent Sexism Theory highlights the need for prejudice-reduction interventions specific to sexism. Due to the unique features of gender relations, sexism researchers cannot simply co-opt strategies designed to reduce other forms of prejudice. Increased intergroup contact, for example, will have little effect in reducing sexism; in fact, close contact between men and women reinforces gender status divisions (Jackman, 1994; Ridgeway & Correll, 2004). Other challenges in reducing sexism include women’s reliance on men for status and resources, which increases the costs of confronting sexism, and BS’s positive stereotypes of women, which make sexism more appealing, more difficult to recognize, and more difficult to confront. The following sections discuss ways to reduce and confront sexism, as well as the particular challenges associated with even recognizing, let alone confronting BS.

References:

1. https://secure.understandingprejudice.org/asi/faq
2. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315637642_Ambivalent_sexism_in_the_21st_century
3. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1103308817697240

ABSTRACT

A perusal of the criminal laws and personal laws reveal that laws adopt a protectionist and paternalistic approach for empowering and providing autonomy to women. This paper initiates a discussion on issues at the core of gender justice. This paper further argues that social conditioning restricts the possibility of autonomous decisions. In conclusion, it is argued that laws need to create just social conditions and institutions that guarantee freedom from socially imposed disabilities, and subsequently, strengthen autonomy in decision making. Women are the foremost vulnerable and weaker section of the society and have continuously been looked down as a artifact which might be used, re-used and abused. this text highlights the standing women within the society and therefore the nature and magnitude of violence happening against women across the planet. The author, during this article, describes numerous forms of violence that ar happening against girls like force, feminine foeticide and infanticide, kid wedding, rape, harassment at work, trafficking and harlotry, with a special relevance Bharat. Numerous legislations implemented in Bharat for the protection of girls against violence have conjointly been mentioned by the author during this article.

INTRODUCTION

The idea of human dignity is associated with the protection against the exploitation and violation of inalienable fundamental rights. The term human dignity is commonly used for protecting the status and honor of person, without which a person cannot live on earth .Human dignity protect the civil, political, religious, and social rights of individual .Human dignity is attached with the family, caste, community and society. Every society does have its own norms with pride of dignity. They maintain their dignity and status as per customary practices. Being a human we should treat all at equal footing irrespective of gender. Article 21 of constitution of India states that the rights of life are not only correlated with human dignity but also it directs our attention to very essential social issue of honor killing. It is observed that, in many countries, women fall victim to traditional practices that violates their human dignity .Honor killing is one of the extreme violence mostly perpetrated on women by men. The practice of honor killing is a gross violation of the right to life with human dignity and the worst possible form of discrimination based on sex, caste, and communities. Honor killing is a traditional practice that originated over 2000 years ago and it was carried out by many countries. Origin of honor killing took place in Baluch and pashtun tribe custom. Now it is spread worldwide. Number of cases is unreported. Honor killing Is an affront to right to life with human dignity. The Supreme Court observed in case of Francis Coralie Mullin V. Administrator and Union Territory of Delhi AIR 1981SC746 that right to life enshrined with in Article 21 cannot be restricted to mere animal existence. It means something more than just physical survival .The right to life includes the right to life with human dignity.

GENDER JUSTICE

Gender Justice is a wide term that takes its sweep in every facet of life. For centuries, in fact ever since known history, we have been living in a patriarchal and feudal society which assigns a subordinate position to the women in the social hierarchy. Women may be respected and loved, but they have been confined to home and home-making, and looking after the children, the sick ones, the elderly in the family and it can be said that the most of the unpaid work in this world is done by the women. Their lack of socio-economic independence has lead women to their exploitation. But a new awareness of this exploitation and the need to restructure society on a more just basis has lead to serious attempts to reform and transform our social, moral, economical and political structure, including our legal and constitutional framework.

Equality of sexes and Gender justice has indeed made very slow progress. Women being subordinate to men have subsisted through the millennia in all the societies and countries as well. It is only now at the beginning of 21st century that these twin factors are being recognized. In the view of Prof. Amartya Sen, “Empirical research in recent ten years has brought out clearly the extent to which women occupy disadvantaged positions in traditional economic and social arrangements. While the gender inequalities can be observed in every part of the world, nevertheless to some fields women’s relative deprivation is much more acute in any parts of the ‘third world’.

CONCEPT OF HONOR KILLING

Since ancient period honor is deeply rooted into traditional and customs of family, community and society. Conception of honor is regulated by male and female person particularly women, and their sexual activities, exhibits the honor of the family male person are considered the safeguard of family honor. Women’s behavior, activities, reflected, to entire family honor depend upon the women’s chastity. Men should monitor over the women’s activity and liable for controlling her sexuality as violent conduct towards the women shows the power of men. The concept of honor used to rationalized killing is founded on the notion that a person’s honor depends on the behavior of others and that behavior , therefore must be controlled Indian society is an honor based society ,family member trying to preserve that self –worth . Men are considered as protector of family honor and concept of honor killing is connected gender, especially with women sexual behavioral activities exhibits the family honors. Honor binds closely connected with women’s behaviors in his social norms of society, for that those violates it. They will be facing the music of death.

INTERNATIONAL PERCEPTIVE

There are number of evil customary practices observed in almost societies. Honor Killing is not only a problem of our country; it is wide spread problem. Youth are the future of every country. Whenever we punish youth for daring to choose their own life partner and marry him or her, obviously we destroy future of our country as well as reduce energy and power of our own nation.

It is observed that ,mostly victims were mainly young to twelve to twenty-four years old, it create fear among the youth , who may be interested to get married ,due to this pressure couples tends to commit suicide ,it is severe violation of right to life with human dignity and Fundamental right. Honor violence occurs throughout world, from South America to Asia. The exact figure of how many men and woman have been killed in the name of honor killing is unknown. Not all countries keep official statistic and it’s a crime difficult to detect.

Various Legislations for the protection of women

It is a grave truth that ladies across the planet area unit crushed up, raped, trafficked and conjointly killed regardless of their standing and countries – made or poor. Such abuses and violations of human rights not solely impose a threat to the existence and standing of ladies within the society however conjointly pan the complete society. But now there is a growing concern for the women and to protect the women against such violence across the world. Thus the international community has come forward with comprehensive legislation for effective response to violence against women. Various countries of the planet have obligations beneath the jurisprudence to enact, implement and enforce various legislations which address all kinds of violence against women. Many countries have adopted and revised legislations to prevent violence against women but they still face difficulties in proper enforcement of legislations and protect women from such violence. In the society, women are subject to protection and dependence on their father in their childhood, after marriage on their husband and in old age on their sons. The patriarchal system of the society has given men to exercise unlimited power on women in the society. Hence, in order to protect the women from violence and ensure the fundamental human rights and specific rights of women, various legislations have been enforced at the international level as well as at the domestic level. These international conventions and treaties and other legislations are as follows:

Convention on the Elimination of All sorts of Discrimination against girls (CEDAW)

The CEDAW or the Convention on the Elimination of All sorts of Discriminations Against girls was adopted on eighteen Gregorian calendar month 1979 by the international organization General Assembly and was entered into force on 3 September 1981 as an international treaty. It was enforced in order to monitor and scrutinize the condition and the position of women and to promote the rights of the women. CEDAW has been involved ensuring equality of women with men and denied all such areas which denied equality with men. The Article 11 states that “[State] takes all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in the field of employment” and Article 24 states that “[State shall] undertake to adopt all necessary measures at the national level geared toward achieving the complete realization”

International Convention on Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination Against Women

This convention was adopted on 21 December 1965 by the UN General Assembly to deal with the racial discrimination against women. Its monitoring body, the committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination made reference to trafficking in persons in some recommendations and observations to the state parties on the basis of Article 5. Article five expands upon on the final obligation of Article two and creates a particular obligation to ensure the correct of everybody to equality before the law despite ‘race, colour, or national or ethnic origin’.It further lists specific rights this equality must apply to: equal treatment by courts and tribunals, security of the person and freedom from violence, the civil and political rights thoroughbred within the ICCPR, the economic, social and cultural rights affirmed in the ICESCR, and the right of access to any place or service used by the general public, ‘such as transport hotels, restaurants, cafes, theatres and parks.’ In addition, other international instruments which create obligations for State parties to enact and enforce legislation for addressing violence against girls area unit Protocol to stop, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (the Palermo Protocol), and the Rome Statute of the International judicature (The Rome Statute).

Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women, 1993

Besides the above mentioned legislations, Article 4 of the 1993 Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women, which has been adopted by the final Assembly, needs Member States to:

• (i) Condemn violence against women and not invoke custom, tradition or religion to avoid their obligations to eliminate such violence;
• (ii) Develop penal, civil, labour and administrative sanctions in domestic legislation to punish and redress the wrongs caused to victims;
• (iii) Provide access to the mechanisms of justice and, as provided for by national legislation, to just and effective remedies; and
• (iv) Ensure that the secondary victimization of women does not occur because of laws insensitive to gender considerations, enforcement practices or other interventions

UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS, 1948

There are nearly sixteen articles of Universal Declaration of Human Rights which gives women to enjoy without discrimination. Some of these are below.

• Article 1- Honor killing are inhuman cruel act which violates the natural rights which are inalienable rights of victim. Honor killing purely violence against women perpetrators withdraws the right of person.
• Article 2 – “everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedom setfoth in this declaration without discrimination of any kind such as race, color, sex, language, political or other opinion .therefore no discrimination shall be made on the basis of political , jurisdictional status of country to which a person belong” . But in honor killing whoever performs marriage outside the caste or inter-religion against the wishes of parents these person become victims of customary killing practices.
• Article 3 and 5 – states that women are entitled to enjoy the right to life , liberty, and security of person and right to be free from torture or cruel, in human and degrading treatment in name of culture and customary practices. Honor crimes violate the right to life and prohibiting from enjoyment of life of victim.

Legislations in India

In India, various legislations have been enacted towards providing the rights of women. The Constitution of India, in its Article 14, states the Right to Equality, Article 15 states the right to non-discrimination, Article 19(1)(g) states the right to practice one’s profession and Article 21 states the right to life. Besides these rights provided by the Constitution of India, various other specific legislations have also been enacted and enforced to prevent violence against women and protect women’s rights. These are enumerated as follows:

• (i) Abolition of Sati in 1829;
• (ii) Hindu Widow’s Remarriage Act 1856;
• (iii) Special Marriage Act 1954 to promote inter caste, intercommunity marriages;
• (iv) The Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929;
• (v) The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006;
• (vi) Hindu Women’s Right to Property Act 1937;
• (vii) Suppression of Immoral Traffic in Women and Girls Act 1956;
• (viii) Dowry Prohibition Act 1961;
• (ix) The Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act 1986;
• (x) Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act 1987;
• (xi) Pre conception and Pre Natal Diagnostic Techniques (Prohibition of Sex selection) (PCPNDT) Act, 1994;
• (xii) Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005
• (xiii) The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention Protection and Redressal) Act, 2013

Aside from the previously mentioned enactments, there are some different authorizations relating to industry containing exceptional arrangements for ladies, for example, The Workmen’s Compensation Act, 1921; Payment of Wages Act, 1936; Factories Act, 1948; Maternity Benefit Act, 1961; Minimum Wages Act, 1948, Employees State Insurance Act 1948 and Pensions Act,1987 and so forth.

NHRC and Indian perspective of human rights

The National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) was came upon in 1993 as a statutory body to that people and interested parties will create complaints on human rights violations within the country. NHRC has explicitly stated that women’s rights will be a part of its concerns. As yet NHRC has taken up no specific issues of violation, though it has attempted to address single instances of State violence on women. It is yet to take a significant interest in women’s rights. Part of the problem arises out of the division seen between the National Commission for Women and NHRC; although a member of the Women’s Commission is represented in NHRC, it is often assumed that the Women’s Commission, its establishment has been criticised as a move on the State to appear accountable without providing these bodies with sufficient autonomy to push through decisions or recommendations of the Law Commission that may appear to be contrary to State’s interests. The Law Commission, the Minorities Commissions, the Commissions for Scheduled Tribes and Scheduled Castes, have been broadly mandated to look at women’s issues. Barring the Law Commission, which has participated actively in recommending gender justice and legal change, the remaining Commissions have shown little concern for women’s rights in their functioning.

The causes of persistent disparity and inequality between men and women are only partially examined, explored and understood. In recent years attention has been focused on inequalities in the allocation of resources at the household level, as seen in the higher share of education, health and food expenditures, boys receive in comparison with girls. The decision-making process within households is complex and is influenced by social and cultural norms, market opportunities and institutional factors. There is considerable proof that the infrahousehold allocation of resources is a key factor in determining the levels of schooling, health and nutrition accorded to household members. Regional factors also have contributed in gender equalities.

All the previously mentioned worldwide and national enactments have been sanctioned and implemented with a shared objective of securing ladies, their essential rights and to counteract savagery against ladies over the world.

Apart from these legislations which are being implemented in various countries across the world by the governments, it is also very important for the government machinery to conduct various awareness programmes and provide educational and all other facilities to the women in that country so as to develop skills, build confidence, develop leadership qualities and apprise them about their rights. The states and governments need to work towards bringing equality among men and women in their regions so as to uplift the conditions of the society and reduce violence and crimes taking place against women.

CONCLUSION

Honor killing is the most inhuman and irrational crime. Laws cannot do much to prevent it but it can only be prevented when there is a change in the mentality and mindset of the people and that is a difficult thing in a country like India where the caste, religion, gotra, clan, etc. matter more than the life. Laws can only punish the criminal but they cannot prevent the crime to happen, so it is very necessary for people to rise above the clouds of caste, religion, clan, etc. The real honor is in protecting the family members and being liberal and open minded in the approach towards life and not by being stringent in thoughts and attitude. Furthering the above discussions into workable propositions is necessary. Legal philosophy needs to address the issues that are raised in the above discussions. Laws should first start with removing the constraints imposed on men and women by the society. It is necessary to tackle individual cases of injustices, instead of laying down homogenized rules for men and women. As depicted earlier, law reforms directed towards bringing women at par with men has not yielded much success. Individuals should be at the core of law reforms. Laws should enable the creation of social institutions and social conditions conducive for everyone to make autonomous choices. Raising the number of women members in parliament will help in reducing paternalistic laws and ensure autonomy to women in deciding for themselves. This will ensure women-friendly laws. Social engineering is required for the removal of social conditioning. Conscious measures need to be adopted to break free of social conditioning. Having gender neutral laws, promoting gender-neutral values and gender-neutral institutions will go a long way in getting rid of gendered roles for men and women alike.

Manifest Manhood was very popular during the period between the United States – Mexican War and the Civil War. Manifest Manhood is the study of competing ideas to show masculinity which drove territorial expansion. Many men pursued frontiers as goldseekers, travelers, and most commonly filibusters. Martial men and restrained men both had the same goals but had different techniques in achieving these goals. Martial men showed violence to show their masculinity and power while restrained men who showed responsibility, religion, temperance, and the domestic influence shown by women. Territorial expansionism was specifically justified because it was domesticated. These men were from very different areas but still showed a common interest which was expansionism. In Manifest Manhood, Amy Greenberg states that there were generally two types of men living in Antebellum America which were martial men and restrained men.

Martial men were Greenberg’s main topic in her study rather than the restrained men. Martial manhood would allow men to show their masculinity through violence, physical strength, domination, and aggression. Amy Kaplan states in her book summary ‘ martial men sought new settings for the redemptive expansion of the self and the nation, rather than identification with purportedly primitive others.’

With this being said, it was proven that martial men were focused directly on expansion and how it will affect them being known as heroes to the nation and them not being worried about anything but that. Any common man could be a martial man. This could be a fireman, merchant, politician, and sometimes even militia leaders. These men could also become a restrained man as well depending on which side they would choose to decide. Furthermore, Irishmen and southerners that were laborers would often choose to pick a side as well, and it was much more common for them to choose to be a martial man.

A wide variety of men chose to be martial men from different social classes and different regions. Men believed that being a martial man would be the most effective way to show their dominant masculinity. In Greenberg’s book she said ‘ this book contends that aggressive expansionism, defined here as support for the use of war to gain new American territory, between the U.S. – Mexican War, through the filterbustering of the 1850’s, and up to the Civil War, was supported by martial men, and that debates over Manifest Destiny also were debates over the meaning of American manhood and womanhood.’

Martial men believed the only way to accomplish expansionism was through war and violence. Martial men had the largest participation in Manifest Manhood and even larger Manifest Destiny, and according to Greenberg, they also made the largest impact to the expansion of the United States and even America.

Filibuster’s were a very common name for extreme martial men during expansionism during Manifest Destiny. Greenberg defines Filibusters as men that are members of a private army that would invade other countries without official sanctions of the United States government in Central America and the Caribbean. Filibusters were men who on their own initiative went to war against foreign nations, often in the face of open hostility from their own governments. The term filibusters was also used in reference to the invasions as well.]{dir=’ltr’}[^4] [The tactics and actions of filibusters was illegal but they didn’t care because they had conquered a large amount of territory from Mexico so it made them look like real patriots. Men were very supportive of filibustering, participated in filibustering, and had knowledge of Latin America due to their part in gender practices.]{dir=’ltr’}[^5] [In Greenberg’s book, she states that aggressive expansionism, defined as support for the use of war to gain new American territory was supported by the martial men and filibustering. Men joined into filibustering because they believed it would show their manhood. One famous filibuster figure during this time would include Willian Walker. The other well known filibuster was Narciso Lopez. In 1850, Narciso Lopez led a group of American mercenaries in an assault on Cuba. Their main goal was to take over the Cuban government and and try to become part of the United States. Their attempts to invade small countries or states and allowing independence was known as filibustering as well. The United States government didn’t like the technique of filibustering as an attempt to expand our nation’s borders and felt that there were other ways to accomplish this. Walker was inspired by Lopez’s attempt and decided to use it to seek out and conquer the Mexican states of Sonora and Baja California. Walker was able to capture the capital of Baja California with a forty-five man army. He renamed the state the Republic of Lower California and declared himself as the president. With this, he believed in pro-slavery and applied the laws of Louisiana to allow slavery to be legal. He became famous in the United States and American’s reacted and wanted to join his army and participate in his expedition which earned his the nickname ‘the gray-eyed man of destiny.’ After Walker’s death in 1860 which was caused by a firing squad of Honduran authorities. Walker left a legacy and it is even celebrated in Costa Rica still today.]{dir=’ltr’}[^6] [With the filibusters, it is shown that they did in fact take pride in their work and accomplishments. Their attempt to take over Central America was meant to display their dominance and show how much power they had and what it was capable of doing. These men were both very popular figures and even though their attempts to take over new land failed, their expedition showed white manhood as martial and aggressive, and would lead other white men to join these expeditions so they could display their manhood. As Greenberg said ‘the martial activities of filibusters like William Walker and Narciso Lopez ultimately the very fact that other men joined these quixotic missions in the first place, and that they were lauded even in failure, reveals the degree to which foreign relations and gender norms were linked in the antebellum era.’

On the other end of the spectrum, their were the restrained men. These men showed responsibility, religion, temperance, and the domestic influence shown by women. Restrained manhood was more popular in the North and the South, while martial took more popularity in the West, and they grounded their identities within their families, displayed a great passion in Protestant Faith, and were generally successful in their business fields. These men were very domestic and were better examples of womanhood rather than what could be called a martial man. Restrained men were strong believers that the domestic household belonged at the center of the world and that their wives and mothers were their main driving aspects. They would do everything in their power to follow all guidelines set by Jesus Christ himself and would do all they could to avoid committing sins. Restrained men would never drink until they were drunk and would pursue to encourage laws that would put a stop to the distributing of any alcohol in other states. They were not violent men and were still brave, dependable, and very moral.

Usually all restrained men could be found participating in a political party whether that be the Whigs, Know-Nothings, or Republican’s. If these men chose to participate in the Whig party, they would be likely to stand up for Women’s Rights and would allow females to be a part of their political campaigns.

In comparison to martial men, most restrained men would also come from a normal lifestyle like a firefighter, merchant, or politician. Unlike Martial men, restrained men believed that the Manifest Destiny hadn’t yet been completed and they felt it could be done without force and rather with social and religious action. Even though restrained men didn’t show as much progress as martial men during expansionism, they kept their dominance as men while martial men ended up losing theirs after becoming unsuccessful on their side of manhood. In account Hawaiin missionaries, it was shown that restrained men were more successful at bringing Hawaii into America rather than the martial men who failed filibustering missions that took place in Hawaii.

This showed that violence wasn’t necessary to impact expansionism and that it could still be done effectively.

Though Amy Greenberg focuses mainly on martial men, it still cannot be completely proven that they were more productive than restrained men. Martial men seemed to show that they were more dominant and manly, but they also encountered a lot of failure and felt that violence was absolutely necessary. On the other hand, restrained men didn’t show violence and were less outgoing, but they seemed to be just as productive, even if they didn’t accomplish as much as martial men did. Martial men gained a lot more popularity due to the fact they they were showing violence to expand and restrained men didn’t get this popularity which kept them more hidden than the outgoing martial men. Without the display of bravery from both restrained and martial men, the whole concept of Manifest Destiny could’ve been changed as well as the topic of expansionism. Martial men and restrained men both played a large role in Antebellum America and is still a popular concept today.

References

1. Kaplan, Amy. ‘Restrained and Martial Manhood.’ *Diplomatic History* 31, no. 3 (2007): 567-69. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24916089.
2. Amy S. Greenberg, ‘*Manifest Manhood and the Antebellum American Empire*’ , (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 14.
3. Kaplan, Amy. ‘Restrained and Martial Manhood.’ *Diplomatic History* 31, no. 3 (2007): 567-69. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24916089.
4. Amy S. Greenberg, ‘*Manifest Manhood and the Antebellum American Empire*’ , (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 5.
5. Amy S. Greenberg, ‘*Manifest Manhood and the Antebellum American Empire*’ , (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 14.
6. Minster, Christopher. ‘Biography of William Walker, Ultimate Yankee Imperialist.’ ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/the-biography-of-william-walker-2136342 (accessed November 6, 2019).
7. Amy S. Greenberg, ‘*Manifest Manhood and the Antebellum American Empire*’ , (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 28.
8. Amy S. Greenberg, ‘*Manifest Manhood and the Antebellum American Empire*’ , (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 12.
9. Amy S. Greenberg, ‘*Manifest Manhood and the Antebellum American Empire*’ , (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 12.
10. Amy S. Greenberg, ‘*Manifest Manhood and the Antebellum American Empire*’ , (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 279

Introduction

The Safavid Empire, which ruled Persia from 1501 to 1736, had a complex social structure with distinct gender roles and expectations. Understanding the gender dynamics within the Safavid Empire provides valuable insights into the historical context and societal norms of the time. This essay aims to provide an informative overview of the gender roles within the Safavid Empire, exploring the roles of men and women, their social status, and the impact of religion and culture on gender relations.

Gender Roles in Safavid Society

In Safavid society, gender roles were largely influenced by religious beliefs and cultural traditions. Islam played a significant role in shaping gender roles, with interpretations of religious texts guiding societal expectations. Men were seen as the primary breadwinners and the heads of households, responsible for providing for their families and ensuring their protection. They held positions of power in politics, military, and commerce.

Women in the Safavid Empire were primarily confined to the private sphere, where their roles revolved around managing the household, raising children, and maintaining familial and societal honor. Women were expected to be modest, obedient, and devoted to their families. Their activities were often limited to domestic tasks, such as cooking, weaving, and managing household affairs.

Social Status and Education

The gender roles within the Safavid Empire were also influenced by social status. While women from lower socioeconomic backgrounds had more freedom to work and participate in economic activities, women from noble families were subject to stricter regulations and expectations. Noble women were often secluded within the harem, where their primary role was to bear children and maintain the family lineage.

Education was limited for women in the Safavid Empire. While some noble women received private tutoring, the focus was primarily on skills such as poetry, music, and etiquette rather than academic subjects. However, there were exceptional cases of women who managed to gain access to education and contribute to intellectual and cultural pursuits, albeit in limited numbers.

Religious Influence

Religion, particularly Shia Islam, played a significant role in shaping gender roles and expectations within the Safavid Empire. The interpretation of religious texts emphasized modesty, piety, and adherence to traditional gender norms. Religious leaders, known as ulema, exerted influence in defining and enforcing gender roles within the society.

However, it is essential to note that the practice of gender roles within the Safavid Empire was not monolithic, and there were variations based on individual circumstances and regional differences. While some women were confined to traditional gender roles, others found ways to exercise agency and influence within their families and communities.

Conclusion

The Safavid Empire had distinct gender roles shaped by a combination of religious, cultural, and societal factors. Men were expected to assume positions of authority and provide for their families, while women were primarily confined to the domestic sphere. Social status and education played a significant role in determining the freedoms and limitations imposed on individuals within these gender roles.

However, it is crucial to recognize that gender roles within the Safavid Empire were not static, and there were instances of women challenging societal norms and contributing in various capacities. Studying gender roles within the Safavid Empire allows us to gain a deeper understanding of historical contexts and the evolution of gender relations over time.

By examining the complexities of gender roles within the Safavid Empire, we can appreciate the diversity of experiences and narratives that existed during that period. Such knowledge contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of historical societies and promotes critical thinking about gender dynamics in our own time.

According to Beauvoir, this concept called the Eternal Feminine is a social construct and it defines the ideal woman concept from the point of view of the public eye. In all societies, women are objectified as feminine, silent, harmonious, sensitive, caring, and emotional. She states that this concept reflects women as passive but does not reflect the truth. In addition, this perception ignores the individuality of women and it also means standardization. This perception puts women under certain behavior which is expected by patriarchy. Both men and women have the freedom to define themselves as they wish. However, men have to show how women should behave throughout history.

According to Beauvoir, this is wrong and is used to control women’s behavior. De Beauvoir mentions an example: “They have made dressing and housekeeping difficult arts. The man barely has to care about his clothes; they are comfortable, adapted to his active life, and need not be original; they are hardly part of his personality; what’s more, no one expects him to take care of them himself” (Beauvoir, 2009/2011, p. 371). From this point of view, we can say that the ideal female myth emerged as a result of patriarchy and somehow positioned the woman to the other position.

As an example of the ‘Eternal Feminine’ concept of Beauvoir, the concept of ‘Harem’ in the Ottoman Empire can be given as an example. Ottoman Harem is a symbol of the power and wealth of the Sultan and it can be defined as a special room in the palace. It was comprised of wives, female servants, and female relatives of the sultan. The women who lived in this place were seen as the property of the Sultan. Women living in the harem were tasked with entertaining the sultan, doing household chores, and serving men in the palace. Women were always expected to be beautiful and cheerful. Those women were expected to have education such as sewing, cooking, and dancing. They were entirely ruled by patriarchal rules and their behaviors were determined by men who lived in the palace. They were expected to behave feminine, silent, harmonious, sensitive, caring and emotional. Also, these women have to be compliant and obedient. Considering that the Ottomans were completely male-dominated, it is possible to say that the Harem concept is also very sexist and discriminatory. Also, it is a well-known fact that women in Ottoman were discriminated against because of their gender roles and they were expected to behave according to gender roles.

References

1. Beauvoir, S. d. (2009 / 2011). The second sex (C. Borde & S. Malovany-Chevallier, Trans.): Vintage. Volume I (Facts and myths): Introduction (pp. 16 – 22); Part 3: Myths, Chapter 3 (pp. 147 – 151); Volume II (Lived Experience): Part 4: Toward Liberation, Chapter 14: The independent woman (pp. 370 – 372 = /…/ „her fatigue are multiplied as a result“; pp. 383 – 384 = „Indeed, for one to“ /…/).
2. I affirm that during the allocated exam period I have had no unauthorized conversation about this assignment with any persons. Further, I certify that the attached work represents my thinking, and is entirely my own. Any information, concepts, or words that originate from other sources are cited by the citation conventions accepted by my Department.

“Gender roles are a social construct. When we attempt to assign strengths and weaknesses to either gender, we cut our potential as the human race in half”. For a long time, civilizations have had traditional roles set for men and women. Interestingly gender relations have always been a part of the human race and changed throughout time. Until the nineteenth century, those set normal roles have become more fluid and continued to grow. Discussing the ideologies of gender equality, gender norms, United States notions, and the intersection of sexism, racism, and gender.

Gender relations defined are the traditional roles set by culture and religion typically setting the norms for the relationship between men and women. Existing in most societies culturally men and women have different gender relations. These gender relations have played a key role in our history of gender relations.

Throughout history, women have made amazing contributions to the typical woman’s role. Traditional women’s roles are to tend to the household and the children. Women were only allowed to do as their husbands said and if they disobeyed they were often punished. With the rise of literature in the 1800s, women began writing considered taboo for women sometimes writing under aliases to prevent them from being identified. During the Progressive Era, women began coming out of the household and started breaking gender roles and entering public life. At the end of the Progressive Era in 1920 women gained the right to vote. During World War II women began working because of the demand for work and the lack of men. According to Australian Feminist Studies, “From its beginning, it struggled to come to grips with the workings of power in our midst, be that the presence of men at our gatherings, or the way we organized and ran our meetings, or in our relationships with the men in our lives” (Reid 2018:13). Although during the Feminist movement of the 1960s women struggled to gain credibility from the men in their lives. Since then women have been working at gaining that credibility from their peers by pursuing an education and working towards gender equality.

While women do struggle more with gender inequality men suffer as well. Ideologies and institutions maintain gender inequality through the gender pay gap. As of 2019 women make $0.79 for every dollar that a man makes. The gender pay gap even exceeds with women of minorities. As stated in the Academy of Management Perspectives, “The foregoing supports our initial observations that there has been important, significant progress for women. On the other hand, however, there is still a gender pay gap. Women continue to earn considerably less than men on average” (Blau 2007:8). Ideologies maintain gender inequality also by encouraging men and women to work in an environment best suited to their gender. Women are expected to become teachers and nurses working more in the service industry because they have more feminine jobs. While men are expected to work in blue-collar jobs that typically are more labor intensive.

Gender stereotypes suggest that men are masculine and women are feminine. This idea of gender conformity is attributed to the way history began. The idea was that women were meant to primedped and poised and meant to become mothers. While men went and got dirty while working. Socially constructed traits are contemporary norms that cultures use to associate masculinity and femininity.

Gender norms are defined to be the “normal” way for men and women to act. There are many examples of traits and various institutions that maintained these norms. Beginning with the idea that men are meant to be thbreadwinnersers” and provide for the family. When women started entering the workforce there began this belief that “men should earn more than their wives”. As written in the Quarterly Journal of Economics, “We replicate all of our results: when the wife’s income exceeds the husband’s, the wife becomes more likely to exit the labor force and she takes on more chores; moreover, there is suggestive evidence that divorce becomes more likely” (Bertrand 2015:574). They argued that these preconceived gender identity norms play an important role in the success of a marriage. Another example is that men are not meant to express their feelings and emotions. A trait that is still extremely prevalent today is that men can’t cry because it makes them seem like they are “less of a man”. Although it is not true it still becomes hard for men to express themselves when they are sad or hurt.

The dominant notions of masculinity and femininity in the U.S. are racialized by definite qualities. Masculinity is regularly described as stronbraveery, and dominant. Femininity is sometimes described as small, warm, and beautiful. The intersection helps maintain both sexism and racism because as a society we look at women as delicate and weak who are unable to help themselves, and often need a man for help. We also maintain these notions in racism because it creates stereotypes of men and women based on their gender. When people defy the normal we often see that as a problem of sexism and racism.

Lastly, recently the fight with gender relations has become more widespread with large female and even male influencers using their platforms to draw attention to gender issues. As time progresses more and more people are finally abandoning old and outdated gender stereotypes. The world is becoming more accepting of the fluidity of different cultural norms being set by the younger generation. The future looks hopeful for the change of traditional roles of gender relations.

Introduction

In this essay I will be analysing the play Oleanna, with reference to the educational themes of gender, political correctness, power and language. Oleanna was a popular play in the 1990’s that induced outrage amidst it’s audiences, through how the playwright Mamet was able to provoke gender politics between feminists and male chauvinists. The play was blatantly about male versus females thereby instigating debate between its audiences, depending on which character they empathised with as the story unfolds. As Camille Paglia of the Los Angeles Times said, “Mamet is using sex war to explore a much larger subject and that subject is education”.

It is important to consider that as part of the historical context for the play Oleanna, the 1991 Clarence Thomas hearings was already in progress. Anita Hill a law professor accused judge Clarence Thomas of sexually harassing her when she worked as his assistant. Although Mamet already started working on Oleanna before the hearings, the mood of the heighten level of the case at the time could have been a major influence for Mamet at the time. As David Krasner quoted Mamet in his book A companion to twentieth- century American drama “What I write about is what I think is missing from our society. And that’s communication on a basic level”.

In Oleanna a female student Carol approaches her male professor John and ask for help to understand a subject that he teaches her, this practise is often a common between a professor and student in the educational system. The professor however instead of helping her, starts raising questions about the reason behind higher education thereby unintentionally trying to induce a doubt in her belief towards it. This sparks an argument between them as the story unravels, and through miscommunication the fight for power emerges between them.

Before analysing the themes of gender, political correctness, power and language within Oleanna, I would like to briefly define these key terms and how they are used in the play. The definition of gender in general is often mistaken with physicality however, it is more than what people see in front of them or what sex they are born with, but rather how an individual feel at different occasions. It is a combination of biological, psychological and sociological factors. In Oleanna nevertheless, gender is driven more towards one’s sex and does not in cooperate the full definition of it, this is because the play is geared towards the battle of the sexes.

Political correctness is a movement which is historically linked to language, and it is deliberate to cause minimum offense principally when describing groups that are associated with gender, culture, sexuality and race. Within the context of Oleanna political correctness is more focus on Gender and sexuality, this is showed in the Character Carol, who is depicted a radical feminist despite her outrageous accusations, she stills manages to manipulate society into believing her.

Power is defined as gaining total ownership to control and have influence with authority to dominate one or more groups of people. Through power leadership exists and society is controlled, thereby making it a necessity for society to function properly. Power in the play Oleanna is the most evident theme amongst the four to be discussed in this essay, in the play there is continual fight for power between the professor and his student carol. It also focuses on those who are less privilege and those lucky to be in power, as well as how there is no absolute power because the balance of power keeps changing throughout the play between the characters.

Language is a system of communication fundamentally use verbally or symbolic in transferring notions and concepts between humans with the same cultural expectancies. It is a great way to gain knowledge and share emotions with other people using the body. The use of language in Oleanna is shown as a representative of power within the play, the unbalance language between the professor and carol demonstrates such disparity. In Oleanna language dominance and authority is established to empower the characters throughout the play.

GENDER

Gender in Mamet’s play of Oleanna is a chronological order of acts between the two characters John and Carol, who each take turns in being dominant towards each other. In Oleanna each character’s desired objective is very clear throughout the play, for example in scene one Carol depicted John as a very paramount figure who thrills her because of the power he has over her. She reaches out to him in order to get her desired objective i.e. to get a pass grade in his subject. John however recounts himself as a casualty of the same academic intuition that is exploiting Carol, she however is unwilling to accept this explanation. Carol in the beginning plays the perfect gender norm role for women, by presenting them as being helpless and stupid who cannot do anything for themselves without being helped by males. This is evident in the beginning when carol seeks help from John and said “But I don’t understand. I don’t understand. I don’t understand what anything means” John’s male dominance is very glaring as superior because of the academic knowledge he holds.

Furthermore, Gender roles are self-assigned in the play automatically, during John’s phone call to his wife several times in the first act Carol’s responses such as “oh. You’re buying a new home!” hints at the fact she aspires to have a home one day and to some extend jealous of john’s wife who appears to be the perfect cliched homemaker. This is the same vice versa when John assumes his position as the sole provider of the family and shows his superiority by the way his wife and Carol are both dependent on him for assurance and solution to their problems. As the play unfolds it becomes clear that the recurring interruptions during their conversations made it extremely hard to interpret each other’s perspective of things. Mohammed, Ahmed SM in his journal article Dialogic problems and miscommunications said “Contemporary critics in 1990s inclined to analyse the play with provocative Clarence-Hill hearing. Anita Hill’s allegation against judge candidate Thomas Clarence for sexual harassment caused analytic framework of Oleanna to be concentrated on the matter of gender politics” (Mohammed, 2009).

When Carol misunderstands John’s teaching and choice of words, she revolts against him, however John lacks knowledge of why he has been accused of sexual harassment. The Set-up of the play in an educational institution demonstrates the gap between teachers and students, it revels the lack of understanding between males and females by showing lack of empathy towards how they feel for each other. As the play unwinds both characters held onto their beliefs about what that thought was right, Carol believed she was standing up against egotistic and privileged men like John. The professor on the other hand believed that he deserved his position and power as a superior in the social structure. In the end both characters were fighting for a different goal making it rather difficult for them to come to an agreement.

POLITICAL CORRECTNESS

Oleanna’s play was written during the active era of political correctness with the intention of engaging feminist criticism. Political correctness in the play negatively represents feminism through Carol’s character, her ideology and struggle are pictured as very devious, manipulative and negative. This is implied by how Mamet renders the use of feminism towards the hierarchy system, and purely basing it on their radical views to abuse the power given to women. This is evident from the climax of the play when Carol accuses John of sexually harassing her, Carol’s accusation changed the whole dynamics of the play, she started to gain control after being backed by the Tenure committee.

Political correctness in Oleanna emerges through the lack of communication between John and carol even after John tried explaining that he is a victim of the same institution too, Carol refuses to reason with him. The professor became a victim of society’s stereotypical powers that is naturally assumed for example being born as a white male. As a white man he was able fulfil all his moral obligations, such as having a good job in a powerful position and a wife, this made him an easy target to be pounced upon by those less privilege than him. Although unintentional the lack of power by deprived groups, are often blamed on white males and question their integrity as law makers about what is being just. As Karl Marx said in contribution to the critique of economic power “It is not the consciousness of men that determines their being, but, on the contrary, their social being that determines their consciousness.”

Although the professor is unaware of his own arrogance, he constantly refuses to let Carol complete her sentences, by interrupting her. He lacks the ability to listen and understand, he sees himself at a more elevated position, this annoyed carol who in turn vents her anger against him. An example is in act one, when he said to carol “I like you” although he might have said that only to reassure her, but due to the lack of understanding between them, she mistook it as a sexual advancement thereby endorsing the issue of political correctness. In the context of Oleanna through sexual harassment, political correctness is examined in a very controversial manner, by exaggeration. Guidelines developed by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission in 1980 define sexual harassment as ‘Unwelcome sexual advances, submission to or rejection of such conduct by an individual is used as the basis for employment decisions affecting the individual; or such conduct has the purpose or effect of unreasonably interfering with an individual’s work performance or creating an intimidating, hostile, or offensive working environment’ (Academic Freedom P 64)..

LANGUAGE

Language is the main source of misunderstanding between the professor and Carol in Oleanna, they are both constantly conflicting in their capacities and responsibilities. Mamet’s dialect in Oleanna is a fount that is open to more than one interpretation within the positions of the educational system. The professor and her student have both a different comprehension of their respective characters, which is shown by how language is used in the play. The doublespeak of the language in Oleanna is the reason for the cause of uncertainty between John and Carol. As Macleod said in his journal article American Studies “clearly, there is no such thing as casual conversation in Oleanna: every exchange between the two characters bears directly or indirectly on the use or acquisition of linguistic power” (209).

Mehmet’s ambiguity uses of language from the first act of the play, already generated a conflict between the two characters i.e. when Carol seeks help from John. Carols persuasively attempts to make John assist her, when she told him “Teach work. Teach me (Mamet 12). Mehmet exposes her desperation to understand the professor’s work through embedding lots of repetitive words in the play, Carol’s cause for concern lies deeply in understanding the professor’s book for the subject he teaches her. The professor attempts to solve her cause for concern, but he rather ends up confusing her more due to the lack of a familiar interpretation between them thus leading to more frustration.

He believes that Carol’s problem involves the idea of failure which can be seen in his answer to her. The professor is certain that Carol’s issue incorporates the ideology of being a failure because of education, this is shown in how he responses to her, for example in act one he said “If I do not want to think of myself as a failure, perhaps I should begin by succeeding now and again. Look. The tests, you see, which you encounter, in school, in college, in life, were designed, in the most part, for idiots…. They’re nonsense” (Mamet 18). Carol on the other hand is worried about understanding the professor’s language and how he defines their relationship between student and teacher within the educational intuition rather than the idea of failure.

Additionally, Mamet deliberately creates various dialogic forms to determine that there is complication between communications. The phone calls were part of these distractions as they impaired the conversation between the Professor and Carol, the regular interference of these phone calls from the professor’s wife, make it impossible for John to focus on Carol and give her his full attention couple with the differentiation in language competency. The professor’s language competency enabled him to gain power over Carol who can’t understand complicated words, her vocabulary is limited and simple. In act one Carol struggles to understand words such as “paradigm” or “transpire”, the professor contrarily is very articulate in his speeches and demonstrates a higher level of vocabulary. The supremacy of dialect between them in the first act makes the professor more confident and gives him control over her, however in the second and third act carol slowly gains control while the professor slowly loses his power. However, by the end of the play the professor loses his composure by using broken sentence, he totally loses his power by flaring up his anger and resulting to a spiteful conduct, whilst Carol became more fluent with her dialect and comports herself.

POWER

One of the most evident themes in Oleanna is the fight for power between males and females, but more importantly on a larger scale between those who have lots of power and those who have limited power. As Karl Marx said “there is a limited amount of power in society, which can only be only be held by one person or group at a time. These “groups” are the working and ruling classes”. In the context of this play Carol is part of the working class and the Professor is part of the ruling class, In the beginning of the play, Carol is vulnerable against the Professor who dominates her throughout the first act due to her lack of confidence. He is portrayed as a man who has money and responsibility. He is constantly trying to solve issues from both his home as well as Carol’s lack of understand for his material, this makes him powerful and absolute as a professor because of how others are dependent on him. Although the professor seemed to have unlimited power, he began to lose it when Carol starts to unveil her power, she uses her identity as a woman to gradually overturn things. She became part of something bigger by joining the tenure committee, this elevated her position, Carol became part of a movement that needed a voice and a purpose to strike, so the timing of the accusation was perfect for its purpose. (quote about feminist movement in 92/Oleanna vibe)

The professor baited himself in the beginning when he was complaining about higher education to Carol “I came late to Teaching. And I found it artificial” (P7). His speech illustrated that education was pointless and so was university, this was also a cause for Carol’s rebellion, because she worked very hard to attend a good university only to be told it was not worth it. This arrogant speech by the Professor made it clear that he was unaware of how ridiculous he sounded, because the power and authority he held were all due to his profession at the university, thereby debunking his own identity. His lack of patience to answer her questions made her uncover his weakness and switches it to her advantage to gain total power by the end of the play. It was easy for Carol to play gender politics and manipulate the Professor to gain power, this coincides with the upraising feminist movement at the time, (Find quote or words about feminist movement at the time of Oleanna) she simply charged the professor of rape because there was an opportunity to gain power. She proved that regardless of all the education and advanced vocabulary, when power is lost helplessness takes control. In the case of the professor he resulted to violence and physical abuse because he could not control himself.

To conclude this analysis, Oleanna alters the positions of student and teacher reversed, the shift of power from the Professor John to the student Carol. Carol is backed by the tenure committee who supports her account of incidents that occurred in the professor’s office. John on the other hand loses to Carol because no can account for his narrative. In a wider context when looking at the world in general this implies there is no veracity and what matters is who is standing as your shield in terms of conflict. Similarly, some people can get away with murder if they have a good social and powerful Influence. In the professor’s office there is no any element of truth about what occurred according to Carol, but rather it became a reality because of the willingness of the tenure committee to accept her statement as the truth. In the beginning the professor was powerful because he had the backing of the university, and his position as a Lecturer that could chose to pass or fail a student if they were not performing to the school’s standard. The switch of dominance clearly gave Carol the confidence to express herself freely without the need to be reluctant in her dialect and criticising the professor for his disregard towards how hard she worked to make it to university as a student.

Literature Review

Active Passive: How does the Conan the Barbarian (1982) being a fantasy work, depict and challenge gender roles?

Abstract

This literature review aims to examine the various works around the gender roles in John Milius’s Conan the Barbarian (1982), yet because of the gender roles within the reel world as within the universe. The review conjointly makes a shot to focus on the hassle of the movie to place a “female” in the equally powerful role if not the lead. “At the time of its release, Conan the Barbarian was the logical product of nearly a century of orientalist fantasy”- (Hardy, 2019: 62)

Introduction

The review is split into three components for comprehensive analysis; the primary half (Active-Passive) examines the main male and feminine characters of the flick i.e. Conan and Valeria. The second half (Setting the Stage) examines how the flick paved a path for the long-run works of fantasy and S&S Genre, and the third half (The Father of Conan) investigates the first author Robert E. Howard W.R.T. his most noted created character-Conan. In the seven times, Mr. Olympia Arnold Schwarzenegger plays Conan whereas Sandahl Bergman compete for the character of Valeria. The Characters are referred to as Conan and Valeria in numerous sources and this review from here on.

“If someone says that Conan the Barbarian was a good movie, you may ask why he thinks so. The answer must be some account of the qualities of the movie that support that critical judgment. Those reasons can be examined, weighed, and in this case almost certainly found wanting.” (Rachel, 2007:232)

Active-Passive

There is an antique norm of males being active whereas females are passive members of society. However, the flick may be a solid necromancy fantasy movie; it touched the sensitive strings of society throughout its time. For the first time, the feminine within the flick was not a ‘helpless, good for nothing person heavily relied on the male lead’. “Valeria is a woman of movement. She is best, she is the master of the sword”- (Sandahl Bergman, one among the interviews for Conan the Barbarian- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=adxYxHFG_VU). “The organization of gender roles habitually seen in action cinema is reassuring in that it upholds the traditional male/active, female/passive dichotomy. Men can feel safe in their role of deliverer, and women can be comforted by the knowledge that they will be protected.” (Wright, 2012: 402)

In a world ordered by sexual imbalance, pleasure in gazing has been split between active/male and passive/female. The crucial male gaze forecasts its fantasy onto the feminine figure, which is titled consequently. In their ancient exhibitionist roles, women were checked out and displayed for their look coded for sturdy visual and sexy impact so they would be same to connote to-be checked out.

Cohan and Hark criticize film theory for this equation of the male with activity and therefore the feminine with passivity, and so the character of Valeria is not designed to be checked out for ‘passive’ feminine options.

Yes, Valeria and different feminine characters in Conan (such as King Osric’s perverse blue-blood daughter) conjointly show a substantial quantity of skin; however, they neither dance nor portray the ‘buxom helpless damsels’ of the peplum. Still, from her debut, we tend to understand Valeria as the ‘freelance’ hero until the end. She conjointly carries a weapon (somewhat Smaller than Conan’s blade and matching her slender appearance) and is in a position to climb, run, ride, and fight even as well because of the male protagonists. “Violence and nostalgia are common tropes of the New Hollywood movement to which Milius belonged.”- (Leotta, 2018: 70)

Her gear is additionally more civilized than Conan’s; however, the materials square measure similar: rough metal and animal skin straps, very little armor, and no superfluous ornamentation. Valeria guarantees Conan to return from hell if she were dead and he requires her that show her determination. This promise she is going to eventually keep when her death, once Conan battles Thulsa Doom’s warriors. Eventually within the battle, Conan stumbles and falls: an instant one among his enemies would possibly profit off.

The depiction of the feminine protagonist as a helper of the male leading figure is not uncommon in journey films, but here Valeria takes the lead and takes a dominant position not possible in earlier productions. In line with Neale – the portrayal of muliebrity in movies is problematic; but, this position, originating in an earlier era of flicks, does not appear to use Conan, though it had already been recorded.

Valeria does not match this description in the least. The romance she has with Conan would be a fellow male hero.

All of Conan’s attributes are exaggerated: his speech and behavior are harsh; his weapon system is extra-large (naturally conjointly functioning as a logo of masculinity); and no matter the ornament he dons is hyperbolically rough and unsophisticated. Withal, Conan ne’er seems wild, savage, or in real-time dangerous. He is a fierce enemy; however, he includes a code of honor that makes him likable enough. Therefore, his attractiveness is pushed to the boundaries by reducing the civilized components of his character to a minimum and at a similar time maximizing the ‘rough’ aspects of masculinity. “Starting in the 1980s the peplum hero is vulnerable both psychically and physically.” (Rushing, 2016: 103)

Conan is about in stark distinction to the characters of the Italian peplum or the yank ‘spectacular.’ In these genres, the male hero employs his bodily strength (and wits) to understand ideals bigger than he will. “He never fully swears himself to any cause but rather seeks calculated vengeance and opportunities that lead to personal wealth.”- (Flanagan, 2011: 100)

These square measure ideals of leadership, sacrifice, justice, romance, or other human qualities, which will be symbolized by the attributes of his body, weaponry, and so on. Conan is completely very different, using body, strength, and determination (not essentially wits) for his or her own sake. the sole exterior feature that shapes his temperament is the origin of his motivation, specifically the deeds of his enemies or friends, that causes him to hate, befriend, or love the folks he encounters, reckoning on the motivation behind and effects of their actions. “Masculinity, whether in terms of ideology, gender politics or sheer spectacle, is central to discussions of the peplum.”- (O’Brien 2012: 29)

Otherwise, Conan is driven by intense egocentrism. He is even masculine just for his own sake, one would possibly say, as his options set him apart except for all different men. “Conan is not an altruist; he is a solipsist.”- (Falkof, 2012: 109)

Setting the Stage

All of the foremost qualities that highlight the newly established distribution of gender roles – the mortal as the protagonist, the sturdy body reference (i.e. personal attributes), the social references (i.e. cluster attributes), and material references (i.e. item attributes) – would seem and re-emerge in future works of the S&S genre. “In S&S, the role models generally change due to the overwhelming domination of both sexes by the male principle: both men and women may equally fill the role of the merciless warrior.”- (Ipsen, 2012: 04)

The following things and characteristics so became canonical: the large, super-sized sword; the muscle-packed body of the male protagonist and the equally grammatical body of his feminine partner, evincing a match in strength; exotic gear (leather-strapped consumer goods, visible skin); and the ‘quest’ to be consummated. Notably, the attainable absence of a romantic affair characterizes the gender roles, too. Within the 1984 sequel, Conan still seeks his Valeria, not desirous to become involved with the other girls. nearly all S&S follow-ups on the massive screen have followed the Conan pattern, representational process heroes with massive swords and muscle-packed bodies, supernatural appearances associated with dark magic, a search leading the hero through associate degree Arcadian and/or apocalyptic landscape, and a decorative art form. Also, “To avoid one-sidedness and partial vision, one should learn how to employ a variety of perspectives and interpretations in the service of knowledge”- (Kellner, 1998: 21)

Semiotically, Conan resembles the installment of an associate degree experiential object, or a part of a film expertise horizon, that became the initial sign to be derived thenceforth.

To conclude, firstly, post-Conan works have similarities with the enduring illustration of Conan: muscles, animal skin gear, big swords, explicit plots, and subplots, explicit settings, imaginations of antediluvian worlds, and so on, clear purpose towards Conan the Barbarian.

Secondly, after Conan, it was impractical to make an S&S movie while not referencing – by choice or not – the instruction of Conan. Additionally, to simulate Conan, S&S as a genre likewise as every individual piece of S&S art so purpose toward Conan as their purpose of aesthetic origin. Conan set standards within the genre.

Thirdly, and most curiously, Conan made a group of symbols that are the most attention-grabbing considering gender roles. In post-Conan S&S, a return to the once-mounted gender roles was not possible. Each, of the weaknesses and the strengths of the gender roles would forever be shared equally between the sexes. Weapons would not be signs for men only; masculinity and femininity intrinsically were modified within the context of journey films. Thus, Conan and Valeria became the prototypes for brand-spanking new masculine and feminine.

The father of Conan

Robert E. Howard, also known as the father of Modern Fantasy, was a pulp fiction writer. He was obsessed with his Irish heritage, “many of the scholarly texts about Howard describe his obsession with his Irish heritage.”- (Dowd, 2016: 16)

“Some mechanism in my subconsciousness took the dominant characteristics of various prize-fighters, gunmen, bootleggers, oil field bullies, gamblers, and honest workmen I had come in contact with, and combining them all produced the amalgamation I call Conan the Cimmerian”- (Van Duinen, 2016: 340)

Three-quarters of a century after his death, Robert E. Howard has finally stepped out of the shadow of his most notable creation, Conan the Cimmerian, and is rising at his rightful place, that of a start father of the Fantasy genre, rivaled solely by J.R.R. Tolkien in terms of importance and influence. Fifty years of editorial abuse could not check the grim Cimmerian’s vitality and forestall Henry Martyn Robert E. Howard from eventually earning the long-overdue recognition he merited. “In all versions, the background of Conan is the pseudo mythical Hyborian Age character created in the 1930s by pulp writer Robert Howard, even if the live-action TV serial uses backgrounds and toponyms that are unknown to the Howard universe.”- (Bertetti, 2014: 2347)

In the summer of 1930, Wright declared his intention of launching a replacement magazine managing ‘‘tales of the Orient.’’ something east of the Yankee coast was deemed oriental enough, however, Wright had a particular request for Howard. He had been quite affected by a number of the Texan’s recent tales combining the Fantasy component with a historical (or pseudo-historical) setting. Howard’s vision of History was a red and somber one. His selection of protagonists were exiled or broken men. Also, “In 1955, L. Sprague de Camp published a posthumous collaboration with Howard titled Tales of Conan.”- (Look, 2012: 93)

In tales like ‘‘Red Nails’’ and ‘‘Beyond the Black Watercourse,’’ Howard’s pessimism way transcends any wool gatherer price one could realize within the texts. The latter is commonly cited as Howard’s most satisfying Conan tale. In this thinly disguised tale of Yank pioneers and wronged Indians, the purportedly irresistible and unbeatable barbarian is outwitted and captured by the savage Picts. He can eventually manage to flee, however, the many men and women he has solidified his ton with will not be therefore lucky. Few are the writers of Fantasy stories who succeeded in mingling Fantasy and realism with such mastery. The story may be a masterpiece as a result of Howard’s refusal to resort to pulp conventions and carry his grim gap plight through to its bitter conclusion: ‘‘Barbarism is that the state of humans… Civilization is unnatural. It is a whim of circumstance. Moreover, inhumanity should always ultimately triumph. For readers who had been fed with the illusion that every girl is lovely during the Hyborian Age empty of philosophical puzzles, the jolt must have been a violent one, indeed.

It was so with the Conan stories that Howard ensured his literary gift. By their terrible nature, these transcend the genres they are derived from, whether or not Western, history, or high-adventure. By displacing them from their historical context and cloaking them with a Hyborian color, Howard gave them a Catholicity they would not have had in another kind. They became unchanged.

Almost eighty years later, the character has achieved international fame. The stories are revealed in nearly every country and language within the world. One success resulted in another, the character spawned several derivations and embarrassing illegitimate children: he was featured in major motion photos, many comic books, cartoons, pastiches, TV series, toys, and role-playing games. within the method, Howard’s creation has been diluted to the purpose that it’s typically nearly possible to acknowledge the initial character within the picture image of the semi-illiterate, fur-clad, super-hero he has become within the public’s mind. “The Conan stories are thus not about the character himself, but about the events that his arrival set in motion, acting as a catalyst.”- (Louinet, 2011: 169)

Conclusion

The movie was the initiation to break the stereotypical norm of what a woman can do and what a man can do. The character of Valeria is equally exerted in the movie if not more. The modern woman can be seen as Valeria, she walks equally with men in each sphere of life. Conan the Barbarian became a role model for future projects in the fantasy genre. Today, we see the female leads in real life as well as in real life, all thanks to the efforts of Valeria. Lastly, Robert E. Howard looked ahead of his times and created characters that were not orthodox heroes. This helped tons in shaping the writing in modern times, with no rigid norm that men will always be active and women will always be passive.

Methodology

I would like to approach my essay using the same theme of Gender roles with an extension to race, masculinity, character engagement, narration, semiotics, politics, cultural relevance, and ideology. During my research themes I found very interesting are the masculinity, ideologies, and transmedia characters (Ipsen, Rushing, and Bertetti), also the politics and ideology of the modern Hollywood era (Kellner). I have various unique ideas about these themes that I would add to my essay. I plan to make a blend of my ideas with those I have researched; this will produce a bright presentation of ‘gender roles’ in Conan the Barbarian.

The parts I would want to focus on include the climax scene as well as the opening sequence, the scene where Conan meets Valeria, and how Valeria helps Conan when Conan being a barbarian tries to learn the civilized ways squatting down for hours. I will pay close attention to the dialogue where preconceived gender roles are challenged and it is frequently done in the movie. I also intend to note down how the character of Conan as a man develops, the different stages of Conan from the start to the climax bind the audience.

Bibliography

1. Rachels, J. (2007). Movies. In S. Rachels (Ed.), The Legacy of Socrates: Essays in Moral Philosophy (pp. 223–234). New York: Columbia University Press.
2. Falkof, N. (2012). Arnold at the Gates: Subverting star persona in Conan the barbarian. In: J. Prida, 1st ed., Conan Meets the Academy: Multidisciplinary Essays on the Enduring Barbarian. McFarland & Company, ch.2, pp. 104-123
3. Ipsen. G. (2012). Conan the Blueprint, The Construction of Masculine Prototypes in Genre Films. In: K. Ross, 1st ed., The Handbook of Gender, Sex, and Media. John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
4. Van Duinen, J. (2016). Robert E. Howard, the American Frontier, and Borderlands in the Stories of Conan the Barbarian. Extrapolation,57(3), Charles Sturt University. pp. 339 – 353.
5. Rushing, R. A. (2016) Skin Flicks: Haptic Ideology in the Peplum Film, Cinema Journal, 56(1), pp. 88-110
6. Bertetti, P. (2014). Toward a Typology of Transmedia Characters, International Journal of Communication, vol. 8, University of Southern California, pp. 2344–2361.
7. Hardy, M. (2019) Conan the Constructor: Building Eastern Worlds in Fantasy Film, Fastitocalon, vol. 8(1-2), pp. 61-73
8. Dowd, C. (2016). The Irish American Identities of Robert E. Howard and Conan the Barbarian. New Hibernia Review, Vol. 20, No. 2, Center for Irish Studies at the University of St. Thomas, pp. 15-34.
9. Wright, A. (2012) A Sheep in Wolf`s Clothing? The Problematic Representation of Women and The Female Body in 1980s Sword and Sorcery Cinema. Journal of Gender Studies, 21(4), Routledge, 401-411.
10. Kellner, D., Ryan, M. (1988) Camera Politica: Politics and Ideology of Contemporary Hollywood Film
11. O`Brien, D.P. (2012). Heroic Masculinities: Evolution and Hybridization in the Peplum Genre., University of Southampton, Faculty of Humanities Film, PhD, ch.5, pp. 193-228.
12. Leotta, A. (2018). The cinema of John Milius. Lexington Books.ch.5, pp. 70-79.
13. Louinet, P. (2011). Robert E. Howard, Founding Father of Modern Fantasy for the First Time Again., Contemporary French and Francophone Studies, 15(2), Taylor & Francis (Routledge). pp. 163–170.
14. Look, D.M. (2012). Statistics in the Hyborian Age: An Introduction to Stylometry via Conan the Barbarian, In J. Prida, 1st ed., Conan Meets the Academy: Multidisciplinary Essays on the Enduring Barbarian, McFarland & Company, ch.1, pp. 92-103
15. Flanagan, K. M. (2011) “Civilization…ancient and wicked” Historicizing the Ideological Field of 1980s Sword and Sorcery Films, in Of Muscles And Med: Essays On The Sword And Sandal Film, ed. Michael G. Cornelius, Jefferson, NC: McFarland, pp. 87-103.

Introduction:

The division of labor in the family has always been contentious (Phillipov, 2008). The man has usually been seen as the household breadwinner, and the role of the woman is to take care of the household (Boehnke, 2011). However, in recent decades, this particular model of family has become less prevalent. In recent years there has been a determined societal shift towards greater gender role equality (Phillipov, 2008). It has become more common for women to be part of the paid labor force and share the burden of the family income. Yet the shift has not correlated to household labor, women are still doing most of the work, particularly related to childcare. It has become the modern debate, whether to work or to have a family.

Along with this transition, there has been a general increase in the total female labor force participation in the majority of developed and developing countries in general, along with an increase in the labor force participation of women who are mothers (Artazcoz, Borell, Benach, Cortes & Rohlfs, 2004). In recent decades western developed countries have made large steps forward in including mothers and also the female labor participation rates in Asian societies have also developed as these nations have grown and in particular the service sectors of these countries have needed a wider employment market (Quah, 2008). There are a range of factors that are responsible for this spike including education, changing values, diversity in living situations, and changing labor markets (Jalal-ud-Din & Khan, 2008).

Despite these changing factors, with questions regarding What a woman’s role is? And whether she should stay at home or work? And whether she should have children and when? There has been a push to postpone having children with this rise in labor force involvement (Phillipov, 2008). These questions have been explored in the public forum for years. If we look at the 1950s, researchers like Parsons and Bales recorded that a woman is a wife a mother, and a runner of the home (Parsons and Bales, 1955). The way that gender roles are understood as the expectations placed on individuals based on their societal gender and the attitudes that individuals have towards men’s and women’s roles have been the subjects of much research.

Even with the general improvement of women’s percentage in the workplace, there is still a rather large difference between countries (Haller and Hoellinger, 1994; Atrazcoz, et al. 2004). Given this situation, there is room to explore the gender role attitudes in different countries and how those perceptions affect a woman’s involvement in the workforce.

In this paper, we will be discussing the attitudes towards gender roles in the home family dynamic that are considered to be related to the compatibility of having a career and a family. In the selected countries women are able to participate in the paid labor but still regularly are expected to do most of the duties around the home as well (Boehnke, 2011). As such women have a dual burden of paid and unpaid labor while men have less of an expectation.

Methodology:

Research Questions:

This paper will look at data from the World Values survey to see the comparative gender role attitudes across three countries, Australia, China, and Pakistan, and what the significance is for families.

• How do countries differ with regard to gender role attitudes and family?
• How are the consequences of egalitarian gender roles in the family perceived?
• Does a country’s development status and subsequent economic values affect the division of labor in the family?

Sampling Method:

The World Values Survey collects data relating to gender roles in the family by using specified gender-related questions within a broader question series. Each question is presented to engage with an attitude related to a specific gender role, and the answer to each question is sorted on a three-part scale (agree, neither agree nor disagree, disagree). The five selected questions for this paper are recorded below.

Question

• Gender Values
  • When jobs are scarce, men should have more rights to a job than women.
  • Being a housewife is just as fulfilling as working for pay
• Family Impact
  • When a mother works for pay, the children suffer
• Economic Impact
  • If a woman earns more money than her husband, it’s almost certain to cause problems
  • Having a job is the best way for a woman to be an independent person.

The five chosen questions were broken into three categories following the example of Braun (2004 in Philipov, 2008). They are gender values, the impact on family of gender attitudes, and the economic impact of gender attitudes. We do this as the questions are formulated to be general and do not necessarily reflect the situation of the respondent.

For this study, agreement with the questions in the gender values category shows that the respondents have a positive attitude towards a woman’s role being bound to the house and caring for the children and family, and respondent disagreement would indicate that paid work is of equal importance to women as family. If the respondent is to agree with the question from the family impact category that would illustrate a negative attitude towards having women in paid work rather than with family. Agreement with the first question in economic impact would show that the push for egalitarian division of labor is causing family conflict. Disagreement in the second question would demonstrate a negative attitude towards women in paid work.

As such in category one or two agreement reveals negative consequences of women’s involvement in paid work. It is evident that the two categories are related, and there should be a level of correlation between the two. The third category will allow for inference to be made about the economic correlation to family dynamics.

Results:

Descriptive Statistics

The results show that for category one, gender values, in Australia the mean for question one was 2.67, in China 1.99, and in Pakistan 1.45. The majority of respondents in Australia disagree with the statement. For China and Pakistan, the mode was in agreement with the statement. The second question recorded a mean of 2.19 for Australia, 2.21 for China, and 2.57 for Pakistan. With the mode for Australia, China, and Pakistan neither agree nor disagree with the statement.

The question for Category Two, family impact, recorded a mean of 2.96 in Australia, 2.51 in China, and 2.07 for Pakistan. The majority of respondents in both Australia and China disagreed with the statement and for Pakistan, they neither agree or disagree with the statement.

For the first question of Category three, economic impact, Australia recorded a mean of 2.59. The mean for China was 2.25 and Pakistan was 1.96. Pakistan’s mode was in agreement with the statement while Australia and China had a majority of respondents disagreed. The final question for economic impact recorded a mean of 1.81 for Australia, 1.75 for China, and 2.06 for Pakistan. With the mode for the respondents from both Australia and China were in agreement with the statement and the mode for Pakistan was in disagreement.

For the questions relating to gender values, statement one recorded a p-value of 0.000 for Australia and China and 0.327 for Pakistan. Statement two recorded a p-value of 0.000 for Pakistan and Australia while China had 0.037. Therefore there is significance (p The family impact question recorded a p-value of 0.000 for Australian respondents, 0.726 for Chinese, and 0.000 for Pakistani. The response of Australian and Pakastini respondents to the statement is significant (the p-value for the first question of the economic impact category was 0.159 for Australia, 0.000 for China, and 0.006 for Pakistan. The second question recorded a p-value of 0.558 for Australia, 0.000 for China, and 0.397 for Pakistan. The impact of gender attitudes on family economics is significant for China across both statements and for Pakistan in the first.

Discussion:

Our study was centered around a comparative investigation of gender role attitudes in three countries and what impact these attitudes have on families in those countries. The results of our analysis point towards the gender values category being able to provide the best description of attitudes for men and women in regard to gender roles compared to family impact and economic impact.

As the descriptive analysis shows modern gender roles are not as prevalent in less developed countries. The data shows that for the first attitude category, Australian respondents have a positive attitude towards women being a part of the paid labor force. This can be seen in their mean response towards gender value statements being 2.43. Given that the gender values category aims to look at the beliefs about the role of women, it is not surprising that a developed country like Australia has a significant positive attitude towards women being involved in the workforce. The factors that are often associated with these attitudes are more likely to be championed in developed countries, whereas more conservative beliefs and attitudes are commonly associated with countries that are still developing (Kangas & Rostgaard, 2007). Unsurprisingly both China and Pakistan have a mixed response to gender values and as such their view on the ultimate role of women is less clear, but leaning towards more traditional values (Jalal-ud-Din & Khan, 2008). The first question of category one was investigating the respondents’ attitude towards job priority and both Chinese (1.99) and Pakistani (1.45) respondents agreed that men should receive employment before women. This does not mean that they do not support women in paid positions but does suggest that they favor the role of men as the family breadwinner (Roder, 2014).

When the response to question one was tested for interaction with the response to the second question regarding whether being a housewife is as fulfilling as paid employment, the data showed that both countries’ respondents landed in the middle. However male respondents trended towards more traditional attitudes of the role of women being to care for the children and the home (Boehnke, 2011). This would suggest that as these countries continue to develop their attitudes would begin to align with developed countries, like Australia.

It was interesting to see that even in developing countries the statement that there could be harm to children with women coming into the labor force was still a fairly even split. The family impact category indicates that traditional family attitudes are still battling against modern egalitarian gender roles and division of labor expectations. While the regression results were not satisfactory, the regression does suggest that in Pakistan particularly traditional attitudes around family dynamics with children are still prevalent.

In regards to the economic impact of gender attitudes, it was clear that a country’s development status affected how the respondents viewed a woman’s role. Australia showed that it had positive support for women working and earning more than men. China and Pakistan both recorded less support towards that first question regarding economic impact. However, China supported a woman’s ability to gain independence through work which supports modern gender attitudes. Pakistan interestingly while being a more religiously conservative country did not show significance for keeping women from gaining independence by work but did in regards to arguments around earning differences between men and women (p= 0.006). This suggests that countries who are less developed cling more to their traditional values as it is a form of security as they continue to attain economic growth, while countries like Australia are able to be more open to change as the increased levels of wealth provide access to the factors for change like education and workplace expansion (Jalal-ud-Din & Khan, 2008).

The aim of this study was to see if gender role attitudes in different countries affected family dynamics and labor force involvement. Unfortunately, the study had several shortcomings, namely the chosen gender category model was not uniformly applied to the selected countries and the analysis was restricted by the selection of variables to be tested within the model. However, it can be summarized that the gender values category regarding attitudes towards gender had primary significance when applied to understanding the issue of paid work or family.

Bibliography:

1. Artazcoz, L., Borrell, C., Benach, J., Cortès, I., & Rohlfs, I. (2004). Women, family demands and health: the importance of employment status and socio-economic position. Social science & medicine, 59(2), 263-274.
2. Boehnke, M. (2011). Gender Role Attitudes around the Globe: Egalitarian vs. Traditional Views. Asian Journal of Social Science,39(1), 57-74.
3. Haller, M., & Hollinger, F. (1994) ‘Female Employment and the Change of Gender Roles: The Conflictual Relationship between Participation and Attitudes in International Comparison’. International Sociology 9: 87- 1 12.
4. Jalal-ud-Din, M., & Khan, M. (2008). Socio-economic and cultural constraints of women in Pakistan with special reference to Mardan district, NWFP province. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture, 24(3), 485-493.
5. Kangas, O., & Rostgaard, T. (2007). Preferences or institutions? Work—family life opportunities in seven European countries. Journal of European Social Policy, 17(3), 240-256.
6. Parsons, T., & Bales, R. (1955) Family, socialization and interaction process. Glencoe: Free Press
7. Philipov, D. (2008). Family-related gender attitudes. In People, population change and policies (pp. 153-174). Springer, Dordrecht.
8. Quah, S. (2008) [2003] Home and Kin: Families in Asia. London and New York: Routledge
9. Röder, A. (2014). Explaining religious differences in immigrants’ gender role attitudes: the changing impact of origin country and individual religiosity. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 37(14), 2615-2635.

Introduction:

Gender segregation is a powerful phenomenon of childhood. The extent of its occurrence depends on interactions arranged by adults for children and therefore cross-cultural and within-culture situational variations make a great deal of difference in the amount of interactive contact male and female children have with one another. (Macooby, Jacklin, 1987). According to the Oxford English Dictionary, Gender is the distinction of sex, and segregation is the act or policy of separating people of different races, religions, or sexes and treating them differently. (Fowler, Fowler, and Thompson, 2000) Therefore gender segregation can be defined as separating sexes, perhaps treating those sexes differently. In many countries around the world, the health of future generations is at risk due to the growing problem of obesity and overweight. The World Health Organization [WHO] has identified physical inactivity as the fourth leading risk factor for global mortality. (WHO, 2010). Physical education programs in schools are designed to promote lifelong habits of physical activity by providing children with both the opportunity to be physically active and positive experiences of that physical activity. In many nations, including Ireland, there is a general concern that levels of physical activity decrease during adolescence, and that girls, in particular, are less active than boys. (Smiley, 2015) Perhaps it is worth examining if schools need to segregate their Physical Education (PE) classes by gender to increase female participation.

Gender Differences:

It is commonly accepted that there are physiological and morphological gender differences. (Lewis, D.A., Kamon, E. & Hodgson, J.L, 1986). The differences between the sexes in body composition are well known: males typically have proportionately more muscle mass, more bone mass, and a lower percentage of body fat than women. Men have larger lungs, wider airways, and greater lung diffusion capacity than women, even when these values are normalized to height. (Blair, 2007). Generally, these differences mean males are stronger, taller, and faster than females. This is the main reason for many popular sports being segregated, it seems intuitively obvious, given the physiological differences that exist between men and women,( Batterham AM, Birch KM. 1985., Shepard RJ.,2000) that athletes should compete against others of the same sex, unless otherwise specified by rule—for example, in coeducational contests—or in disciplines for which the physiological differences between men and women offer no competitive advantage or disadvantage. In keeping with the ethic of fair play, most international sports federations (including the FIVB) organize their major competitions along sex-restricted lines. (Reeser, 2005). The average woman has a smaller inherent aerobic power and less muscular strength than a man, reflecting sociocultural influences, physical size, body composition, and hormonal milieu. (Shepard,2000) Nevertheless, the best-trained women can outperform sedentary men, proving that research has caused girls to become scared of participating in sports with their male peers. This is something that needs to be revisited, as many female students feel far more confident in playing with one another, without the presence of males. Females favor single-sex classes because they are less self-conscious of how they look and how they perform in games as opposed to coeducational classes. (Vargos, 2017) They aren’t scared to make a mistake and receive criticism from their male teammates in a game setting, or from males criticising their skill in general.

Gender segregation in a PE teaching setting:

The country that we live in has an attitude towards segregating genders in sports when they reach secondary level education. Even Nicole Owens, a highly regarded Dublin Ladies Gaelic Football player, talked about how she “benefitted from playing with boys” (Owens, 2019). She says that the “coaching was way more advanced” and how segregating the genders from the ages of 13 and onwards has left a “skill gap”. (Scally, 2019). It is possible to derive the lack of female participants in PE classes from the issue of separating females from males at such a young age. However it can then be argued that gender issues in PE remain in some schools, despite advances in PE research and curricula aimed at engaging females in PE, so there has been effort made to try to combat that skill gap. (Murphy, B. & Dionigi, Rylee & Litchfield, Chelsea, 2014) Teaching practices that support the ability of students to be autonomous in their learning behaviors and strategies are referred to as autonomy-supportive. Autonomy-supportive practices have resulted in increased motivation, as reflected in motivational indices, this was reflected in a study completed by Prusak and Darst in 2002 where the notion of choice led to an increase in female participation. Perhaps it is time to remove the common and competitive sports outlined in the Physical Education Curriculum Specification (Curriculum, 2020), and introduce more social activities like group walking.

Levels of Participation in PE in gender-segregated schools:

Treanor et al. (1998) and Lirgg (1993, 1994) found both boys and girls preferred single-gendered physical education formats. Gender differences in physical activity levels during secondary school physical education might be due to subject matter variations, student biological and motivational changes, societal (peer and teacher) expectations, and increasing differences in motor skill development. While physical activity is an important goal for physical education, it is not the only desired outcome. Current results suggest that girls-only classes can provide more emphasis on building the motor and sports skills many girls lack. (McKenzie, T. L., Prochaska, J. J., Sallis, J. F., & Lamaster, K. J.,2004). A study found that many girls are uncomfortable in their PE class. They feel that they are judged by their peers. They feel like not only are they pressured to participate and pass the class by their teachers, but they also worry about their peers. Constant judgment can force girls to close up and not want to participate. They concluded that coed physical education classes seem to be the main source of the problem. (Staveland, Hassan, Williams, Fenumiai, Wilson, 2016). Perhaps these co-ed classes are the reason for boys being more active in PE classes- in one particular study, contact with the ball during team games was observed. Results revealed that males received contact with the ball more often than females did during gameplay (Turvey and Laws, 1988). Males tended to pass to one another as opposed to passing to a female, even if she was open during the game. Many females stated that the males did not pass to them in class because they did not think that they were “good” at the sport (Turvey and Laws, 1988) Findings in another study reported that females felt as if they executed skills and team sports more efficiently, had more opportunities to practice skills, and felt less afraid of injury in single-sex PE classes compared to coeducational classes (Treaner et al., 1998). If there are so many studies expressing the reasoning for the lack of female participation in PE classes, shouldn’t we stop talking about it and do something about it?

Research question:

Students who prefer single-sex classes are more comfortable with peers who are the same gender, learn skills better, and are less afraid of injury (Treaner et al., 1998), which may help to raise female participation levels in PE. Females in the coeducational classes had extremely low perceived physical competence, and low levels of satisfaction in PE, and displayed minimal effort. In 2006, Evans found that females recognized males in a coeducational class as the audience, which may have led to incompetence. McKenzie (2004) discovered that males interrupted females’ learning in PE, causing incompetence and less time to practice skills. Conversely, when females are in class together without males, they may help and encourage one another as opposed to interrupting one another. This can lead to higher perceived competence (Lyu and Gill, 2011). Therefore, after gathering data and discovering that a vast majority of females prefer same-sex classes, the purpose of this research is twofold; to evaluate the differences in female students’ Physical Education participation and enjoyment from gender-segregated and coeducational Physical Education lessons.

Research Design

The research design is clearly outlined in the literature. The research design is elaborated on throughout the papers. There is a reference to the literature

Context and Participants

The context and participants of the study are comprehensively described. The demographic of participants and ethical procedures are evident. There is also reference literature.

Data Collection

The procedures of the data collection are described with some critical analysis. The analysis of the instruments supports them and establishes their validity and reliability. The procedures are in alignment with the research design. There is also relevance to relevant literature.

Data Analysis

The procedures of the data analysis are described with some critical analysis. The purpose for choosing these methods is clarified. The procedures are in alignment with the research design. Relevant literature is relevant.

Research Design:

This project seeks to evaluate the differences in female students’ Physical Education participation and enjoyment from gender-segregated and coeducational Physical Education lessons. This study will measure participation and enjoyment levels in Physical Education for female-level students who went through Secondary School.

The participants will complete a survey that will provide information including their age, gender, college course, ethnicity, and year of study. Although these variables will not be analyzed as part of the study, they will provide data that can be compared with the national averages (Babbie, 2010). It is important to note that the study will not take into consideration information such as socio-economic status, relationship status, living situation, and culture. This depth of analysis is not possible within the timeframe for the study, however, future longitudinal research could allow for such an examination. They will complete a second part of the survey consisting of qualitative data collection based on enjoyment levels in Physical Education and opinions on gender segregation in Physical Education. A final third part of the survey will be completed based on quantitative data collection where students will rate their participation and well-being levels during Physical Education.

Accompanying Program Scope and Evaluation:

Notes; This fits into this program as Gaelic4Girls is a 10-week programme incorporating coaching sessions with fun non-competitive blitzes aimed at increasing participation in Lady’s Gaelic Football. The program targets girls aged between 8-12 years who are not currently registered with a Ladies Gaelic Football club. In essence, this is a tool to attract new players. (Ladies Gaelic Football, 2020). It is a regime to up female activity levels in sports, quite like this project which seeks to raise participation levels of females within school sports settings.

Research questions:

• Why do girls tend to participate in Physical Education less than the male gender?
• Would a gender-segregated class help girls to feel more confident in participating?
• Do all female-gender schools have higher levels of participation levels in Physical Education? I.e. how many students sit out of a class in comparison.

Data Collection Techniques:

Qualitative: Qualitative research is a form of inquiry that analyzes information conveyed through language and behavior in natural settings. It is used to capture expressive information not conveyed in quantitative data about beliefs, values, feelings, and motivations that underlie behaviors. (Berkwits and Inui, 2020)

In this project, a Google Docs Forum will be used in which participants must answer questions based on their own experience in Physical Education during their secondary school years and questions based on their opinions of segregated Physical Education classes. The participants will consist of female University Cork College students between the ages of 18-24.

Quantitative: Quantitative methods emphasize objective measurements and the statistical, mathematical, or numerical analysis of data collected through polls, questionnaires, and surveys, or by manipulating pre-existing statistical data using computational techniques. (Libguides.usc.edu, 2020) This collection method will be used in the form will be used in the form of a survey, detailing questions rating the participants’ participation and enjoyment levels in Physical Education from 1-10. This will be a ‘tick the box’ style survey in which participants will answer five questions rating participation level and enjoyment.

Digital and Social Media: The survey will be distributed via an online link to students in various WhatsApp groups and Facebook groups.

Locations of Data Collection: Via a Google Forums account where all answers to the survey are collected.

Time of Data collection: The collection of data will occur over eight months from September to May 2019 during the college year. Therefore the study will be considered cross-sectional, due to the short period over which it will take place.

Data storage: Data captured are stored under Program Scope and Evaluation file No.: 1

Instruments:

• WEMWS

The WEMWS was developed in 2005 to measure well-being. The results of the WEMWS are used to evaluate policies and programs and aim to improve well-being. The scale can be applied to many settings, locations, and contexts. Therefore it is a suitable instrument to utilise for this study.

• IPAQ

The IPAQ is a series of 4 questionnaires that is used to determine the physical activity levels of individuals aged 15-69. The IPAQ was devised in Switzerland in 1998. On its completion, it underwent rigorous testing across 14 locations to test its validity and reliability. It was found that the measures were acceptable for national studies of physical activity levels (IPAQ 4 Group, 2002). For this reason, elements of it will be used in this project to record participation levels in Physical Education for this population.

Data Analysis:

Themes:

• Gender- Gender is seen regarding females as the project is based on female participation levels.
• Physical Education- This is seen as the project measures participation levels in Physical Education.
• Segregation- This is seen as the project proposes splitting genders in Physical Education classes to raise female participation levels.
• Wellbeing- This is seen as the survey asks about wellbeing levels.
• Physical Activity- This is seen as the survey measures Physical Activity levels.
• Enjoyment- This is seen as the survey measures enjoyment levels.

The qualitative method ensures that the data collected is objective, quantifiable, easily interpreted, and summarized. The quantitative method ensures that bias does not affect the data in any way. The analysis will begin by identifying the scales as ordinal as this will determine the organization of data. There will then be a summary of results through the use of descriptive statistics which include percentages, mediums, modes, frequencies, etc. Inferential statistics will also be utilized to analyze variants and examine correlations between variables. The collection of data will be carried out via Google Docs Forums. The data collected will then be examined using descriptive statistics. To summarize the differences between male and female participants, a two-way contingency table will be used. MANOVA software will be 5 utilized to investigate the results. The MANOVA (multivariate analysis of variance) is a form of multivariate analysis used to analyze data that involves more dependent variables at a time. MANOVA allows for the testing of hypotheses regarding the effect of one or more independent variables on two or more dependent variables. Therefore, it is considered most appropriate for the study and its research. The analysis of the data will be descriptive to give meaning to the statistical findings. This will enable a simpler, more comprehensive interpretation of results. Both measures of central tendency and spread will be used for the description of data. The use of graphs, charts, and tables in addition to statistical discussion will be used to clarify the data further.

Outcomes:

The outcomes of this survey are to understand if and why students did or did not enjoy or participate in Physical Education during secondary school. It will highlight if gender separation in Physical Education is suitable and if it would be a tool in raising females’ participation levels in Physical Education.

Ethics:

The research shall adhere to the ethical principles of the university Ethics Committee (UEC) to support the reliability, validity, and integrity of the findings. Before the commencement of the research project, the participants will be provided with an informed consent form and reserve the right to withdraw at any time. All subjects of the study will be ensured full confidentiality and will remain anonymous throughout the entire process. Throughout the paper, acknowledgment of studies and the work of others will be referenced accordingly. The project objectives and aims will be as honest and transparent as possible and the analysis and discussion of the study will be of high objectivity to ensure ethical standards are maintained (Bryman & Bell, 2003)With specific regard to quantitative and qualitative methods, there will be certainly that the results are not changed to come to particular conclusions.

Limitations:

There are several limitations of this study. The primary limitation is the unknown sample size, which may limit the identification of the results at the end of this project. In the future, a more solid sample size would provide more data for a more accurate and in-depth analysis. The data may be considered subjective due to self-assessment by participants and bias. This may alter or affect the results however, by establishing good rapport and trust with the target group, this may be prevented (Blaikie, 2003). Due to time constraints, the timeframe for the study is limited to cross-sectional, this will mean there is little time to reach into many communities to obtain a diverse range of results.

Conclusion

In conclusion, this research design establishes its process and objectives. The target groups and context are clearly outlined. The research approach is explained and evaluated. The data collection and analysis are discussed with appropriate detail thus, providing a core process for the course of the study. Finally, the research design evaluates the ethical considerations and limitations.