Category: Gender

In Plath’s “Ariel” Collection she expresses anger at a patriarchal society and the sufferings patriarchy brings, confining women to their sphere and archetypes. Women are described as “voiceless, confined, dehumanized and dismembered because of patriarchy”, the adoption of the Jewish metaphor to dramatize the collective female helpless response in what is the face of male assertive power. In “Daddy”, Plath uses the framework of her ambivalent relationship with her father- who symbolizes patriarchy-to present a vivid image of female exploitation and oppression, living in terror to “breathe” or “sneeze” in the face of a tyrannous paternal figure. This illustrates the subdued nature of the speaker who yearns for an individual and autonomous female identity “ich, ich, ich, ich” (meaning “I” in German) but is unable to carve one through her inability to express her father’s tongue. How ironic, the speaker’s association of self is still deeply rooted in her father’s, showing the extension of male oppression in not just “daddy” but the collection as a whole.

The poem starts with the speaker referencing her father as a “black shoe”, stating that she has “lived like a foot” for “thirty years”. Here Plath is using a “deliberately awkward metaphor” to depict the confined nature she has been subjected to for thirty years, encompassing a small black space figurative of the belittling of women in the face of patriarchy. Her deprivation of movement also plows through, metaphorical of the controlling aspects of a male-centric society, dictating even the most minute actions such as “breath[ing]”. The presence of patriarchal figures administering the speaker’s life is also reflective of the structure, “Daddy” is made up of sixteen regular quintains that never falls out of formation. However, when read orally, we are exposed to a “unique oral experience”: the inconsistent rhyme scheme, syllable counts, and the repetitive nature of the ‘-oo’ German dialect contrasting with the established structural norm, foreshadowing the future neglect of male authority. Also, the irregularity together with the rhymes of “you”-for which the reader must “create the shape of a baby’s sucking lips”- is significant as it spotlights and reinforces the belittled and ridiculed female speaker who is seen as childlike. This is emphasized by the stylistic choices of the onomatopoeic and simplistic language such as “Achoo” echoing childlike rhetoric. But, as “Daddy” progresses, Plath’s language becomes increasingly complex and riddled with symbols (“ ….“), extended metaphors (“Chuffing me off like a Jew”), and increasingly polysyllabic language. This all further illustrates the breaking away from male assertive power and their oppressive ideals.

In “Daddy”, this image of male oppression is closely interrelated with identity. Male vices have become so ingrained in the speaker’s society, that oppression is all known. The speaker repeats “ich, ich, ich, ich”, meaning “I” which is related to the idea of oneself and being. Due to the prolonged nature of victimization, the speaker finds it difficult to express or be her true individual self shown through the repetition and reluctance to view themselves as someone separate, an “I”. However, this inability to express herself is shown through the lens of her father’s language, German. This shows how the speaker’s identity will always be through the lens of her father’s tongue, making any attempts at individuality a mere facade as oppression even seeps through language and culture. This idea of identity and individuality is also expressed in her poem “The Applicant”, in what is a similar male dominating society.

In “The Applicant”, females are described as “living dolls” in a lexical field of consumerist language embedded in a distinct one-sided dialogue. The use of commercial language in combination with the reference to females as “dolls” serves to represent an attempt to conceal and isolate individuality underneath mass-produced merchandise. Male oppression in “The Applicant” also appears in the stereotypical portrayal of gender roles, Plath hinting at the expressionist ideology governing females, stating “bring teacups and roll away headaches”. Furthermore, this inability to communicate or elicit a sense of self is also shown through repetition, this time, the noun “talk, talk the talk”, whilst the ‘applicant’ is never given any real opportunity to fill that space with a response. Again, both figures are left disparaged in the face of patriarchy, unable to communicate or express an opposition (Daddy: “I could hardly speak”).

Additionally, as “Daddy” progresses, we are introduced to the intergenerational nature of male oppression, the speaker’s victimization extended now to her husband, “a man in black with a Meinkampf look”, the continuing Nazi rhetoric telling of the speaker’s continued anguish. This husband is said to have “dr[unk]” the speaker’s “blood for a year”, showing the paralyzing and draining effect of patriarchy through the universal telling image of vampirism. It also serves to highlight a predisposition to oppression saying “The vampire…said he was you”, still showing an instinctive trust even to those who have repressed and misused them, conveying the patriarchal consequences to be more than just short-term or physical, but also psychological and long term. What’s interesting is that “Mein Kampf” translated into English means both “my struggle” and “my fight”, extending the previous ambivalent relationship with her father and displacing it onto her new husband Also, the same ascribed “black” is given to both figures, connoting and foreshadowing the eventual death of both authoritarian leaders. But, “black” is also an absence of color, depth, and hue painting the men in the speaker’s life as stereotypical oppressive beings that carry a cold and stern demeanor both physically and emotionally.

However, in “Tulips”, the speaker’s husband is said to be “smiling out of the family photos” juxtaposing with the male characteristics in “Daddy”. But, the quote finishes as “My husband and child smiling out of the family photos; their smiles catch onto my skin, little smiling hooks”. The semicolon here is separating two closely interrelated clauses, suffering is still occurring and the “husband” is still injuring the speaker shown through the subversion of what is supposed to be a pure and affectionate metaphor.

But, unlike both “Tulips” and “The Applicant”, “Daddy” does progress and the speaker does grow to change the somber and heavy dynamic to one now tailored towards emancipation and freedom. The speaker performs a metaphorical murder-” If I’ve killed one man, I’ve killed two”-developing a personal fantasy of revenge and confrontation- defying submissive norms that are reminiscing of that of “Lady Lazarus”; where the speaker also identifies with the Jewish victims of the holocaust. In “Lady Lazarus”, the speaker performs a theatrical strip tease, a public resistance to the social discourse surrounding females, the speaker’s patronizing “Do I terrify” also illustrates a rebellion towards patriarchy as an oppressive and undermining ideology. This theme of publicity is also shown in “Daddy” through the plural use of “villagers” who “never liked” the speaker’s husband. Here, they are also said to be “dancing” conveying again the inversion of a restrictive patriarchal identity, to one that is psychologically and physically unchaining. Thus, in both “Daddy” and “Lady Lazarus”, Plath-through theatricality-attempts to convert male oppression into something empowering and commendable, with feminist critics echoing a female transformation “from passive victim to active avenger”.

Given this, “Daddy” aligns itself with Plath’s wider concerns of not only male oppression but also growing challenges to this rhetoric. The once confining figure can now “lie back now” as an autonomous female identity is being crafted shown through the last line “Daddy, daddy I am through”. 

The erosion of traditional gender ideologies is expedited by William Shakespeare’s comedy Much Ado About Nothing which exposes the role of truth and gender during the Elizabethan Era. With extensive literature on the role of women at this time, the controversial rise of the unruly female has a central impact on audiences, Elizabethan and modern alike. Under strain was the traditional feminine ideology of a passive, silent, gentle, and submissive woman, and with Queen Elizabeth I manifesting an ambiguous female-male identity, role expectations and the truth of gender have inevitably changed over time. This essay will examine the complexity of truth and gender, and how Shakespeare strategically makes a big fuss about nothing at all.

Inherent gender inequalities are portrayed through the juxtaposition of two courtships between conventional Claudio and Hero and their counters Beatrice and Benedick. Wielding words for weapons (Boon), Beatrice and Benedick have a combative relationship with insults and witty remarks flung back and forth. The relationship is best described by fellow character Leonato:

there is a kind of merry war betwixt Signior Benedick and her: they never meet but there’s a skirmish of wit between them.

(1.1.49-50)

James Evans’ production for Bell Shakespeare uses this battle of wits to shine a light on the unorthodox role of women; with Zindzi Okenyou’s Beatrice projecting as the cerebral superior over Duncan Ragg’s Benedick. Differing from Petruchio and Katharine in The Taming of the Shrew, Beatrice constantly has the upper hand. The Elizabethan era cast the ideal woman as rarely seen or heard in public, having no legal possessions and no voting rights with little to no authority, even inside the household (Credit., 1992. p. 12). The traditional woman is better represented by her cousin Hero; the naive, chaste, and quiet young woman of whom Beatrice is extremely protective. Beatrice is as cunning and forward, and Hero is naive and shy. Beatrice immediately rejects these connotations by often interrupting or speaking her mind without concern about decorum. Her first line of the play interrupts a conversation between Leonato and the messenger and is loaded with sarcasm and bitterness. Loquacious, insubordinate, independent women were regarded with interest and suspicion, often by men, and this suspicion chaperones deceit and untruthfulness.

Unlike biological sex, which has specific and constant traits, the concept of gender refers to expectations regarding the behavior of the two sexes. The expectation of a man during this time was, masculine. In the patriarchal society of Much Ado, conventional codes of honor, camaraderie, and a sense of superiority over women regulate masculine loyalties. Benedick voices the traditional patriarchal ideology through his misogynist critique of women biting their tongues and sexual lightness. In the first three scenes of Much Ado, male characters continually degrade their female counterparts. Firstly, Leonato orders Hero to accept any man who proposes courtship or marriage. Her duty, as a female is to “be ruled by your father” (2.1.38), and Beatrice mockingly suggests that women are;

“to make curtsy, and, say, father, as it please you

let him be a handsome fellow, or else make another

curtsy and say, Father, as it please me”

(2.1.39-41)

Men are dominant, Claudio in war and romantic love, Don Pedro in arranging his friends’ affairs, and Benedick in championing the soldier’s life and the sexual conquest of women. They cannot, therefore, know and empathize with women. Claudio denounces Hero, ironically, for not appearing to be all she seemed, an impossibility anyway since he had idealized her. Female roles in Messina are circumscribed – virgin, wife and mother, or whore.

Shakespeare showcases intertextuality with the allusion to his other literary masterpieces such as Othello, where a leading male character is hoodwinked into believing his love interest has been unfaithful; and Romeo and Juliet where a death is faked to evoke true feelings of affection and love. These events are consequential to the lies, deceit, and untruth faced in Shakespeare’s masterpieces. Much Ado is no exception. Central to deception is Claudio who believes Hero has been untruthful to him. After the woman, Hero is degraded and humiliated at the altar, Beatrice explicitly rebels against the unequal status of women in the Elizabethan era:

“O that I were a man for his sake! Or that I

had any friend would be a man for my sake…

I cannot be a

man with wishing, therefore I will die a woman with grieving.”

(4.1.312–318)

Ironically, not all deceptions of the play were ‘bad’. Don Pedro seizes an idea to deceive Hero through a disguise; although a deception, Don Pedro has honest and truthful intentions. He offers to pretend to be Claudio and woo Hero on his behalf at the masked reveling. By contrast, Don John seems weary at the thought of disguise. He describes himself paradoxically as a ‘plain-dealing’ villain (1.3.32) and declares ‘I cannot hide what I am’ (1.3.13). Shakespeare again winks to another text, King Lear, where a different pair of half-brothers use deception in the form of disguise for the greater good. Supporting this, Andrea Varney (2016) recognizes the role of the audience in deciphering the truth, “We are forced to recognize that honesty can be malevolent, disguise can be well-meaning, and seemingly innocent costumes can conceal dark purposes.” In place of clear opposition, Shakespeare blurs the lines between truth and fabrication, identity and performance, knowledge and misunderstanding.

Truth and Gender are core themes in Shakespeare’s Much Ado About Nothing. Shakespeare’s play is a muse for social issues, such as gender inequalities that prevailed in the Elizabethan Era attributed to the Queen herself. Directing the script is Beatrice’s role in disputing the gender polarities although being untruthful about her feelings toward Benedick. Gender and truth, predominantly untruths in this play are intertwined creating complex and layered meaning to each action and language choice used.  

Different types of texts incorporate key ideas through significant characters and important events to demonstrate the nature of humanity. Much Ado About Nothing is a play (1598) written by William Shakespeare. Some concepts that are identified in this play include deception and gender. Shakespeare explores deception, and how it can make or break relationships. Additionally, he includes the expectations of each gender and how it can lead to inclinations and prejudice. Shakespeare incorporates these ideas in the play by associating them with the plot of the play.

Disguising as someone else is a form of trickery; and in this play, it is used in the hope of starting a relationship. Shakespeare creates this when Claudio plots to use Don Pedro (pretending to be Claudio) to proclaim his love for her, “I will assume thy part in some disguise and tell fair Hero I am Claudio, and in her bosom, I’ll unclasp my heart”. Don Pedro is planning to disguise himself as Claudio, and then try to woo her under his name so that she will think that it is Claudio. This reinforces the fact that relationships can be affected by forms of trickery.

Deceit can be used in many ways and forms; one form of trickery could include manipulating someone into believing that they are loved. Shakespeare incorporated in this play; specifically, when Don Pedro’s plan was to be executed on Beatrice and Benedick, even though they appear to show nothing but hatred for each other, “…but most wonderful that she should dote on Signor Benedick, whom she hath in all outward behaviors seemed ever to abhor.”. Don Pedro explains to Leonato that Beatrice secretly shows affection for the Signor, which tricks Benedick into believing that she loves him. Due to their plan’s success, Benedick’s feelings for Beatrice have started to develop into love for her.

Deception is a prominent theme in this play, and it illustrates how it can affect relationships negatively. Shakespeare creates deception in the play when Don John decides to make an evil plan to break up Claudio and Hero’s marriage, “Go but with me tonight, you shall see her chamber window entered even the night before her wedding day… but it would be better fit your honor to change your mind”. By using an authoritative and powerful tone, Don John speaks with certainty to show that he is serious and that he won’t stop until he gets what he wants; revenge. This showed Claudio and Don Pedro that he was not messing around, luring them into the trap. Because of this, Claudio’s opinion of Hero is split in two, and their relationship is torn apart.

In the play, Shakespeare investigates gender (women specifically) and subtly shows that men had the upper hand in decisions, jobs, actions, etc. Hero is the embodiment of a typical woman from a wealthy family during Shakespeare’s time. Before her meet-up with Don Pedro at the masked ball, her father asks her to accept Don Pedro’s proposal, “Daughter, remember what I told you: if the prince does solicit you in that kind, you know your answer”. Don Pedro’s hand in marriage is already accepted under Leonato’s instructions instead of Hero having her own opinion or say about the situation.

In society, women needed to stay loyal until death. This is reinforced by the fact that Hero had to obey, even though she may strongly disagree, “God give me joy to wear it! For my heart is exceeding heavy,”. The sad tone which is created by words like ‘give me joy’ and ‘exceedingly heavy’ expresses the fact that Hero is unsure about this decision but knows that she is powerless.

As stated before, men were seen as the superior gender in Shakespeare’s time. This is seen in the play when Claudio rejects Hero on their wedding day because of her alleged affair, “Give not this rotten orange to your friend; She’s but the sign and semblance of her honor,”. Shakespeare’s use of the words ‘rotten orange’ could also be describing her reputation (as well as an insult); also, Claudio speaks about Hero as if she is an object and not a person. This highlights the fact that women were not seen as equals to men.

The ideas and concepts in Much Ado About Nothing (which are deception and gender) are used through key events and characters throughout the play’s storyline. They help to demonstrate how fragile relationships can be and also how gender affects how someone is treated, which is all a part of the typical human nature. 

Women are finding their place alongside men in making vital decisions that will affect the lives of people in their societies with today’s woman significantly contributing to political, economic and social discourse (World Bank, 2012:1). This notwithstanding, norms and attitudes regarding the role of women and men in education and employment continue to limit the contribution that women can make to the social and economic progress through productive work (UNGEI, 2012).

According to the ILO, gender equality at the workplace is not just the right thing to do but that it is good for business. There is growing awareness and evidence that gender equality boosts enterprise productivity, spurs economic growth and improves the welfare of families. The inclusion of educated and skilled women in the economy is expected to expand the productive labor force that can engage in innovation and compete globally.

Youth unemployment is currently one of the greatest development challenges facing countries globally, including those in Africa. Youth are often depicted as a group of people with full potential for increasing productivity but with less opportunities of accessing the labor market. Africa is experiencing a ‘youth bulge’ where the share of young people in the working age population is growing as a result of reduction in mortality rate with increasing high fertility rate (Canning et al., 2015). Inadequate education, lack of skills, and mismatch of skills and poor attitude towards work are among the reasons advanced for not being able to access the labor market. In Africa, youth unemployment is high among those who are educated and come from high earned income families. However, unemployment of educated young people has received little attention in the literature. In various studies on youth and employment (Ansell 2005, ILO 2010), there is acknowledgment of young graduates becoming unemployed. However, there is a dearth of systematic evidence on the depth of the patterns, causes, and consequences. Empirical studies on young female suggests that they are at a disadvantage in finding employment especially in the formal private sectors with most of the reasons being the mismatch in the labor market, insufficient effort in job search and inadequate skills (Lassibille et al 2001, World Bank 2007). It is without a surprise that youth employment is now a top policy priority in most countries across all regions, and at the international level has been translated into the development of a global strategy for youth employment and embedded into the 2030 sustainable development goals (SDGs). The global number of employed youth continues to decrease with the current global youth employment-to-population ratio (EPR) — the share of the youth working-age population that is employed — falling from 44.0 percent in 2007 to 41.2 percent in 2014, representing a decline of 2.8 percentage

Similarly, gender equality in youth employment is another top policy challenge facing countries globally. In 2014, male youth employment-to-population ratio was estimated at about 48.2 percent compared to female youth employment-to-population ratio of only 33.7 percent globally. For Africa, male youth employment-to-population ratio was estimated at about 47.7 percent compared to female youth employment-to-population ratio of only 39.4 percent. The social exclusion of the female youth in employment in Africa is severe, given that the unemployment issue was a key catalyst that triggered the Arab Spring in North Africa from January 2011, which led to the fall of the governments in Tunisia, Egypt and Libya.

Gender disparities in terms of education and the participation of female youth in economic activities have become important issues for African countries in particular. This is partly because of the susceptible negative effects that can arise from the exclusion of the female youth in employment on poverty reduction (Ward et al., 2010).

Enhanced gender equality in employment can lead to significant macroeconomic gains, especially higher GDP (Cuberes and Teignier, 2012, Elborgh-Woytek et al., 2013). Studies have argued that the employment of women on an equal basis would allow companies to make better use of the available talent pool, with potential growth implications (Barsh and Yee, 2012). Equal and better opportunities for women to earn income has been studied to be one of the important poverty-reducing factors in developing economies (Heintz, 2006); while higher female labor force participation and greater earnings by women could result in higher expenditure on school enrollment for children, including girls, potentially triggering a virtuous cycle, when educated women become female role models (Aguirre et al., 2012, Steinberg and Nakane, 2012).

In approaching the wider objective of analyzing the relationship in gender, labor, and education, the study aims at investigating the factors conditioning female labor participation with specific distinctions drawn between individual characteristics, household composition, labour market (demand side) and cultural factors in Africa.

The function of gender in Mesopotamian mythology starting with the male gender is that men were always looked at with great appreciation in that they were granted the rights and capabilities to be in government. The roles of men in this mythology varied from being kings and fathers or even political rule makers. As a result, these roles that males played, gave them the highest sense of command in their Mesopotamian civilization. To add, on page 69 in Gender and Aging in Mesopotamia, men were the heads of their households in Mesopotamia because this mythology was patriarchal. “For the most part, the father as the head of the family retained both possession of and control over land for life.” Since they were the heads of their households, men also had land which they were the owners of for their entire life and this expresses them as playing a prominent role. Since men were the heads of their households, women were seen as playing a less prominent role in the household. Instead, they would be seen as being a housemaid. In Mesopotamian mythology, religion was very important because Mesopotamians believed that the gods influenced how they lived their human lives.

A well-known male god in Mesopotamian mythology is Marduk, who was the chief god of Babylon. Marduk was an important god during this time because he was the most powerful god of Babylon. The female gender is a bit different due to the different influences that both cultures of Sumer and Babylon had on the female gender and the way they treated women. The female gender was treated with more respect under the rule of the Sumerians in comparison to the Babylonians, who treated women poorly. Sumerian women had roles in their society that were different from males. Women’s roles consisted of being wives and mothers for most of the time but there were other roles that women played which were them being priestesses and housemaids. The gender roles of women changed however under the rule of the Babylonians. The leader of the Babylonians at the time was Hammurabi who was a significant king of Old Babylon. The Babylonians had strict rules during the time, which made for the gender roles of women to quickly change. This was shown since women were starting to be considered as property of their husbands and the sense of liberty that they once had while the Sumerians were in command, was now lost. Even though women were treated this way under the Babylonians, a well-known female goddess in Mesopotamia is Tiamat. Tiamat was the Babylonian she-dragon of chaos and was a strong female goddess who had a life-giving force which is shown when she mingles with Apsu and gives birth to Lahmu and Lahamu.

Compare Rhys’s narrator to Kingston’s with a view to society and gender. How is social critique related to point of view?

What is the uniqueness of a female narrator? Why is important that the narrator has to be a female? Prior to reading Jean Rhys’ short story and Maxine Hong Kingston’s autobiography, it would appear to me that most intriguing part would be their narrative forms. Therefore, this essay will present those different views on female narrators relate to their society and identity.

In the twentieth century, women’s writing travels a long journey. They have been through loads of traditional restrictions, and eventually have the freedom to explore their powerful and independent lives, especially some ‘mixed races’ female writers. They always carry a rich sensation and the knowledge of their cross-cultural heritage because the society creates them an unusual perspective. After reading The Day They Burned the Books and Woman Warrior, it can be seen that they have similar interpretation and concept, such as feminism, colonialism and cultural conflicts.

In Jean Rhys’ short story, one of the noticeable things is the narrator, a young female immigrant of the Caribbean, which indicates the writer herself. Rhys is one of the influential female writers in twentieth century, focusing on its unmarking of the social attitudes and identity. While in Woman Warrior, Kingston portrays Chinese-Americans’ lives differently according to the Chinese myths and legends. As the first generation grew up in American, she takes on distinctive voices and personas for retelling her family history which all based on female characters like her mother, aunt and herself.

Even both stories are in different backgrounds and cultures, the narrative forms indicate the main theme of woman and femininity. For Rhys, she has the similar life experience as the narrator, she concerns more on woman’s childhood rather than the cold adulthood. She uses the angle of a child as an outsider to observe the struggles between Eddie’s family and actions that Mrs. Sawyer made. Unlike in Woman Warrior, the narrator is ‘moving’ from her childhood to early development ‘I continue to sort out what’s just my childhood, my imagination, my family…”( Kingston, 205). The structure shifts in different voices. Kingston herself is the narrator, she is creative to combine different kinds of worlds and cultures in order to perform a harmony of her own expression. She does not follow the normal structure, for instance, the narrator is very direct in ‘No name woman’, but in the mythical story of Fa Mu Lan in ‘White Tigers’, she just pretends like someone else. Sometimes she also disappears completely in the story of ‘At the Western Palace’, not containing a single word ‘I’. Then she finally talks about her own position in the last chapter of the memoir.

What is the effect of the focus on women in these stories? Both stories have all mentioned about the role of women in their society. In The Day They Burned the Books, the narrator is an English-descending child growing up in the Caribbean, presenting the mixed race and the clashing cultures. She is the representative of the Rhys. During the narrative form, this little girl is purporting her gender and racial expectation on Mrs. Sawyer, one of the most significant female character in the story. Mrs. Sawyer is regarded subordinate and voiceless when compares to her husband. Because of the colonial background, the power of her in society is diminished. She hates the books in an attempt to get rid of the English heritage, hates the female writer like Christina Rossetti, ‘Woman must be tortured’ (Rhys, 2759). At that time, woman who writes books will be considered ‘worse’ and inappropriate. The role she takes under the Western notion that women should not write or go against tradition. The narrator sees Mrs. Sawyer as a revengeful woman. Rhys puts the central consciousness on this girl who only understands part of the painful involvements of race and inequality, and her sense of identity allows her to oppose the voice of a society that represses women.

On the other hand, Kingston chooses women as the protagonists of this book, it is not only including her own gender identity, but also consisting the guidance from some female Eastern historical characters like Mulan. Kingston describes her no name aunt’s story in the first chapter, to further condemns the women’s lack of choice in feudal society and the tragic life of rebellion. She’s trying to express the influence under Chinese patriarchy, marriage likes a rope that bundles a woman’s life and fate. ‘There is a Chinese word for the female, which is ‘slave’’ (Kingston, 9). The role of Chinese woman is considered as the victim of hierarchy, powerless and obedient. Besides, she compares two sisters in ‘At the Western Palace’, the differences between new and old world. Perhaps by the influence of her mother’s previous life experience, which motivates Kingston to portray the story in a female voice, to show the way how women were treated and understood at that time. For Kingston, the role of woman, such as wife and mother, should be a warrior and able to lead her people to victory in battle, not being controlled by men.

Besides, the social conditions rely heavily on female perspectives within both works. Having lived during the colonial era, Rhys explores the social demarcations between English and Creole cultural identities, it can be seen that Caribbean creole is the outcome of the new world. When the story begins, the English root is already structured in the Caribbean family in terms of patriarchal society: the books are the barriers between Britain and Caribbean. Those tensions between two cultures are exemplified and taking many shapes through the story. Furthermore, the story is more than just colonialism, but more on gender and race: The narrator, a young girl appears on a sense of desolation, she admires that ‘Eddie had been very bold’ when they are seen as ‘different’ (Rhys, 2758). In addition, Mrs. Sawyer represents the past of colonialism and slavery that wants to be erased. How does a Caribbean woman gain power through Western masculine oppression? There is no solution at that time. She is a female who under that men-dominated society, the action of her to burn the books actually is a way to protect her own Caribbean heritage.

On the contrary, the eastern culture is always shaped as a feminine image, such as introverted, peaceful, shy and quiet, whereas the west is extroverted, enthusiastic and out-going. Kingston’s Chinese-American voice has also been considered an integral part of the cross-cultural landscape. In ‘At the Western Palace’, Brave Orchid and Moon Orchid can be regarded as a representative of Western culture and Eastern culture. In twentieth-century China, there are a lot of limitations for women, such as foot binding, widow chastity or concubinage. Woman under the Confucian social system has been considered powerless, as well as her no name aunt and Moon Orchid, the cultural clash causes terrible effects. However, the narrator develops the legend from Fa Mu Lan (a Chinese heroine) to establish her view of woman fighter, which contradicts to Brave Orchid’s negative attitude and also challenges China’s traditional devaluation of girls and women.

By telling those stories, Kingston’s narrator criticizes the patriarchal traditions of Chinese culture while also indicts America’s racism as having a devastating effect on Chinese-American woman like Kingston herself. Some critics have considered that Kingston’s use of Chinese literary sources in her work are ‘irrelevant, exotic, remote from American reality’. Frank Chin, a Chinese-American writer, describes Kingston’s work as ‘simply a device for destroying history and literature.’ (Yan 4) It is not surprising that her use of Chinese materials may not be reliable since she doesn’t know the root of when she grew up, she archives a lot of traditions by her double identity. By contrast, some commentators have often discussed this in the fields of postcolonial and feminist literary theory in Rhys’s work, her narrator composes the status of races and portrays the cultural struggle within her surroundings and within the restrictions of a patriarchal society.

Last but not least, the language they use shows a powerful gender distinction. Even the narrator is young and naïve in Rhys’s work, she represents the pure childhood that everyone can access to it easily. She develops with her central consciousness through dialogues, ‘when Mr. Sawyer was drunk—he used to be very rude to her’ (Rhys 2757). It is obvious that the relationship is imbalance in that society, the mulatto wife has to embittered by her husband’s racism. Likewise, in Woman Warrior, some words that stand for girls like ‘pig’ or ’stink’, ‘there is an outward tendency in females’ (Kingston 160), shows the discrimination of female.

In conclusion, these two female narrators from both texts allow me to understand more deep-set gender statuses and how the struggle for identity affects relationships and society. Kingston’s narrator foregrounds the instability of moral and social positions by several talk stories instead of emphasizing the martial image of woman, she encourages that the society should contain both qualities for man and woman, woman can also takes on social responsibility and become the fighter for their lives, whereas Rhys’s one gives us a chance to look more about race sentimentally, the gender issue within the female characters, brings out the oppression and domination of a colonial and patriarchal society. To be born as a mix-raced individual is not ridiculous, alternately, this specific community factors may gain a new understanding and strength for their future.

Works Cited

1. Barrett, M. Feminism and the Definition of Cultural Politics. In: Robinson, H. (ed.), Feminism-Art-Theory: An Anthology, 1968–2000. Blackwell, pp. 308–12.
2. Deborah L. Madsen. Literary Masters: Maxine Hong Kingston. Gale Group, 2000, pp4-22,40,89.
3. Karen, R. & Carolyn, M.B. Woman and Media: International perspectives. Blackwell, 2004.
4. Kingston, Maxine Hong. The Woman Warrior: Memoirs of a Girlhood among Ghosts. Vintage International, 1989.
5. Rhys, Jean. “The Day They Burned the Books.” Norton Anthology of English Literature, the Major Authors. 9th ed. Eds. Stephen Greenblatt, et al. W.W. Norton, 2013. pp.2757-2761.
6. Savory, Elaine. Jean Rhys. Cambridge University Press, 1998.
7. Tseen, K.& Kam, editor. L. Culture, Identity, Commodity: Diasporic Chinese Literatures in English. Hong Kong University Press, 2005.
8. Yan, Gao. The Art of Parody: Maxine Hong Kingston’s use of Chinese source. Peter Lang publishing, 1996, pp. 9-15.

Literature is a reflection of society and writers test and investigate the beliefs of their time, highlighting their flaws in society. In Tess of the D’Urbervilles, published in 1891, Thomas Hardy challenges the superiority of men, present in the Victorian Era. Hardy presents the protagonist as weak and shows how her low social status and lack of voice allows dominant men such as Alec and Angel to manipulate and control her. The expectations from women in society is highlighted through the tragedies and battles Tess endures. Hardy’s narrative perspective shows his deep sympathy for victimized women in society, particularly those from a lower social class. Hardy’s purpose is to demonstrate to the audience the struggles of women during the Victorian era.

Hardy criticizes male dominance in the novel and emphasizes on sexual hypocrisy to challenge the argumentative views of society. Alec, a wealthy manipulative man uses his gender and social class to lure innocent Tess into loving him. In the “Maiden” phase, Alec, an affluent man forcefully feeds Tess to eat a strawberry. The vulnerability of Tess is depicted when “he insisted; and in a slight distress she parted her lips and took it in”. The foreshadowing of Tess’s inability to say “no” establishes her powerless position and demonstrates that she is easily dominated by men. This gives Alec a sense of superiority over Tess and shows his sovereignty. The strawberry symbolizes fertility and passion which hints at the future assault. The redness of the strawberry comes as a motif, enhancing the mood of danger and evil, highlighting on Tess’s fate at the end of the novel. Hardy incorporates a range of techniques to hint Tess’s foreseeable future and to set the tone of danger and vulnerability early on in the novel. This creates tension early and adds anticipation for the reader. The way that Alec’s male dominance controls Tess, highlights the lack of voice within Tess and shows the vulnerability of Women during the Victorian Era.

The lack of power from the lower class proves how certain decisions are unwantedly made in order to change or control their lives. Tess comes from a low class family where financial restraints restrict her from living a free independent life. In the “Maiden no more” faze, Tess’s mother is so frustrated at Tess for refusing to Marry Alec that she is “ready to burst into tears of vexation.” Her desperation of power and class is demonstrated when she is venting to Tess “why didn’t ye think of doing some good for your family instead of thinking only of yourself?” The rhetorical question asked by Tess’s mother is aimed to make Tess feel guilty. It’s a way of manipulating Tess to marry Alec with the use of persuasion. It shows how Tess’s mum will go through all lengths for the purpose of wealth and social class. Tess did not despise Alec “but he was dust and ashes to her, and even for her name’s sake she scarcely wished to marry him.” The metaphorical way Hardy describes Alec as “dust and ashes” dictates great disappointment. It shows the hatred and complete disgust she has for Alec. Although she dislikes him, she considers marrying him for the sake of her family. This demonstrates how the lack of power and wealth will drive individuals to any length.

Gender expectations for women were distinctively different compared to men in the Victorian Era. When Tess becomes pregnant without marring Alec, she automatically becomes judged by society. In faze the fifth “the women pays”, Tess is being shamed for being pregnant without marriage. Tess’s desperation for love is show when “I thought, Angel, that you loved me-me, my very self! If it is I you do love, O how can it be that you look and speak so? It frightens me!” this shows how quickly Angels opinion is changed of Tess once she breaches societies “rules”. It shows how once women go against their gender expectations, they are automatically shamed by society. When angel says “the women I have been loving is not you, but a woman in your shape” it metaphorically degrades Tess and makes a comparison showing what Angel thought Tess was compared to what she is. The expectations of society have changed the way Angel sees Tess and have made her seem impure for becoming pregnant before marriage. The expectations of society were so rigid, that, anyone who breached societies rules was automatically shamed and looked down on.

To conclude, Hardy’s purpose in the novel was to criticize the flaws of the Victorian Era through the life of an innocent young women. The Victorian Era was a rigid time where everything had strict rules. Tess’s life was an ongoing battle of tragedy after tragedy to demonstrate the flaws of society.

Parenting is a modern term that became popular in usage in 1960’s books, slowly replacing the process of child-rearing. It refers to the upbringing and raising of children. Commonly, parenting is represented as a generic practice which support the development of a child from birth to the end of the teenage years. This gender-blind perspective is widely criticized among feminist scholars as it discards how socially different the expectations are for mothers and fathers. (Daly, 2013). If gendered inequalities among parents are still relevant today, it is slowly evolving, and the role of mothers and fathers is becoming more similar. (Fagan, Jay et al., 2014)

Moreover, it seems that children are impacted similarly in some ways by both their mother and father’s behaviors. While one should remain aware of variations offered by the individual’s difference in the parent couple itself, I will adopt a gender-neutral conception of parenting. Thus, I will focus on parents as an entity rather than separating them, in order to emphasize the outcomes of different parenting styles. What I am studying here is how different parenting approaches can influence children.

Besides, Fagan, Jay et al. (2014) are arguing that the dimensions of father’s and mother’s parenting should not be considered different in concept. In that respect, I will focus on biparental cisgender parents (a couple composed of two parents that raise their children together) and how their approach to child-rearing impacts the making of their biological children’s gender identity. Because there is no ultimate model of parents, my analysis aims to establish a neutral model that allows the readers to concentrate primarily on the impacts of parenting only. Nonetheless, narrowing down my study does not mean that one should assume that all families are composed of two parents living together.

Methodologically, this analysis is rooted in the debate regarding what influences children gender behaviors the most. (Boe & Woods, 2018) Is biology the sole influence of a child’s gender or does socialization have a role in the making of that identity? Some parents assume that the way they act will determine the future gender identity of their child, by guiding their preferences. However, as social beings, we are the ones giving meaning to biological realities. (Lorber, 1993)’s biological determinism refers to our assumptions regarding physical differences. The meanings we give to sexual organs are constructed and shaped by social practices, impacting our attitude towards differences. When it comes to common Western parenting approaches, parents’ set of knowledge about sex is shaped by their social conception of gender.

The “Conforming” parenting strategy towards gender roles

In this section, I will examine what I call a “regular” parenting strategy. In other words, which parenting approach has been considered “good parenting” and how it is a Western norm of raising children in the home. Before books that established rules and standards about “proper” child-rearing appeared, mothers used to learn techniques from their own mothers, grand-mothers, female entourage or even doctors. As a matter of fact, one of the first book on the child-rearing’s guidance was Dr. Benjamin Spock’s The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care in 1946. (Stein, 1998) He provided guidance on child development to help parents raise healthy children. Even though this book is seen as being moderate and sensitive towards families’ diversity, he does not address diversity in terms of gender roles. The emphasis was made on the physical well-being of children and not on mental health. However, building one’s identity rely heavily on gender identity and traditional binary gender roles are prominent throughout that process.

Gender norms do exist, and they impact everything. Genders are concepts that gives a social and cultural meaning to biological differences. The Western standard is binary, which means that people expect others, as well as their own children, to fit into the category that they think suits the sex that they can see (West & Zimmerman, 1987). What is usually expected from a little girl is to be soft, helpful, cute. Being comforted when they cry is permitted. Whereas little boys are allowed to be more adventurous, sporty, except that they are not supposed to receive attention when they show emotions. Instead they are advised to toughen up in order to learn how to cope with the harsh reality of the world in which they are going to live in.

These genders norms have social consequences. When someone behave in ways that clash with their assigned gender, when children step out of the gender box they are confined in, the response is mainly very negative. In her work, Butler (1990/1999) refers to gender deviancy as Gender Trouble. She argues that if non-conforming people are subject to violence, it is because we live in a heteronormative system where heterosexuality is the only valued and expected type of sexuality. This “heterosexual matrix” is a system in which specific beliefs exists. These beliefs are that the male body is attached to a “masculine” identity, the female body is attached to a “feminine” identity and they are both complementary to each other. Unnatural social categories are assigned to natural categories. Therefore, we cannot escape the system because its structure interconnects sex, gender, desire and sexuality. Even before anyone is born, they belong to the system. Parenting as a practice, also belongs to the system. Because heteronormativity is the norm, it shapes what the expected results of “good parenting” techniques: gender conforming children. Parents interact with their children according to their heteronormative beliefs, most of the time without even knowing it. Here, I am not saying that heterosexual parents’ existence is wrong, rather that we should be aware of the standards they inherently transfer to their children by shaping them into what they are.

Origins

They are a lot of expectations regarding parenting. Looking at the parent’s perspective (Yaremko & Lawson, 2007), there is evidence that if parental roles have been traditionally segregated into motherhood and a masculine work role, expectations have changed. Parents start sharing more and more the amount of participation to the process of parenting. However, Yaremko & Lawson (2007) emphasize that these expectations are evolving concerning women. They are now supposed to balance out motherhood and a professional career. While on the other hand, exclusively valuing a career is accepted and normalized for fathers. Parents’ gender roles are still very much gendered, and these assumptions transfer into their child-rearing, even unconsciously. These presuppositions are a result of the social construction of gender. In contrary to essentialism, the belief that concept have an essence that is necessarily true (for example masculinity is essential to a male body), a constructivist perspective presume that knowledge is determined by specific social environments. In this regard, gendered inequalities are unnatural because they are a product of our history. They evolve as different political contexts shape our representations of sex and gender, thus our society. Consequently, biological sexes are read through our ideas of what science is, a science we constructed as social beings. (Butler, 1990/1999; Laqueur, 1992)

Nevertheless, we should be aware that while these gendered parenting standards exist, they are mainly relevant in Western discourses. According to (Kane, 2000), gendered patterns vary by class and race. The differences in gender roles are not perceived similarly. Kane argues that in the US, people of color are more critical about gender inequality than whites. Male dominance is mostly traditionally prominent in white families. However, because African-Americans had to take part in the labor forces to sustain their children, more egalitarian values emerged in African-American families. The gender inequality that these women had and have to face is and was not the same as white women. Ethnical parenting variations occur and need to be acknowledge because they do not necessarily fit with what has been considered ‘traditional’ attitudes towards gender. Obviously, there are interconnections between gender phenomena, race and class and they ought to be recognized.

By denying the existence of alternatives coming from racial or class differences/inequalities when they don’t fit western norms, some lived experiences are denied. Western hegemony contributed to the making of parenting, presenting it as universal, when truly it is normative. This is characteristic to the western world (Oyěwùmí, 2005) A DEVELOPER

“Unconscious” parenting and “Conscious” parenting

Here, I draw a distinction between implicit and explicit gender biased parenting. Most parents do not wish to be consciously discriminating in their children upbringing. However, even though a lot of parents are well-meaning, they assume that the way they treat their child will by default correspond to their future gender identity. One central unconscious normative influence is parents’ own gender roles. The way they do gender themselves becomes a model to their children. Children internalize these ideals. Thus, when a couple is conforming to heteronormative standards, compatible with conventional feminine or masculine traits, children assume these are the way to go about with gender. The risk is that when only two genders are introduced, these are the roles they think are available to them. When acknowledging a narrow array of choices, even “gender conscious” conforming parents are in the process of shaping their children’s gender. (Boe & Woods, 2018)’s research revealed that starting at 24 months, children already associate stereotypical behaviors with gender-related physical characteristics. For instance, when a child sees that only his mother wears dresses and not his father, they will associate dresses with womanhood. Thus, if that child was born with male sexual organs, he will get from how his parents act, that wearing dresses as male is abnormal, regardless of what he might identify with. In other words, parental attitude towards socialization can reinforce implicitly the gender binary during children growth.

In contrast, parents map consciously children’s future toy preferences. In Wood’s experiment (2002), parents were asked to interact with children to see how they perceived gender-stereotypical toys. With boys, the majority of parents felt like masculine toys were more appropriate for them to play with. Although with girls, there was more flexibility, showing that traditional masculine toys are slowly becoming more gender-neutral. This transformation follows the currents changes in societal roles, where women are becoming more integrated in paid work. It seems like reaching a more masculine attitude is believed to be less demeaning than being assimilated with femininity.

Butler’s gender performativity theory (1990/1999) suggests that all subjects in the world are conditioned to think that the performative rules of doing gender are unescapable. By showing the performative nature of gender, Butler implies that performances are normative and support heteronormative parenting. That way, which toys, clothes or colors parents impose to their children is a way for them to learn how to do gender. Interaction is required for children to practice their identity. To illustrate this theory, the phenomenon of (Gieseler, 2018) is the perfect example of what explicit gender behavior is. Gender-reveal parties are social events were parents officially categorize their unborn child’s gender, by communicating it via a binary color coding. During those “public rituals”, the reveal of the gender is celebrated. It is a performative strategy to escape the unknown, to create and assign an identity to their unlabeled child. This trend encourages gender binaries and stereotyping. Meaning is given to color, reinforcing the gender expectations. The same pattern exists with the “baby shower” event, where people give masculine or feminine gifts according to the gender assigned to the baby biological sex. These parties became viral on the internet, which has spread this trend even more, becoming a part of culture. People recognize these gender labels trends because they are shared by the media.

Furthermore, applying gender labels to colors creates gender differences. Yeung & Wong’s research (2018) showed “strong evidence for social-cognitive influences on children’s gender-typed color preferences.” Their study found that by randomly applying a label to a color, boys and girl favored the color labeled as for their own gender. When a color was not attached to a gender label, preferences among boys and girls didn’t differ. Moreover, the study suggests that gender typing color preferences are also widespread in Eastern society and not an exclusive western phenomenon. Both implicit and explicit parenting behaviors result in obvious consequences on children development. These consequences can be very damaging and must be addressed.

Limitations

In addition to denying non-western parenting approaches about gender identity as seen prior, the “regular” approach raises gender expectations. How children express their gender and build their identity is deeply influenced by their parents as they are children’s first exposure to gender. The influence begins even before birth. When parents learn the sex of their baby, their gender expectations emerge. They start to apply specific pronouns when referring to their unborn child to others. Some start to buy decorations or clothes that they associate with their child’s sex. Kane (2016) refers to this process as a “trap”, she argues in favor of not telling parents the sex of their children. Yet, waiting until birth does not have a huge impact. Parents who choose for their baby sex to be hidden, still develop specific gendered behaviors when their child is finally born. “Parental attitudes about gender influence parenting practices as soon as an infants’ sex is identified, even if prior to birth” (Boe & Woods, 2018)

When it comes to heteronormative parents, their influence establishes a dominant norm, as well as expectations on how their children must express their gender identity. To be accepted, children need to look “normal”. Even though close family is supposed to be intimate, many children cannot be themselves around their own progenitors. Their behaviors need to conform to the norm. Cisgenders, people whose gender identity corresponds to their biological sex, are privileged while standing out is a challenge in a heteronormative society and parenting system. The abnormalization of gender-variance makes children believe that being a “minority” is weird and wrong. Binary gender norms are reproduced in everyday life, interactions, activities. When a mother wears makeup every day for work, children then pair attractiveness with females. They start to understand where they fit in as a gendered being within a gendered society. Thus, children become aware of social categorization by seeing their gender conforming parents and then mimic their performances. In the case of gender-variant children, standing out from that norm becomes constraining. Therefore, the impact of a heteronormative upbringing is powerful both on conforming children and non-conforming children.

The consequences are also very serious on society itself. Heteronormative parenting originates from a patriarchal societal system while contributing to its subsistence. Millet (1968) highlighted the relevance of the patriarchy to show that male dominance in Western societies is a social phenomenon. According to her, the personal is political. What that means is that relationships within households have political consequences. In that regard, the child/parent relationship holds political power. The private sector of the household, along with the school system, are where political values first emerge. Thus, in a patriarchal society, where masculinity is perceived as dominant, boys are raised according to their male privilege. A conforming parenting that is fed by this system, shapes and trick children’s mind into thinking that one gender is biologically superior to the other. This inherent belief system results in a large number of ordinary boys thinking that they are entitled to objectify and sexualize women.

The gender-neutral alternative

If a conforming parenting strategy is harmful and contributes to a heteronormative system that denies differences and participates to gender inequality, is there any alternatives? What about decently open-minded families? “Gender conscious parenting”, meaning parents that do accept gender variances, still take part in the social construction of binary gender ideologies.

Even in most accepting families, their heteronormative method causes damage. Still growing up under the same patriarchal norms, children are forced by default into gendered boxes. Future parents’ acceptance of their children’s gender identity will not erase years of confusion. In opposition to this soft method, some parents have decided to attempt a gender-neutral child-rearing.

Gender neutrality designate a mixt approach that seeks to erase differences when it comes to socialization. Regarding education, gender neutrality means that every toy, book, role, clothing, language… are suitable to both females and males. On one hand, gender neutrality could mean allowing children to play with any toys regardless of the label attached to it. On the other hand, it could mean giving children only toys that aren’t labelled. The latter extreme variant believes in the benefits of a genderless education. Either way, the main claim of gender-neutral supporters is that such an approach brings greater freedom. This openness involves letting children choose whatever they are interested in without dictating anything. Children raised free from restricting gender norms. A liberty to be creative and to express themselves how they want. Gender-neutral advocates emphasize that they are breaking the boundaries of stereotypes. To them, it is an anti-discrimination project which takes away societal expectations. Reconsidering the socialization of children. It means encouraging both girls and boys to go beyond gender expectations. Gender-neutral parenting has now become a project with political impact. With the ongoing raise of feminism in western media, gender bias and sexism are becoming more and more criticized for reinforcing gender stereotypes. This transformation is also happening in children’s education, where inequalities are exposed.

The notion of a neutral upbringing was a result of the second wave of feminism (Martin, 2005) that began in the 1960’s. Fighting for social changes also meant opening new opportunities for girls. Liberal feminism in particular, promoted this new way of rearing children: gender-neutral parenting. They believed that by changing children’s environment, it would reduce the restricting boundaries of womanhood.

Two of Shakespeare’s plays which focus heavily on the theme of gender are The Taming of the Shrew and Twelfth Night. In both plays, Shakespeare simultaneously supports and poses challenges to early-modern understandings of gender. In The Taming of the Shrew, the misogynistic treatment of Kate reflects the patriarchal values which were standard of the period, whilst subtle mocking and satire directed at her abuser, Petruchio, challenge the notion of male superiority. In Twelfth Night, Shakespeare’s indication of homoerotic feelings challenges the status quo of same-gender relations being unacceptable, however the lack of resolution for the character who possesses these feelings, Antonio, supports early-modern beliefs that only heterosexual relations were acceptable. This essay shall argue that Shakespeare challenges early-modern understandings of gender, but only to the extent that would have been tolerated by an Elizabethan audience.

In the opening act of the play, Shakespeare depicts an ideal early-modern woman through descriptions of Bianca, while at the same time asserting Kate as the total opposite. Tranio states that ‘The one, as famous for a scolding tongue, As is the other, for her beauteous modesty’ (1.2.250-251). The play revolving around Bianca’s suitors so desperately attempting to find Kate a husband so that they may be granted permission to marry Bianca highlights both how desirable Bianca’s traits are but also how undesirable Kate’s; they are eager to compete for Bianca’s love, yet recognise the challenge in finding a suitor willing to take on Kate’s strong temperament. This depiction of Kate continues throughout the first three acts of the play, yet in the fourth act, we see these traits that are employed to negatively portray Kate begin to appear in Petruchio. Grumio describes to fellow servant Curtis how Petruchio reacted to Kate’s horse falling: ‘how he left her with the horse upon her, how he beat me because her horse stumbled, how she waded through the dirt to pluck him off me’ (4.1.63-65). Here, we see Petruchio demonstrating the characteristics that Kate has been so heavily criticised for thus far in the play. Shakespeare even goes so far as to have Kate try to extinguish her husband’s outburst, creating a sense of irony and suggesting that Kate may not be a problematic woman, but rather that this kind of aggressive attitude can be of issue in all people, regardless of gender. Shirley Nelson Garner makes a similar point, arguing that ‘The strategy of the plot allows Petruchio “shrewish” behaviour […] it is more or less acceptable. Dramatically, then, Kate and Petruchio are not treated equally.’ Indeed, habits that are used to portray Kate as a wild, unattractive woman can be observed in Petruchio without him attracting any real criticism. As such, Shakespeare challenges early-modern attitudes that it was chiefly women who were prone to being shrew and difficult, yet he maintains the rule of the patriarchy through Petruchio facing no consequences for his ‘shrewish behaviour,’ while in Kate this same attribute must be quashed.

Shakespeare continues with this portrayal of Petruchio in the following scenes, again using other characters to comment on Petruchio’s arrogance. One such example occurs when Petruchio declares ‘It shall be what o’clock I say it is.’ (4.3.189), to which Hortensio remarks ‘Why, so this gallant will command the sun’ (4.3,190). This remark appears to be sarcastic, with Hortensio mocking Petruchio’s arrogance in implying that he is in control of the time. The fact that Hortensio is speaking of Petruchio in third person suggests that Shakespeare intended this to be directed to the audience rather than directly at Petruchio, which would be effective in terms of the play being a comedy. Notably, Petruchio is not criticised for his haughtiness, he is instead humoured; it is most probable that if Kate were to make such a remark she would be condemned. This again highlights the unjust way in which the two genders are treated, and reaffirms that it is not just Kate who behaves in this manner.

A further example of Petruchio’s arrogance comes in Act 4, Scene 5, where Petruchio states that it is moonlight, and Kate corrects him and says that it is sunlight. Echoing his previous remark about what time it is, Petruchio states ‘It shall be moon, or star, or what I list’ (4.5.7), at which point Hortensio says to Kate ‘Say as he says, or we shall never go’ (4.5.11). This is another example of Hortensio mocking Petruchio rather than criticising him, accepting that Petruchio will not back down and instead encouraging Kate to do so. Emily Detmer says of this encounter that ‘Defeated, Kate has surrendered herself as hostage… While the field is not bloody and her body is not black and blue, the process that Kate has undergone is nonetheless abusive because it signifies Petruchio’s domination over her speech and actions’. While Petruchio’s actions are of course abusive, especially to a modern-day reader, the scene follows in the pattern of other characters humouring Petruchio for the sake of simplicity. Moreover, Kate does not concede until Hortensio encourages her to do so, perhaps making her realise that it would make her and Hortensio’s lives easier to just agree with him. There would be comedic effect in Petruchio constantly changing his mind about whether it is sun or moon and also in Hortensio and Kate humouring him, fitting with the genre of the play. Kate having to concede in this way is abusive in itself, but an early-modern audience probably would not have seen it in such a way, and thus the scene would have solely been comical to them. Ultimately, Kate does appear to be in control of her opting to give in to Petruchio, portraying her as intelligent enough to make her own decisions for her own benefit. However, Shakespeare again returns to supporting early-modern understandings of gender as it is the female character who concedes in this situation, whilst the male continues to assert his dominance.

One obvious point of support for early-modern gender expectations comes at the end of the play, where Kate is eventually ‘tamed’ by Petruchio and gives a large speech confirming this. She declares ‘Thy husband is thy lord, thy life, thy keeper, Thy head, thy sovereign’ (5.2.150-151). Here, Shakespeare uses Kate herself to promote early-modern beliefs about the gender roles within a marriage. This is a huge shift on Kate’s part from the beginning of the play, where she refused to conform to Petruchio’s expectations of her and fought back with her ‘scolding tongue’ (1.2.250). However, there is an indication that Kate may have some control over her taming when she states ‘My hand is ready, it may do him ease’ (5.2.183). It seems here that Kate has allowed herself to be tamed as she was ‘ready’ to do so, rather than having been forced. The statement ‘it may do him ease’ is interesting, as it implies that Kate committing to Petruchio will help calm him, rather than the other way round. This makes sense, as in the latter acts of the play, it is Petruchio who acts in a shrew manner, as opposed to Kate. However, although Kate did decide to allow herself to be tamed at this point, it is likely that further down the line she would have lost her choice in the matter, as ultimately she is stuck in a marriage with Petruchio, who would not have given up on his attempts to make her submit. As previously, Shakespeare both challenges and supports early-modern understandings of gender with the play’s conclusion; Kate is depicted as having the capacity and intelligence to chose to accept her taming, perhaps in order to make life easier for herself, but at the same time her submission in itself is illustrative of expectations of wives in the period.

Before Kate’s speech at the end of the play, the widow who Hortensio has married advises Kate against going to Petruchio when ordered to. She tells Petruchio ‘you’re mocking. We will have no telling’ (5.2.136) and ‘She shall not’ (5.2.138), serving as one last challenge to Kate’s taming in the play. The widow also refuses to go to Hortensio when ordered to, representing the general opinion of widows at the time, which was that they were dangerously uncontrolled by the patriarchy and encouraged fellow women to push back against the control of their husbands. Olivia is similarly depicted as a typical widow in Twelfth Night, although not in her influence on married women. Despite not technically being a widow, Olivia constantly wears a veil as a sign of bereavement, having lost both her father and brother. As such, Olivia is head of her house and very wealthy, making her an extremely attractive prospective wife to numerous characters in the play. However, Olivia falls in love with Viola who is disguised as Cesario. This is a subtle challenge of early-modern gender understandings as Olivia falls in love with a woman as opposed to Osario who had fallen in love with her. Although Viola is disguised as a man, she would still have had feminine features, so perhaps Olivia found these attractive. However, as all characters in performances of Shakespeare’s plays during the early-modern period were played by men, this plot line may just have been intended for comedic effect rather than as an implication of homosexuality.

Although Olivia falling in love with Viola is not necessarily an indication of homosexuality, Antonio’s love for Sebastian seems to be one. Antonio consistently speaks to Sebastian with affectionate language, such as ‘If you will not murder me for my love, let me be your servant’ (2.2.32-33) and ‘come what may I do adore thee so’ (2.2.43). Antonio is extremely loyal to Sebastian, following him to Osario’s home despite them being old enemies. When Antonio is arrested by Osario’s men and Viola states that she does not know him, the level of betrayal Antonio feels (as he believes Viola to be Sebastian) is further indicative of the depth of his feelings: ‘Relieved him with such sanctity of love […] Most venerable worth, did I devotion’ (3.4.358-360). This depth of homoerotic feeling strongly challenges early-modern understandings of gender, as only heterosexual relations were accepted at the time, with homosexual sex considered a crime against the queen, which warranted the death penalty. It may be for this reason that there is a lack of resolution for Antonio in the play, while Sebastian marries Olivia; the inclusion of homoerotic feeling would have been thrilling for an audience, yet by it only being spoken of rather than an actual relationship, Shakespeare stays within the realms of what would have been acceptable at the time.

Ultimately, Shakespeare challenges early-modern understandings of gender, but only to the extent that an Elizabethan audience would have had the capacity to tolerate; his challenges would have made his plays interesting to his audience, yet he returns to their standards by the end of the plays. Moreover, the two characters who pose the strongest challenges to gender conventions eventually suffer, with Kate being ‘tamed’ by Petruchio in The Taming of the Shrew and Antonio being left alone in Twelfth Night.

Bibliography:

1. Cavallo, Sandra and Warner, Lynda. Widowhood in Medieval and Early Modern Europe. (Harlow: Longman, 1999)
2. Detmer, Emily, ‘Civilizing Subordination: Domestic Violence and The Taming of the Shrew’, Shakespeare Quarterly 48.3 (1997) 273-94 (p. 288-9) https:www.jstor.orgstable2871017Gen ed. Dympna Callaghan, The Taming of the Shrew: Norton Critical Editions, (United States: W. W. Norton

The topic of sexism has raised popular conversation for quite some time, it has played a part in many different work and athlete environments. It is an ongoing problem in the sports industry. Sexism not only affects women who are employed in the industry but also minorities and homosexuals. Sexism has been a topic of discussion for many years, but there have been no real attempts of change have been made. If the women and players who work in sports were offered more protection it could encourage more women to get involved in the field. Establishing rules that will protect people from sexism, could decrease some of the controversy between the two opposing genders.

First, our society has created a culture that brainwashes young men to develop the mentality that anything involved in the sports world is only for men. This way of thinking is only helping the cycle of nearly oppressing women in the industry to keep repeating. When it comes to keeping the feeling of being secure when it comes to a man’s masculinity, it is making a woman’s fight for respect a never-ending struggle. (Master 22) Something that may never be clearly understood is the sense of pride that Americans receive from belittling one another. People often get confused when the term “sexism” is used, the word is instantly used in the context of men being superior to women. Many times, it is forgotten that the word sexism is meant for stereotyping, discrimination, and prejudice. An example of this would be a female getting paid less than a man or receiving worse coaching than he, even when playing the same sport. It is often that men look at a woman and see a body, not another intelligent human. “These two forms of women’s participation received differential support from internal and external stakeholders: gender-segregated athletic participation was broadly endorsed, whereas only isolated women in the Olympic Movement challenged gender-neutral representations of leadership as illusory.” (Joseph 14) This connects to the thought that women are not knowledgeable and do not know how to teach a man to play sports or advise him in the game.

Second, women have been expected to act in a different way than men in the industry. If a man is straightforward in what he wants, he may be considered tough. If a woman on the other hand is straight-forward in her demands and what she wants, she is bossy or rude. It seems as if people want to be represented by a man who knows exactly what he wants but does not want to be in the presence of a woman who knows her own needs. It may be that men feel threatened by a strong-willed woman. “A 2019 survey of female and gender non-conforming journalists indicated that online harassment was seen as the biggest threat or safety issue by 90 percent of U.S. respondents “(Antunovic 4) Women are being harassed over sexism to their face and over social media. The lengths those who subjectify will go to make the cycle seem as if it will never end.

However, one of the main reasons that women are being discriminated against is the media, which is against the law. The discrimination against women in sports stems from the lack of media coverage which results in men having unfair benefits. All women athletes work extremely hard to get to where they are now, with gender inequality in sports their hard work will go to waste. In 1972, Title IX was passed as a law to ban gender discrimination in sports. (Lovse 16) Since that law has been passed, many sports associations and colleges still offer unfair benefits to their athletes. A few examples of unfair benefits in a situation like this would be more opportunities, newer equipment, broader media coverage, and higher salaries than women. There are currently no punishments or changes being made towards the gender inequality issues, making it easier for sexism to stick around.

Next, stereotyping is another term that is aiding the inequality in the sports field. The stereotypes that society has created are to make men always seem masculine, strong, and athletic, while the opposing side of women is viewed to be supporting and assisting them. With the number of years that sexism has been lingering around, the media has been proclaiming these specific stereotypes. (Cibibin 2) Many humans either male or female, are beginning to believe that the stereotypes are true due to society making this a reality. Since the media tends to focus more on women and their stereotypes than the sport they are involved with, they make the problem of gender inequality even worse.

Furthermore, there are opposing views on how someone may feel about sexism in the sports world. There are many gendered views of the world, there are resulting beliefs that men and women are inherently different, meaning they have different set roles in life. Men and women have a natural order that should be allowed to run its course as it is supposed to. Many people think that men and women are created differently so that they are meant to complement each other, not work together with equal respect. Many dispute the idea of sexism in societies because of biological reasons like different sex organs. There is a natural male superiority that exists in history due to the different characteristics associated with a male. “There is a clear need to start with descriptive research to understand the current level of performance within female elite sport. The next challenge will be exploring the influence of female physiology.” (Emmonds 17) This often enables the common thought that men are naturally better at securing higher tasks than women. This indicates that the comparison of gender capabilities is not sexist but biologically determined. Next, an example of gender essentialism is that a woman’s most fulfilling role is to be a mother, not trying to build a career in the sports field. “This gender gap was magnified by a combination of direct and indirect instructions.” (Parks 2)

By acknowledging that women and men have innately different qualities, society jumps to the assumption that they must play different roles from each other. This by nature is normal, but unfortunately, this has caused a cycle of women being looked down upon and disrespected from the way women were treated before the 20th century. Due to negative media coverage and inequality of females related to sports, there is a decrease in females going into this field. From a young girl’s point of view, being a successful woman in the sports industry seems nearly impossible. The social gender ideologies that have been appearing time and time again, keep reducing women down to only a few characteristics that ultimately end up harming their persona in the end.

Another way people may view the topic of sexism in sports is that the movement of feminism is not worthwhile. Since modern feminism has often been in a negative light in recent years, it has often become associated with the phrase “man-hating”. (Goldman 8) There are some cases where discriminating against women has turned into an amusing joke, women are then told to calm down and lighten up a little because they were just joking. Whether certain comments create discomfort for the woman, the culture of sexism and gender discrimination has been taken too far and includes a lack of knowledge. For sexism to stop being a consistent pattern of interaction between males and females, acting on sexist behavior should be taken instantly to prevent the person from treating the next woman the same.

Over time, sexism in sports has continuously been an active pest to not only women but minorities and homosexuals too. “By comparing the available data on men and women coaching in sport, trends can be found whereby women represent a minority of coaches employed in elite sport, and the higher the level of performance, the lower the percentage of female trainers “(Cibibin 12) The real controversy comes from a lack of understanding what role women play in society. Women no longer want to be pushed back, not only in the sports industry but in general. It is independence in a woman that men may feel takes away from their masculinity. People who are involved with the sports industry are idolized by many children; the diversity of the backgrounds are empowering example for those who are watching. A person’s love for a sports game is the core point that should be valued. Individuals’ personal life should not interfere with any aspect of the sports world.

In conclusion, females, both old, young, and of all ages, feel constricted if not trapped in the face of sexism. Day to day, society voices its biased opinions no matter how equal some countries have attempted to become in gender terms. No place in this world is a hundred percent of sexism, it still hides in an obvious and nonchalant place every day. Whether stereotyping is truthful to be related to sexism, it is still a form of prejudice and discrimination towards the people who are limited by it. In given situations, restrictive and negative mindsets are formed not only by men who view women but also by women who are faced with the situation themselves. Technically, sexism is genderless, which is why it is so influential and strong in the perception of humans. Female sexism is a prevalent problem today that must be carefully constrained, if not diminished, due to the ramifications it causes on females.