Category: Gender

Introduction

The media fraternity has perfected the art of promoting products. Through this, some advertisements are premeditated to associate the goods and services with feelings of desire emanating from imaginations based on sexuality or gender.

It is noteworthy that advertisers take advantage of the consumers gender distinctiveness to escalate the sale of certain products. It is notable that companies, which seek to acquire market leadership and competitiveness, conduct promotional activities. Therefore, the use of gender and sexuality is one of the strategies of creating adverts aimed at gaining market leadership.

Gender is a socio  cultural construction in every society and advertisers have applied it in the portrayal of differences between males and females. These portrayals include among others identity, disposition, social ideals, typecasts of masculinity and womanliness, and the sexuality related roles (Spade and Catherine 281). Furthermore, advertisers apply sexuality differences between males and females to promote products. The advertisers normally attempt to show the sexuality of men or women in such products.

They have also achieved greater results by showing the sexuality of celebrities in the promotional activities. In the United States, the application of sexuality and gender variances in product promotion is a multibillion-dollar industry. However, advertisers seem to have turned a deaf ear on the effects of gendered and sexualised adverts among adolescents. This paper discusses the use of sexuality and genders in commercials to show the effects of such adverts on adolescents in the US.

Sexuality and Gender in Advertisements

Advertisers have developed massive experience in commercials. Depending on whether their target clients in the marketplace are males or females, advertisers normally develop their adverts to suit them. It is notable that men and women have different preferences for colour (MacKinnon 215). Therefore, advertisers can package their commercials in such a way to target their potential clients with gendered and sexuality appropriate messages using colours.

Labelling people as being either male or female present strong cultural and ideological connotations, which advertisers exploit in making appropriate adverts (MacKinnon 215). Marketers apply information-generated form these labels to influence the behaviour of men or women towards others.

Furthermore, such information may be used to develop commercials that influence self-behaviour or needs. Therefore, the use of gender and sexuality in promotional activities influences men and women to buy advertised products. They buy such products to enhance their masculinity and femininity respectively (William, Stephen and Sut 138).

Advertising agencies continuously communicate gendered messages to escalate sales of products. The advertisers portray men as more independent than women. They also portray men as providers in households by depicting the as they engage in different occupations. On the other hand, some advertisers portray women as homemakers and home carers (Davis 187).

Therefore, the men would more likely feature in alcohol commercials, sports utility cars, and corporate management among others. The women normally feature in commercials depicting the use of domestic items.

The advertisers also depict the sexuality of men and women perversely. They have shown their nudity and naked bodies differently. The products such as women bras and underwear depict their sexuality (Greenberg, Clint, and Sarah 323). On the other hand, mens underwear worn on athletic bodies and bare chest also shows their strength and brevity.

The increasing self-consciousness among men presently makes them less concerned about appearing attractive to others but to enhance their fitness and health. Marketers use such aspirations to create necessities and wants while also developing products to satisfy the needs (Greenberg, Clint, and Sarah 323). In the case of women, advertisers have negatively taken advantage of their weaknesses including lack of autonomy to sway their decisions.

Effects of Sexuality and Gender in Advertisements on Adolescents

There is rising apprehension about adolescents exposure to sexuality and gender commercials in televisions, print media, and other electronic sources. The concerns entail the potential impacts such adverts can have on their personality, sexuality, beliefs, and manners (Gruber and Grube 214).

Indeed, research indicates that the adverts generate sexuality and gender stereotypes, which affects adolescents (Napoli and Murgolo-Poore 61). The researchers agree that youngsters are exposed to diverse sensual images and messages advertisements intended for adults but which eventually affect adolescents.

Advertisements showing men enjoying alcoholic drinks and the presence of women affect the way adolescents utilize such images. Youths use media to get information regarding sex, sexuality, drugs use, and relationships among others (Gruber and Grube 215).

The adolescents exposure to advertisements with sexual content potentially influences their sexuality development. This has escalated the rate of pregnancies and Sexually Transmitted Diseases among adolescent America girls.

It is notable that many advertisements in the US both in print and electronic media contain sexual imagery watched by young people. The advertisements have increased the way they show sexual category appeals and sensual objectification (Pardun and Roberts 134). Presently, many of such adverts contain implied sexual interactions, fervent caressing and depicting provision of gifts in relationships as a norm. Young Americans who watch such adverts may develop interests of achieving similar outcomes (Bradshaw 129).

Sexuality and gender-based commercials have influenced crucial issues about the lives of adolescents. The commercials may sway career planning, cherished relationships, romance choice making, and attitudes essential to child bearing and parenthood (Jamieson and Daniel 153). Furthermore, some adolescents making greater efforts to adhere to gender roles labels may develop mental health predicaments.

The problems may arise from pressure among adolescents to fit within the societal norms and expectations. This may lead to substance intake, risky sexual encounters, and neglect of self-care responsibilities (Jamieson and Daniel 154). The advertisements have also affected the ideologies associated with teenage gender roles. Watching television commercials also influence sexism ideologies among teenagers.

Sexuality and gender commercials have also influenced the actual behaviour of adolescents positively. It is notable that most adverts that portray males and females as liberated and confident have enhanced personality development among teenagers (Jamieson and Daniel 154). Indeed, some youngsters have developed into more confident, forward-looking, and morally upright because of watching individuals associated with certain products in the commercials (Jamieson and Daniel 154).

Conclusion

In summary, the use of sexuality and gender in promotional activities has made the advertising mass communication appear pervasive. The advertisements are intended to educate consumers about certain products in the marketplace in order to escalate sales. However, some commercials that contain explicit content have surpassed the intention escalating sales to influence cultural views and individuals personality development.

The stereotypes associated with some advertisements have depicted men and women differently. Particularly, bigot and stereotypical commercials present undesirable outcomes among adolescents. The advertisements have encouraged sexuality and substance abuse indulgence in adolescents.

On the positive side, the application of sexuality and gender to portray men and men as professionals in diverse sectors has affected adolescents objectively. Adolescents have been able to plan their career and develop their personality positively out of media influence.

Works Cited

Bradshaw, Joe. African American Young Adults Perceptions of the Ideal Mate for Long-term Romantic Relationships and Short-term Sexual Relationships. New York, NY: ProQuest, 2008. Print.

Davis, Simone. Living Up to the Ads: Gender Fictions of the 1920s. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2000. Print.

Greenberg, Jerrold, Clint, Bruess, and Sarah, Conklin. Exploring the Dimensions of Human Sexuality. Sudbury, Mass: Jones and Bartlett, 2011. Print.

Gruber, Enid, and Grube, Joel. Adolescent sexuality and the media a review of current knowledge and implications. Western Journal of Medicine. 172(3) (2000): 210214. Web.

Jamieson, Patrick, and Daniel Romer. The Changing Portrayal of Adolescents in the Media since 1950. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. Print.

MacKinnon, Kenneth. Representing Men: Maleness and Masculinity in the Media. London: Arnold, 2003. Print.

Napoli, Julie, and Murgolo-Poore, Marie. Female Gender Images in Adolescent Magazine Advertising. Australasian Marketing Journal. 1(1) (2003): 60  69. Web.

Pardun, Carol, and Roberts, Kathy. Sexual Content of Television Commercials Watched by Early Adolescents. 2005. Web.

Spade, Joan, and Catherine, Valentine. The Kaleidoscope of Gender: Prisms, Patterns, and Possibilities. California, CA: Sage Publications, 2008. Print.

William, Leiss, Stephen, Kline, and Sut, Jhally. Social Communication in Advertising: Persons, Products, and Images of Well-being. New York, NY: Routledge, 2003. Print.

Dobash, Margo and Daly have given a comprehensive insight into the myth of sexual symmetry in marital violence (71). There has been a general belief in the United States and many other countries around the world violence against women is just as prevalent as violence against men.

These scholars set forth to dispel this myth and to give more insight into the issue of violence against women, and how power and gender play off in the current society. The world has experienced massive changes in the social structure. Various countries have seen the position of women in the society in terms of power and related facets.

Women empowerments, gender equality, empowering the girl child are terms that are common, and reflect the shift of power, from an all-powerful man, to a society where both genders are empowered. Power in relation to gender is something that has been there since time in memorial. Gender in this context refers to the state of being a male or a female and their social roles as determined by their mental, physical, and behavioral character.

For a long time, power was based on the physical strength of an individual, and for that matter, men were considered more powerful (Connell 21). This has changed a great deal. This paper seeks to define gender and power given the current societal context based on the analysis given by the above mentioned scholars.

Dobash, Margo and Daly hold that women are yet to gain power in the modern day society (79). Power in the past years was associated with men in the society. In various fields, from politics, religion, and culture or family, men would dictate how things would be done, while women were viewed as being weak, and their opinions were less valued. In those past years, women were strictly given no audience in any social gathering.

Their role was restricted to taking care of the domestic chores and most importantly, taking care of the interests of their husbands. All along men have been viewed as having the potential and ability to be dominant in all aspects of life while a womans role was to respond to mens decision (Morris and Tahira 29).

This has for a long time undermined women and lowered their esteem in the society. In many societies around the world, women would never be given any position considered powerful. They have for a long time been sidelined and placed at the receiving end. There was a massive distinction between the two genders.

Men were would always have their way in most of the events, and the society felt this was normal. Power and authority was generally believed to be a preserve for men. Dobash, Margo and Daly demonstrate this is their analysis (79).

Connell (56) argues that an analysis into gender and power demonstrates that symmetry of power between the two genders is yet to be achieved.

The scholar brings out the fact that women in the modern days should bring out their best in all they do; and that women have as much power just as men (Connell 56). In the past, women would never be allowed to hold any serious position in the society. This has changed with time. It is coming out clearly from this show, that women are acquiring power, and that they are becoming conscious of their capabilities.

Women today can openly hold social gatherings to discuss their issues. In addition, in politics, women are taking part and the position of women and power has completely taken another course in the society. Women like Hillary Clinton and Michelle Obama of the United States have been mentioned frequently in this show as women who have demonstrated that power is not a preserve for men. The show has used Condoleezza Rice as women who have inspired others to gain power irrespective of their gender.

Women have realized that there is an inner power in them that can make them achieve the best of the resultsThis has given them the desire to know more, learn, and earn respect in the society. It has also raised the women esteem in the society, as they now feel free to meet and share about how their husbands are treating them and the progress of their family as a whole (Morris and Tahira 113).

For this reason, women have derived so many ideas from her and have now become more confident that they can do even much more. The place of women is now not just in the kitchen. Their eyes are now open and many are now determined to advance their career and to have power just as much as men.

Kimmel and Holler (221) women have potential that when natured, can deliver good results in the society. The notion that women are weak is not true. Yes, they may not be as masculine as men are, but this should not make them be viewed as weaker parties in various respects within the society. Women can make key decisions, they can take care of families, they can make good political leaders, and this demonstrates that power is not a preserve of any of the genders.

Works Cited

Connell, Raewyn. Gender and Power: Society, the Person, and Sexual Politics. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2007. Print.

Dobash, Emerson, Margo Wilson and Daly Martin. The Myth of sexual symmetry in marital violence, In Gender Relations in Global Perspective: Essential Readings, ed. Nancy Cook, 173-184. Toronto: Canadian Scholars Press Inc, 2007. Internet Source. Web.

Kimmel, Michael and Holler Joseph. Separate and unequal: The Gendered world of work In the Gendered Society, 213-240. Don Mills: Oxford University Press, 2008. Internet Source.

Morris, Marika, and Tahira Gonsalves. Women and poverty. Toronto: Canadian Research Institute for the Advancement of Women, 2005. Print.

Gender stereotyping has adverse effects on teenage girls in the Western Europe. Despite the current level of civilization in many European states, the society still upholds the ancient stereotyped beliefs. The society maintains that boys and girls have unequal capacities in a majority of the fields.

Moreover, many people do not discuss gender equality in the Western Europe. They claim that both genders are equal. However, this is not reflected in the way they treat boys and girls. A research carried out in a number of schools found that teachers dedicate more time to boys than girls. The prevalent gender attitude in the Western Europe has made it hard for teenage girls to exploit their talents. This paper will discuss some of the effects of gender attitude on teenage girls in the Western Europe.

Despite the fact that girls education experience differs based on geographical location, socioeconomic status, disability, and ethnicity, gender stereotyping has significant influence on girls education. The manner in which teachers and students construe gender in the learning environment has effects on girls learning abilities.

Even though schools are discouraged from practicing gender stereotyping, the vice is still prevalent in many schools in the Western Europe. One of the major problems is that gender stereotyping is normally restrained, and often uncontested or unnoticed.

Hence, schools propagate gender stereotyping without the knowledge of the teachers or students. For instance, teachers refrain from asking girls hard questions since they believe that only boys can handle such questions. Consequently, it demotivates the girls leading to their poor performance.

A research in many of the schools in the Western Europe discovered that teachers relate with girls and boys differently. The study found that teachers allocate more time to boys than girls. Besides, boys have the courage to initiate discussions with teachers. In the Western Europe, the society treats girls as mediocre.

The same culture is propagated in schools, which makes the teenage girls lack the courage to relate with their teachers. This contributes to their poor performance in schools, as they are afraid of making clarifications in areas that they do not understand. Besides, teachers praise boys whenever they perform well in class. Failure to praise girls affects their morale leading to poor performance in classes.

Given the prevalent gender attitude in schools, many of the teenage girls suffer from low self-esteem. Even if a girl is brilliant in class, she ends up avoiding subjects that are associated to boys. In the Western Europe, majority of the teenage girls do not learn physics. Many girls regard physics as boyish when asked why they avoid taking it.

Besides, some girls still hold to the traditional beliefs, which maintained that boys brain has a high number of white cells that make them good at mathematics and sciences. Teachers do not acknowledge that they influence the decisions that teenage girls make when selecting their subjects. Instead, they regard it as an attribute of girls to avoid science subjects. Ironically, no teacher makes the initiative help the girls change the negative attitude towards science subjects.

In Western Europe, different genders are associated with various types of actions. For instance, girls are considered as nurturing, caring, quiet, considerate, and helpful. Moreover, girls are said to put the welfare of others before their own. These perceptions lead to teenage girls fearing to succeed.

Many of the teenage girls are afraid of performing well in class since it might depict them as unfeminine. To look attractive to boys, girls ought to perform moderately. In the Western Europe, boys do not relate with girls that perform well in class. Hence, teenage girls end up sacrificing their learning for the sake of looking attractive to boys.

The prevalent gender attitude in the region discourages teenage girls from making autonomous decisions. Moreover, many girls refrain from participating in matters affecting the public. They fear being criticised for taking sides in matters affecting the society. For this reason, teenage girls yield to all instructions issued by either boys or their seniors without questioning.

Gender stereotype has led to parents taking their teenage girls to all-girls schools in the Western Europe. Presently, majority of the teenage girls do not interact with boys at school. Taking teenage girls to single-sex schools encourages them to study the subjects they consider as masculine.

Gender attitude leads to girls developing a perception that they are different from boys in terms of academic ability. Hence, girls shy away from studying the subjects that the society associates to boys. Numerous studies have shown that girls studying in single-sex schools have a higher propensity of taking subjects that are associated to boys relative to girls in mixed schools.

In single-sex schools, girls do not experience gender pressure. Therefore, they make decisions based on their interests. For instance, girls who wish to secure better paying jobs in future, select science subjects without considering that the subjects are associated to boys. Today, gender stereotype remains as one of the hurdles that prevent teenage girls from exploiting their talents freely.

Introduction

Over the years, the place of the woman in the society has remained in the home. In most cases, the society regards the woman as subordinate to man.

That is perhaps the reason why, for a very long time, women have remained in the background. However, the role of women, especially as members of the working class, has evolved in the recent past. In the American context, women have become an important part of the working class.

To this end, activities by such bodies as the civil rights movement groups and the agitation for fair treatment in the society have gone a long way in helping the women emerge as significant members of the society (Working Class Perspectives: Stereotyping the Working Class para. 3). In addition, the media has played a huge role in establishing a place for women among the working class.

The current paper is written against this background. To this end, the author of this paper examines how women are treated in the media, especially in prime time shows. The author of this paper holds the opinion that social class, together with gender, influences how media houses report their news.

On its part, media coverage influences the determination of gender roles and formation of social classes in the society. As such, the two phenomena (media and gender and social class) influence each other.

In this analysis, the author of this paper relies on the depictions of the main character in the popular American sitcom, Roseanne. The main focus will be on the sitcoms season 5, episode 5. The main character in this case is Roseanne. In the current paper, the author relies on the elements of the working class to argue out the research statement.

Roseanne will also be used in discussing the importance of media when it comes to the depiction of social class and gender issues. The importance of media will be measured against the effects that such kinds of presentations have on the viewers. The analysis highlighted above will be carried out in the context of Kathleen Rowes article on gender and social roles.

The Role of Gender and Social Class in Media Presentation

A Critical Analysis of Roseannes Character

After watching Roseanne, one can describe the main character as a responsible and hardworking housewife. She is also a mother who is capable of handling all the affairs in her family. The same is especially evident in the fifth episode of season five.

Here, the scene opens with Roseannes sister seeking her help in a family business. In the same scene, her husband walks in and goes straight to the dining table and demands for food (Roseanne Season 5 Episode 5). Despite her sarcastic and vulgar language, Roseanne appears to be a resourceful person.

Based on the manner in which she engages others in conversation, one can argue that she is unruly. A case in point is when she is engaged in a conversation with her sister about her daughter. She says, you mean the best thing was not carrying, pushing a giant head through my vagina after nine months? (Roseanne Season 5 Episode 5).

Despite the fact that she means well for her daughter, such vulgar language is not necessary. The disgusting aspect of her language is made evident when her husband puts down the sandwich he was eating when he hears her speak.

Rowe (414) argues that Roseanne is a sloppy woman. The implication is that she has a carefree attitude towards most of the things she does. One such instance is seen when her neighbors son lends her a camera (Roseanne Season 5 Episode 5).

Roseanne is having problems uploading the film and goes ahead to smash the camera on the table. Her reaction comes in the wake of the neighbors son telling her that she ought to handle the machine with care.

In spite of her carefree behavior, Roseanne is a considerate woman. The same is portrayed in the manner she handles her daughters sweet sixteen birthday party (Roseanne Season 5 Episode 5). Roseanne is aware of the fact that her daughter does not like attention.

However, that does not stop her from planning a party for her. Interestingly, the party is just a gimmick because she has other intentions. She asks her husband to repair the car in the garage as a gift for her daughter. In addition, Roseanne allows her daughter to go out and treat her friends.

Another character of Rosanne that is depicted in the television show is her courageousness. In a game of truth or dare, she agrees to a double dare where she is dared to strip off her blouse and bra and run outside while screaming (Roseanne Season 5 Episode 5).

Given that she is a mother and a wife, she should not even entertain such a dare. Surprisingly, she accepts the challenge, although she is eventually embarrassed when she runs into her husband and the new neighbor.

Roseannes character is very important in understanding the nature of people considered as working class in the society. The manner in which she is portrayed through media introduces the public to the various elements of the working class.

In this case, the depiction centers on the working class woman since she is considering setting up a business with her sister (Roseanne Season 5 Episode 5). The significance of such depictions is made apparent given that Roseanne is a prime time show.

Elements that Comprise the Working Class according to Roseanne

For a person to be eligible for employment, they must be hardworking (Zweig 34). Roseanne is an example of a hardworking individual. The element of hard work is depicted in the manner in which she is able to manage her household, especially given that theirs is not a wealthy family.

Portraying her as a hard worker is seen as a strategy to incite the women folk who labor in their households to venture out of their homes. Such women are shown that they can also do well as members of the workforce. The sentiments are seen in the last scene when Roseanne seeks her husbands opinion on whether to use the money her mother left her for business or not.

Working class requires one to be a visionary (Zweig 37). An individual must have certain goals that they are expected to achieve in their daily undertakings. The show introduces this aspect of vision in the last scene when Roseanne is concerned with the future of her childrens education.

She is considering using the money left to her by her mother for her childrens education (Roseanne Season 5 Episode 5). After a discussion with her husband, she is convinced that it is better to use the money for investment. The education of her children will be guaranteed if she invests the money. To this end, Roseanne appears to have a vision for her family.

What if Roseanne is from a Different Race?

The show elicits debate on how the media depicts social class and gender (Rowe 412). However, one should consider how the public would view Roseanne if she is from a different race, such as African American. In this regard, Rowe (413) compares Roseanne with Cosby Show, where the family is African American.

Rowe (413) argues that the public acknowledges the fact that the role played by Roseanne is significant in encouraging the women folk to join the working class. The public does not look at her as a white person. Instead, she is regarded as more of a woman than a representative of the white race.

If her character was played by an African American, the public would form opinions about the show based on prevailing perceptions about the race.

Conclusion

In this paper, the author affirmed the fact that the media relies on social class and gender to communicate with the audience. Roseanne is a white female and her depiction in the media helps to encourage women to join the working class. In addition, she is depicted as a member of the lower middle class. Her determination to get out of this social class is vividly illustrated by the way she is determined to start a business.

Works Cited

Roseanne Season 5 Episode 5. Pretty in Black., ABC, Atlanta, 16 Dec. 1995. Television.

Rowe, Kathleen. Roseanne: Unruly Woman as Domestic Goddess. Screen 31(1990): 408-419.

Working Class Perspectives: Stereotyping the Working Class 2008. Web. <https://workingclassstudies.wordpress.com/2008/09/08/stereotyping-the-working-class/>.

Zweig, Michael. Working Class Majority: Americas Best Kept Secret, Cornell, Cornell University Press, 2001. Print.

Introduction

Race and gender have been considered socially constructed in our society, and despite the efforts that have been put by several human rights groups it, this perception is yet to change.

According to Haslanger (2012: 43), The term socially constructed, means that the society and culture has created specific roles, and that these roles are what is generally considered ideal or appropriate behavior for a person of that specific race or gender. This means that the society expects men to behave in a way that is different from the way women do.

There are some activities that women are not supposed to do simply because they are women. Similarly, construction of race is exhibited when one race is expected to behave in a way that is different from other races. For instance, before many of the African nations gained independence, the Blacks were considered as slaves, and the Whites were seen as of superior race.

There might not be a scientific proof that Whites could be superior in any way to the Blacks. However, because the society had developed a perception that Blacks are inferior to the Whites, following a long period of slavery, this perception still remain. Social constriction of gender and race has been seen as the main reason why social segregation based on these two demographical factors are common in our society.

The Problem of Social Construction of Race and Gender

The society has been fighting social construction of gender and race because of the call made by several human rights group for equality in the society. Social construction of race and gender has been seen as an impediment to development, and a reason why some social injustice are still common in our society. It is a scientific fact that men have greater physical strength than women.

However, this should not make women a weaker sex in the social spectrum. Women should not be denied positions of leadership in the society just because they are women. As Ferber (1999) says, the society has discriminated against women for a very long time.

Although women are currently getting liberated, the social construction that existed in the minds of people still linger, and many societies still believe that women are inferior to men, and are treated as such.

Social constructionism theory holds that some demographic groups of people are expected to behave in a given manner within the society (Karambayya 1997). For instance, women would not be expected to assume roles that have largely been associated with men.

Careers in engineering, medicine, law, architect or any other well-paying technical jobs are expected to be a preserve for men. Women should get to such profession as nursing, teaching, and any other less technical unattractive jobs in the society. This is a social injustice.

If women have the capacity to do what men are doing, then gender should not be the reason why she should be denied the opportunity to do that job. Women have proven that they have the capacity to assume roles that were considered as meant for men. In leadership, women have proven that they can excel. Margret Thatcher remains one of the most celebrated prime minister of the United Kingdom.

Other notable women leaders around the world include Indira Gandhi of India, Hilary Clinton and Condoleezza Rice of the United States, and the current German Chancellor, Angela Merkel. These are women who have gone beyond social construction that women are considered a weaker race before men.

Social constriction of race has caused a lot of injustice in this society. As Obach (1999) notes, the United States has witnessed a long period of racial discrimination. When the country gained independence in 1776, the statesmen and women of this country promised that slavery and slave trade will be abolished.

When the country became independent, the Blacks, Whites, Indians, and all other races that were residing in the United States during that time were granted citizenship of this country. However, the perception that the Whites were superior to all other races still remained. The Blacks were considered an inferior race, and there were restricted to some social services.

Ferber (1999) by nineteenth century, there were still some posts written, Whites Only. This is a clear indication that the Whites segregated other races, and there were some services that they could not share with the Whites.

The recent election of a Black president of this nation was seen as a positive move by this society towards racial justice. The society has come to realize that it is important to avoid any prejudice against a section of the society because of their race.

The main problem with social construction of race and gender is that the society has been trying to justify why a given group of people is considered superior to others. This justification has even made the discriminated group believe that they are inferior group. As Obach (1999) puts it, the discriminated group have come to accept their unfortunate condition.

They have come to believe that they below to the inferior race or gender. This makes the fight against all forms of social construction a little more challenging. However, the recent moves by human rights groups have helped change this perception. People have come to accept that human being, regardless of race, gender, or any other demographic differences, are equal, and should therefore, be treated as such.

Racism

Browne (2003: 37) defines racism as, Actions, beliefs or practices, which consider the human beings to be divided into races with shared qualities, traits, or abilities, such as intellect, personality, and morality, and the belief that races can be ranked as inherently superior or inferior to others.

As described in this definition, racism is a stereotype that holds that some members of the society are superior to others and deserve being treated as such. A good example of racism was witnessed in the United States, where Whites regarded Blacks and other races as being inferior to them.

They treated them as second class citizens who were not expected to use the same facilities as those used by Whites. The Whites had their own schools, hospitals, and other social amenities. The Blacks also had their own social facilities. South Africa also experienced Apartheid rule that was fought and brought to an end by the late Nelson Mandela.

Sexism

Sexism refers to discrimination prejudice that is based on an individuals gender (Karambayya 1997). It is the perception that men are superior to women, and should be treated as such. In the current society, sexism still persists in many ways. As Obach (1999) notes, the American society has generally failed to appreciate that it can be led by a woman.

This was not only shown by the failure of Hillary Clinton to win the primaries against Obama in the 2008 race to Whitehouse, but also by the limited number of women who vie for these seats. As was mentioned before, social construction of gender becomes even worse when those who are discriminated against come to accept that they are a weaker group.

The American women have believed that they are inferior to men, and therefore, have avoided vying from the countrys top post. In 2008, Sarah Palin was nominated by the Republican Party to vie alongside the Arizona Senator John McCain as the Vice President of this country.

McCain thought that the society would accept her as a female vice president. However, this was not the case. She failed to appeal to the society due to a number of reasons, top of which was that she was a woman.

Conclusion

Social construction of race and gender has been very common in our society for a very long time. Women have been considered inferior to men, and the Whites, the most superior race.

As demonstrated in the above discussion, social construction in itself is an injustice. Every human being should be treated equally. Gender or race should not be the reason why some members of the society are denied opportunities within the society.

It is wrong to treat others as second class citizens because of their race or gender. Human rights groups have been fighting this vice for a long time now. Although their efforts have transformed the society positively, social construction of race and gender is still common in this society.

References

Haslanger, Sally. 2012. Resisting Reality: Social Construction and Social Critique. New York: Oxford University Press.

Ferber, Abby. 1999. The Construction of Race, Gender, and Class in White Supremacist Discourse. Interdisciplinary Issues On Race, Gender & Class 6(3): 67-89.

Karambayya, Rekha. 1997. In Shouts and Whispers: Paradoxes Facing Women of Color in Organizations. Journal of Business Ethics 16(9): 891-897.

Browne, Irene. 2003. The Intersection of Gender and Race in the Labor Market. Annual Review of Sociology 29(3): 487-513.

Obach, Brian. 1999. Demonstrating the Social Construction of Race. Teaching Sociology 27(3): 252-257.

During a long period of time, researchers intend to find the answer to the question of how much women and men talk in comparison to each other. Furthermore, it is also important to answer the question about the criteria according to which the conclusions should be made (Tannen and Alatis 12).

From this point, the article Who Does the Talking Here? which is written by Deborah Tannen and published in the Washington Post in 2007 can be discussed as one more attempt to respond to the developed debates.

In her article, Tannen proposes to discuss the relation between the concepts of gender and talkativeness from the large perspective because these relations are rather complex.

Tannen claims that it is irrelevant to count words spoken by women and men without references to the concrete situations and speakers purposes, and although many popular researches are based on the principle of counting spoken words, Tannens position seems to be rather persuasive because the author not only provides a range of arguments to support her vision but also discusses the weaknesses of counterarguments in detail.

Tannen starts her article with drawing the audiences attention to the controversial idea which contradicts with the publics traditional visions. The author states that a group of researchers found the evidences to support the view that women and men talk equally (Tannen par. 1).

Tannen focuses on this researchs conclusion as the basic argument to state the necessity of re-thinking the visions of men and womens talkativeness. Thus, the author continues presenting her idea while discussing the opinion about the females talkativeness which prevailed in the society during a long period of time.

The popular opinion is based on counting the words, as it is in Louann Brizendines study, according to which women speak 20,000 words a day, and men speak only 7,000 words a day (Tannen par. 2).

To oppose this idea, Tannen refers to the other researchers numbers which are 16,215 words spoken by women during a day and 15,669 words spoken by men (Tannen par. 2).

Paying attention to numbers which cannot appropriately reflect the real situation in the society, Tannen chooses to focus on the other approaches and criteria as more important in comparison with the method of counting the words.

Having stated the impossibility of the other researchers approach to discuss the situation with men and womens talking in detail, Tannen presents clearly her own vision of the problem while asking the questions about the correlation between gender and language.

According to Tannen, to understand who talks more, you have to ask: Whats the situation? What are the speakers using words for? (Tannen par. 4). To support the importance of these questions, Tannen provides the vivid example to illustrate the role of the situation for men and womens talking.

The example of a man who speaks more at the meetings than at home is effective to support the authors vision of types of talking. Tannen states that women talk more when they want to focus on the peoples personal experience and feelings. This type of talking is the rapport-talk.

On the contrary, men prefer to provide people with some information, and it is the report-talk (Tannen par. 7). The authors discussion of these types of talking seems to be rather rational because the purposes of females and males speaking are explained clearly.

While developing the connection between the situation, purpose, and length of speeches, Tannen provides different real-life examples to support her conclusions.

Thus, it is necessary to pay attention to the purposes of speaking because women are inclined to be more talkative than men at home, when men are inclined to demonstrate their knowledge at work (Speer 23-25).

In her article, Tannen tries to focus on all the aspects of the issue and to discuss all the associated stereotypes. From this point, referring to the research by Campbell and Ayres, Tannen states that womens rapport-talk probably explains why many people think women talk more (Tannen par. 11).

Moreover, people prefer to focus on others talking when they speak little (Tannen par. 12). As a result, Tannen leads the reader to understand the fact that in reality, women and men talk equally, but there are more situations when men can concentrate on womens talkativeness.

In her article, Deborah Tannen builds a strong argument to support her vision of the problem of women and mens talkativeness. While discussing the importance of gender differences to influence the males and females talks, Tannen chooses to focus on the causes for revealing numbers traditionally presented in the scholarly literature.

The author claims that the concentration on counting words cannot provide researchers with the appropriate results. It is important to know when and why women and men speak more.

This information is necessary to conclude about the connection between the concepts of gender and language. As a result, Tannens position can be discussed as correlated in a way with the idea stated in the articles first paragraph according to which women and men talk equally.

Works Cited

Speer, Susan. Gender Talk: Feminism, Discourse and Conversation Analysis. USA: Psychology Press, 2005. Print.

Tannen, Deborah. Who Does the Talking Here? 2007. Web.

Tannen, Deborah, and James Alatis. Linguistics, Language, and the Real World: Discourse and Beyond. USA: Georgetown University Press, 2003. Print.

Introduction

An analysis of the poem Smoking by David Levithan reveals that ones sexual orientation is distinct from ones gender identity, yet society tends to mix these two concepts together. Cultures define gender identities, and this means that people who choose to interpret their gender unconventionally may be treated differently. It is essential to understand why this occurs.

How gender and sexual orientation differ in society

Traditionally, society has been particularly strict about gender roles assigned to men and women. Many assumed that attractions occurred between males and females respectively (Diamond, 48). However, according to the poem, being a man does not necessarily determine whether one is gay or straight.

The two boys in the poem love each other, but still regard themselves as males. They smoke Marlboro, which Americans regard as a classic male cigarette. They also dress and behave in a typical masculine way. Since society has classically assumed that one can link sexual orientation and gender, then many have assumed that individuals with gay preferences tend to have a mixed up gender identity.

In fact, some gay couples have conformed to these expectations by assigning typical feminine roles to one partner and typical masculine roles to the other partner. In this scenario, David falls in the former category while his lover Jed falls in the latter category. He explains that he preferred the vanilla scented smoke to other brands.

Jed was also the one who asked David out, and not the other way around. The author clearly identified with the less assertive role than the dominant one. It may be said that David took on this pseudo-female role as an attempt to reconcile tensions; they arose out of societys definition of gender identity and sexual orientation.

The latter assumption comes from the notion that heterosexual relationships are normal while same sex relationships are not. However, some feminists and gay proponents believe that this assumption is wrong. They argue that one constructs gender, and this does not follow from ones anatomy. Therefore, assuming that ones biology determines ones sexual preferences is erroneous. It is inaccurate to say that male and female biological traits will determine ones behavior patterns.

This is because some individuals identify more with members of another gender, and thus adopt the role of the other gender. In the end, this may cause their sexual orientation to differ from the typical heterosexual one. For example, transsexuals tend to think of themselves as members of a gender that contrasts with their biological predisposition (Diamond 53).

A male transsexual will talk, dress, look and express himself as a woman because that is the gender role that he identifies with. As a result, such a person may find that he finds males attractive, and his sexual orientation may be homosexual. Transsexuals, therefore, illustrate that ones physical traits do not determine ones physical traits.

Such individuals are constantly trying to match their psychological gender with their sex. Unlike traditional approaches, this group of people illustrates that sex is secondary to gender. Initially people assumed that ones sex determines ones gender. However, in the case of transsexuals and homosexuals, gender is what matters the most. The gender that they identify with is not dependent on sex or biological traits.

In the poem, David explains that as he grew up, he never liked the things that typical boys liked. For instance, he never wanted to be a cowboy or do other things that they did. Consequently, his sex did not determine the gender roles that he chose. In fact, this is the reason why David seemed to be quite emotional (Levithan 12).

He explains how dreamy he felt when Jed asked him out for the first time; David even felt like crying. Many assume that women are emotional; in this instance, David did not fit into that mould. He is male, but expresses himself in a manner that people would translate as feminine. However, the poet does not take on all other feminine roles.

This teenage gay relationship challenges assumptions about gender and sexual orientation because neither of the two boys fits clearly into a definite understanding of gender. Feminist scholars assert that effeminate behavior among gay males is not as dominant as it is in transsexuals. In other instances, it may not even be possible to determine the differences between the two gay partners. The popular assumption of homosexual men as effeminate is unwise because some homosexuals may exhibit machismo-like traits (Diamond 50).

Gay men and women may choose to identify with any gender role. Lesbians can demonstrate masculine behavior or may opt to act feminine. Since individuals can fall into any of these categories without reference to their biological predispositions, then society needs to refrain from judging them.

Some relationships lack a dominant, masculine partner and a passive, feminine one. Such couples treat one another in more or less equal terms. Although this may not have been the case in David and Jeds case, it is clear that their gender identities were not radically different from one another. David was not a dominant individual, but he still possessed other masculine behaviors.

Some individuals take on personas that are appropriate for heterosexual relationships. This may occur because of a hostile environment in school or at work. Such was the case for David and Jed. The two would not dare hold hands in public because this would offend other peoples sensibilities. However, they would assume a different identity in private circumstances. In many western societies, gay relationships are gaining a lot of acceptance.

Nonetheless, for adolescents who develop gender identities that differ from the norm, acceptance may be the last thing that happens to them. Such individuals may be ridiculed, bullied or mocked by others, and this could create psychological challenges. In the poem, David and Jed were distinctly aware of their different sexual orientation. They knew that this would not match their peers expectation of the male gender and how they relate sexually to others.

Consequently, they needed to disguise their differences from the rest of their schoolmates in order to gain acceptance. Sociologists note that people assign negative connotations to males who adopt female gender roles. For instance, some may call them sissies, mammas boy, girlie-boy, and many others.

This discrimination may result from the failure to understand the nature of sexual orientation. One must also understand its separateness from gender roles. Furthermore, some individuals think of gay relationships as a threat to their understanding of traditional gender roles. Looking at gender roles as socially constructed can lead to alterations in their perceptions. This can liberate people like David who must hide their true identities.

Conclusion

The poem Smoking provides powerful insights on gender identity and sexual orientations. David and Jed cannot express their love to one another because their society is yet to separate sex and gender roles. Since many individuals associate certain behaviors to certain sexes, people regard gay relationships as inappropriate because they defy these standards.

However, existence of transsexuals is proof of the fact that gender identity exists outside of ones sex. Therefore, ones sexual orientation should not be translated as a defiance of set sexual identities.

Works Cited

Diamond, Milton. Sex and gender: same or different? Feminism and psychology 10.1(2000): 46-54. Print.

Levithan, David. The Realm of Possibility. NY: Knop Books for Young Readers, 2006. Print.

The end of the 20^th century and the beginning of the 21^st century brought a lot of changes into the social interactions, relations between genders and into the division of their roles. The tendency of changes is also reflected in altering the nature of the Australian workforce according to the question of male and female involving into the labour market.

The transformation of the peoples vision of the role of a woman in the society resulted in the womens active participation in the working process. Broomhill and Sharp pay attention to the fact that it is possible to observe the changing male breadwinner model in Australia which is caused by the historical process of the societys development and a lot of other social and economic factors (Broomhill & Sharp 2005).

The peculiarities of the modern societys progress are based on the necessity to change the traditional vision of the gender roles division among men and women in relation to their involvement in the labour market because of the globalisations tendencies and altering the publics attitude to households which were usually discussed as womens activity.

What events caused the present-day issue of changing the male breadwinner model in Australia as a reason to speak about the new gender order? Broomhill and Sharp build their argument about the development of this new gender order and discussion of the question about the significance of the changes in the model with references to examining this process from the historic perspective and with paying attention to the most important social events and changes.

According to the researchers, the period after World War II was extremely significant for creating the necessary conditions for changing the current gender order. The male breadwinner model typical for the 1950s lost its importance during the 1960s, and later the process became more intensive (Broomhill & Sharp 2005). The economic growth and the demand for labour can be discussed as the key factors for involving more women in the working process.

Having presented the historical retrospective of the process of changing the model, Broomhill and Sharp determine such additional aspects of the phenomenon as the division of the market, the availability of services, the activity of the womens movements, and the womens financial independence, and the researchers conclusions are based on the detailed statistical data provided (Broomhill & Sharp 2005).

To confirm the reality of changing the male breadwinner/female carer model, it is necessary to refer to the factual information and numbers. Thus, Broomhill and Sharp provide statistics according to such criteria as the peculiarities of women and mens employment, the prevalence of full-time or part-time work, the difference in wages, and the comparison with the situation in the neighbouring territories (Broomhill & Sharp 2005).

Moreover, possible unemployment can be characteristic either for men or women without references to gender and be the result of changes in the labour demand (Keating 2003).

If Broomhill and Sharp discuss the issue of the womens active participation in the labour market from the point of increasing their activity in earning money, Baxter provides some glimpses on the process from the point of decreasing the time women spend on housework (Baxter 2002). Thus, the process is interchanged and should be discussed from different positions.

It is the fact that the definite processes of changing the traditional male breadwinner model were typical for the recent years, but it is impossible to speak about the extreme transformation of the structure in relation to the division of the gender roles. In spite of the fact women actively participate in the process of earning money for the family, the statistical data support the fact women prefer part-time jobs to have enough time to spend it with a family and do the necessary households.

Moreover, the increase of the percentage of working women should be discussed in connection with the decrease of the general percentage of the working men (Broomhill & Sharp 2005). The process is also correlated with the situation of more mens participating in household activities in comparison with the period of the end of the 20^th centuries (Baxter 2002).

Thus, it is possible to focus on reducing the idea of dominance of this or that gender in performing this or that activity. However, this transformation is not radical, and it is the result of the societys development. Gottfried concentrates on the role of globalisation in the process of changing the traditional models and gender roles which were characteristic for the previous century (Gottfried 2004).

The nature of the workforce in relation to the question of gender changed in Australia significantly. This situation is the result of the societys progress and economic demands. Today, it is impossible to speak about following the division of gender roles strictly. Nevertheless, Broomhill and Sharp focus on the idea that there is a tendency according to which women are inclined to choose part-time jobs, and the increase of working women is correlated with the decrease of men as the representatives of the definite professions.

Reference List

Baxter, JH 2002, Patterns of change and stability in the gender division of household labour in Australia, 1986-1997, Journal of Sociology, vol. 38, no. 4, pp. 399-424.

Broomhill R & Sharp R 2005, The changing male breadwinner model in Australia: a new gender order?, Labour & Industry, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 103-127.

Gottfried, H 2004, Gendering globalization discourses, Critical Sociology January, vol. 30 no. 1, pp. 9-15.

Keating, M 2003, The labour market and inequality, Australian Economic Review, vol. 36, no. 4, pp. 374-396.

Introduction

In its simplest sense, hedging refers to inversion of harsh statements involving sentiments, critics or strong voices of commands to sound polite to the hearers while still maintaining the desired massage to be conveyed at the right bandwidth just like Ayodabo (1997, p.257) notes that, hedging involves the qualification and toning-down of utterances or statements.

Utilization of hedges in speeches reduces the hostility of expressions that contains commitment, rigidity in speakers opinions and acute precision. Hedges increase the acceptability of utterances originating from a speaker in virtually every phenomenon.

Virtually all linguists advocate for incorporation of hedging not only in verbal communication but also in writing. Though people incorporate the use of hedging in every language across the universe, various discrepancies exist for example in the case of Nigerian people, where shouting of children to the seniors signifies a lack of respect unless in situations involving danger where the other way round is acceptable.

Reframing of both verbal and written statements forms of communication to make them sound less assertive increases the magnitude of respect towards an addressee.

Language scholars endorse use of hedges and therefore have particular interest in determining the factors that foster usage of hedges in speech and written materials among various groups of people.One of the ways of investigating variability of hedging use is looking at manner in which differing groups of gender, social classes and age use them.

Once segregated this way, the various differences in use of hedging during the communication process can be established and analyzed. A Scrutiny of the usage of deferring types of hedges on the bases of genders exposes amicable differences.

Analysis of gender and hedges

The position held by many language scholars about the existence of the differences in the usage of hedges based on the gender lured Dixon and Foster to carry out a study to establish the nature of the differences. &Gender differences cause prejudice in the way people communicate which is further replicated in other aspects of life such as politics (Dixon & Foster 1996, p.89).

Linguists from America such as Lakoff were convinced that womens femininity comes with an expectation to be satisfied through exploration of alternative phrases and expressions that make them less assertive while communicating as opposed to their male counterparts (Lakoff 1975, p.92).

Women therefore, adopt linguistic devices that help express themselves without use of declarative expressions that would give an implication of force in their utterances. Use of expressions may be, possibly, you should, you know, among others therefore, form an integral part of their speech (Dixon & Foster 1996, p.90).

Taking such a stand has the effect of making language of women indecisive and uncertain particularly where bold personal decisions are paramount. The conclusiveness of existence of the differences in the hedges use amongst the different genders, as argued by linguists, depends on issues giving rise to the debate.

In such a context, Lakoffs propositions: supported by personal observations, induces questions of missing links between his approach and results obtained by conducting actual measurements and then carrying out an analysis to deduce the differences.

Some studies confirm that groups of women while involved in discussions have a greater capacity to use politer expressions compared to men. One can attribute women and men varying frequency of hedges usage to global sex differences (Dixon & Foster 1986, p.91).

In linguistics, sort of helps a speaker to convey aspects of epistemic, effectiveness, and totality or ambiguity. On the other hand, usage of the hedge you know signifies existence of confidence, lack of confidence, ambiguity or totality in speakers utterances.

For instance, the hedge you know finds a use that is more frequent in topics involving personal narratives as opposed to instrumental topics.

Men have fewer tendencies to use effective hedges (Holmes 1986, p.105) compared to women. This raises the argument on dependency of sex mixes in discussions to give birth to a climate that evoke different usage of hedges differently.

Studies conducted by Carli (1990, p.944) claim that the gender differences in communication are more pronounced in mixed gender setting than in similar gender settings. Research work such as the one conducted by Bilious & Krauss (1998, p.189) is to the conclusion that &the differences decline immensely in conversions involving mixed genders.

The functional purpose accomplished by hedges also affects their usage preference between different genders. Hedges such as sort of that give a sense of emotional affiliations in communication typically find more counts in their usage in conversions dominated by women rather than men.

Unlike Holmes and other language scholars, Dixons and Fosters study did not reveal any much gender difference in the usage of hedges such as sort of and confidence you know (Dixon & Foster 1996, p.34). The two believe that cultural settings can greatly influence the manner in which people use language in relation to gender.

The geographical location of the place from where the data originates is therefore a big determining factor in drawing a conclusion regarding the existence of such differences.

Having chosen South Africa as the place of samples collection, as opposed to New Zealand where Holmes had based her studies, cultural forces can result in the differences in observations made by Dixon and Foster since as found by Bodine cultural norms can influence relationship between gender and language use (Bodine 1975, p.80).

Substantial difference in hedges usage in different gender based on situational competitiveness examined alongside the contribution of audience gender to the preference in the usage of hedges exists across the globe.

In competitive conditions, both genders employ less use of sort of than in situations when the genders under study are controlled in such a way that they are maintained in uncompetitive condition throughout the period of study (Dixon & Foster 1996, p.101).

The usage of Sort of occurs in situations involving casual talks confirming an earlier argument by Holmes. On the other hand, with regard to Dixon and Fosters study, the usages of you know is extensively found in informal conversations for the two genders: men and women (Dixon & Foster 1996, p.110).

The usage of epistemic sort of in communication is dependent on the audience gender with both genders using it more frequently when addressing males than females.

Generally speaking, the disparities in the usage of the various hedged statements among different genders can be clearly attributed to and enhanced by the glamour and enrichment of the language achieved from the purpose of their usage in verbal and written forms of communication: precisely, the functions of hedging.

In their effective role, they express speakers uncertainty about the validity of particular statements

Holmes conclusion on Affective and Epistemic functions of hedges

Deployment of hedging devices in speech in an attempt to utilize their affective and epistemic functions depends on the gender from which the speech originates as well as the target gender. Holmes (1986, p.13) states that, in their affective role, hedges express speakers desire to create and maintain interpersonal solidarity.

Speakers achieve magnificent capacity to win the audience to their way of thinking without an indication of compromising the audience freedom to make personal judgments and hence determination of their takes in a given subject.

On the other hand, hedges achieve epistemic functions by enabling speakers express uncertainty and validity of certain statements used in utterances. Based on New Zealand peoples usage of hedges in communication, Holmes proposes that use of hedging to achieve either epistemic or affective functions has to do with gender differences.

In particular, women and men use hedges distinctively to attain the two mentioned functions mentioned above. Women have a tendency of using expressions that depicts their utmost concern for other people especially when challenges of pain and anger confront their addressee.

Holmes exemplifies such a situation noting that, women use the hedge sort of to fulfill emotional functions (Holmes 1988, p. 119). The hedge you know, like wise, finds employment in women language as a gate away to confidently woo audience into conversations.

Incorporation of the audience into conversation eases the speakers task of conviction. Consequently, the speakers keep at bay any possibility of dissatisfaction queries associated to a given speech from arising.

Hedging devices therefore, permit a speaker to deliver the intended message whether written or oral in the most precise and straightforward manner.

As opposed to women, men use sort of or you know to give an implication of varying degrees of uncertainty or hesitation in verbal speech. Looking out for instances where men tend to use the hedge, you know and sort of indicates that men use hedges to accomplish epistemic functions of hedged statements.

Following mens conversations critically, the hedge you know will almost in all scenarios appear when framing of wording in a speech falls out of order or when they have made a mistake that requires quick correction for argumentation consistency purposes irrespective of the topic under study.

Similarly, men use the hedge sort of in speeches to indicate uncertainty according to Holmes (1986, p.16).The above discussion gives an exemplification of how men portray their expertise at using hedges in such a way to serve epistemic functions.

In terms of the functional differences of usage of hedges between men and women: affective and epistemic, the nature of communication for the different genders gives indication of speeches being self complete or deficient in one way or another.

Holmes (1986, p.20) counters the argument that womens language being dominated by hedges that depict use of hedges to achieve effective functions is insecure and hence suffers deficiency. She laments that, rather than subscribing to such an opinion, people should not see their language as sensitive but also caring.

Despite the fact that, men use effective hedges more frequently when addressing women than men, their use of you know defies the pattern (Holmes 1990, p.200).

Gender and Hedges: From an Oral communication perspective

Even though the use of hedges seem greatly contributed by gender differences, their use in oral and written forms of communication is a dependent on cultural backgrounds inclinations, subject matter of discussions, circumstance giving rise to a debate, functionality of the hedges and the status of both the speaker and the recipient socially.

The notion that women employ hedging more in conversation than men as claimed by Holmes (1988, pp.85-121) fails to agree with the results obtained when samples employed in a study to determine and evaluate differences in the use of hedges are subjected to varying treatments rather than just being pegged on gender.

Gender and Hedges: from Email communication Perspective

Analysis of data gathered from emails formulated by different people raises doubts on the contribution of differences in gender in the manner in which hedges are used: be it in terms of frequency or selection of hedge types.

The justification of hypotheses that men utilize hedging less frequently in their conversations than women which is found to be consistent with the finding of the studies by Holmes (1988, pp.85-121) becomes contradicting bearing in mind the email conversations involves varying groups of people characterized by random mixes of men and women (Redeker & Igen 2003, p.1).

Crucial to note is the fact that, strangers dominate the groups that participate in online mail charting raising question whether hedging is a function of such factors rather than being dependent on gender differences.

The results of Redekers and Van Igens study which had involved analysis of 66 email from equal number of men and women (Redeker & Igen 2003, p.2) depicts hedges usage as being dependent on the characteristics of the recipients, sender and topic of discussion with men dominating in some instances and women in others.

For example, based on the criteria of beneficiary of the mail, where women are the beneficiaries, more counts on the numbers of hedges employed, indicate a clear difference on hedges usage based on mails beneficiary criteria. On the other hand, more hedging seem apparent in cases where men are the recipient beneficiaries of the online chart mails.

Reference List

Ayodabo, J., 1997. A Pragma-Stylistic Study of Abiolas Historic Speech of June 24 1993. Ilorin: Paragon Books.

Bodine, A., 1975. Sex Differentiation in Language. Language and sex: Difference and Dominance. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

Carli, L., 1990. Gender, Language and Influence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59 (2), pp. 941-951.

Dixon, A., & Foster, H., 1996. Gender and Hedging: From Sex Differences to Situated Practice. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 26(1), pp. 96-103.

Holmes, J., 1986. Functions of you know in Women and Mens Speech. Language in society, 15, pp. 1-22.

Holmes, J., 1988. Sort of in New Zealand Womens and Mens Speech. Studia Linguistica, 42, pp. 85-121.

Holmes, J., 1990. Hedges and boosters in womens and mens speech. Language and communication, 10, pp.185-205.

Krauss, R., 1988. Dominance and Accommodation in the Conversational Behaviors of The same and Mixed-sex Dyads. Language and Communication, 8 (2), pp. 183-194.

Lakoff, R., 1975. Language and Womens Place. New York: Harper Colophon.

Redeker, G., & Igen, V., 2003. Politeness and Hedging in email Requests among Males And Female Friends. Oxford: Oxford UP.

How often do we need to distinguish our roles in society according to our biological sex and social gender? Several centuries ago people did not determine the notion of gender. However, the roles of women and men were distinguished more strictly than today. The history of the 20^th century has begun with the revolutionary movement of feminists for their rights. It was not obviously clear what rights were defended by feminists because many women were not ready to admit new social roles imposed by active feminists.

Nevertheless, our society has learnt the notion of gender as distinguishing masculine and feminine features in social behaviour of men and women which are the results of their biological sex. Gender reveals its social origin with references to a lot of different theories the main idea of which is that social roles depend on gender which can emphasize their inequality.

Today there are many theories which describe and explain the character of gender as a social phenomenon. However, the most controversial questions which are widely discussed by scholars are the relations between gender and biological sex, gender roles and social roles, gender roles and social institutions.

For instance, Barbara Risman has proposed to discuss gender as an absolutely social structure which depends on definite aspects of the social development (Risman). To understand the nature of gender, it is necessary to pay attention to certain visions of the issue. Many scholars agree that the gender theory can be based on the combination of viewpoints on the biological sex and its role in forming the peculiarities of personal behavior according to a definite gender.

Moreover, it is also significant to focus on the social aspects of forming gender as opposite to the vision of the problem as connected with a sex (Renzetti and Curran). The next important detail is the idea of gender inequality in association to gender roles. That is why it is rather difficult to determine a single vision of the issue of gender theory which can be considered as the most objective one.

If we discuss gender as a social structure, we should determine all its peculiarities according to the social theories and viewpoints on the question. The consideration of gender as a definite social structure also can bring it to the same analytic plane as politics and economics in society (Risman).

Thus, Risman makes accents on the social inequality which can be the result of the gender differentiation in our society (Risman). What is the first social structure which children can observe when they do not realize the notion of gender or social roles? It is a family. Families can be considered as the first social institutions with the help of which children become to observe the difference in the roles of women and men which they can play not only in society but also in their families.

Every day a child can examine the inequality of roles of his parents in the family. When this child becomes to act in the society as a schoolboy or schoolgirl or attend different clubs he or she can see the difference of those roles which men and women play in society (Risman).

They are gender roles which are influenced by feminine and masculine qualities. They become to determine certain social roles. However, is it possible to grow the child who has not any social gender? On the one hand, a child can be considered as acquiring definite gender when he or she actively interacts in society.

That is why this child should be isolated from any communication with the other people. On the other hand, each child has a biological sex. When this child grows he or she begins to act according to the behavioral peculiarities common for this or that sex. If this child begins to interact in society and reveal the behavioral peculiarities common for his or her sex, we can speak about the inclination to a definite gender.

Thus, social gender is determined by our biological sex. Nevertheless, should all the social roles be dependent on our gender and, as a consequence, on our sex? Today this question is mainly discussed by those women who state that gender roles and social roles can be thought of as the way to implement the principles of discrimination in society.

Feminists declare that only social transformation can be effective for reducing inequality in our society (Risman). Women should have the right to choose their roles not only according to such characteristics as their sex and gender. However, today we can observe definite transformations in community and can state that the notions of gender and gender roles develop every day.

Different gender theories can be based on various aspects connected with the peculiarities of social and personal development. Some of them accentuate the fact of gender as a social structure for which certain level of inequality is typical. Distinguishing between social roles can be the result of a certain consideration of gender roles and the notion of gender. Moreover, the first institution in which we can observe the differences between genders is our family.

Works Cited

Renzetti, Claire, and Daniel J. Curran. Women, Men, and Society. USA: Pearson, 2002. Print.

Risman, Barbara. Gender as Social Structure: Theory Wrestling with Activism. Sociologists for Women in Society 18.4 (2004): 429-450. Print.