Category: Gender

Introduction

Gender role is a colossal pillar of every society, and although nowadays, a shift from assigned and stereotyped gender roles is more prominent, they still significantly affect peoples lives. A gender role is a way to indicate which behaviors are acceptable and appropriate based on a persons gender or even appearance. In many societies, males and females traditionally adhere to different gender roles. Various immigrant groups have not been an exception to the influence of this phenomenon.

Gender Role Differences in European Immigrant Groups

Historically, the lifestyles of women were wildly different from those of men. Women were considered more critical to the household than having a fulfilling job or public life (Healey and Stepnick 87). Therefore, women were often less educated and could not easily possess high leadership positions or profitable jobs. This disbalance also had an effect on immigration. Because of the education barrier, many women would face problems learning a foreign language. Having moved to another country, they conserved their cultures and traditions more strongly due to their less social disposition. In addition, while women did play an essential role in the process of immigration, that role differed from the roles that men played. The role of an immigrant woman was the role of a wife, a mother, and a supporter.

Female immigrants experienced immigration quite differently from each other; the circumstances of their transfer and the challenges they faced mainly depended on their native society. Some women had to travel to another country only after their husbands had settled there, and some women took part in the first wave of immigration. For example, famine forced women to leave their homeland to seek work. They had to do it since it had become increasingly difficult for them to marry and find jobs at their old place of residence (Healey and Stepnick 86). For women who were tied by marriage, work was also a large part of living. Because immigrant men could not always solely support their families, women and children had to contribute. This contribution varied depending on their culture; for example, women of Italy were prohibited from working outside of the home by the patriarchal nature of their culture. Eastern European Jewish women had a different pattern of assimilation; in particular, they worked in shops with their families (Healey and Stepnick 86). Even when having a job and being removed from old cultures, women were still bound by its influences and patriarchy.

Gender Roles and Sojourners

If presented with the need to make a guess, I would say that men would be more likely to be sojourners. Since the points mentioned above stated that women were often followers of their husbands who decided to immigrate, it would be logical to assume that men were the majority among sojourners. Men were the ones who made decisions of that kind, so it would be up to them to determine the ways their families were to assimilate.

Conclusion

In conclusion, gender roles have played a considerable role in the ways that women were assimilated in the process of immigration. For women, it was more acceptable to take care of the household and work purely to support their families and not out of ambition or hopes of fulfillment. However, some women did travel abroad not as followers to the men in their kin. Given that the gender role that was assigned to women at that time was the role of supporter and follower, I am of the opinion that more men than women were sojourners, as it was their decision to make.

Work Cited

Healey, Joseph, and Stepnick, Andi. Diversity and Society. SAGE Publications, Inc., 2019.

Introduction

The issue of gender as it applies to housework in heterosexual couples is not a recent problem in the United States and other countries. In the United States, the problem of gender inequality in household chores emerged in the second half of the twentieth century when the female labor force participation rate reached almost sixty percent (Genadek, 2018). If the present situation is compared to that of the 1960s, it becomes clear that American men have adopted new attitudes to helping their wives with the housework and caring for children (Thébaud et al., 2019). It has caused slight increases in the amount of housework done by men. However, modern economists and feminist researchers agree that the gender revolution in housework has slowed down recently (Thébaud et al., 2019).

Regarding its popularity, the patterns of mens and womens participation in household chores and factors contributing to inequality remain a widely discussed topic. The mass media often share non-scientific articles and the results of new studies. Such articles may try to explain the gender housework gap concerning credible data or offer new theories on why men support equality at work but remain unwilling to do more household tasks. The problem of the housework gender gap affects almost any adult American, which explains a number of biased sources of information about it. This literature review paper argues that the stated problem is complex and does not have one universally accepted explanation yet.

The Ease of Divorce

The existence of the housework gender gap remains an undeniable truth today, and it is found both in couples following the male breadwinner model and dual-earner families. Studies focusing on changes to the housework gender gap suggest that it is gradually narrowing, but the size and the exact causes of inequality remain an open question (Geist & Tabler, 2017; Thébaud et al., 2019). One interesting suggestion is that the facts of unequal housework distribution in American heterosexual couples can be connected with womens power and freedom to terminate relationships with their husbands.

In her study published in Feminist Economics, Genadek (2018), a qualified economist interested in studying demography, analyzes time use and the ease of divorce. The purpose of her study is to establish the links between the amount of time that married heterosexual women spend on housework and the presence of unilateral divorce laws in the state where they live. Although some would criticize the discipline of feminist economics for its priority-setting practices, the mentioned article seems to be unbiased. In particular, all conclusions are derived from the analysis of credible data coming from thousands of male and female subjects (Genadek, 2018). Moreover, the researcher does not provide any emotionally-colored evaluations of research results reported by her colleagues. The author conducted her research by obtaining data from the American Heritage Time Use Study conducted in the mid-1970s and the National Human Activity Pattern Study conducted between 1992 and 1995 (Genadek, 2018, p. 70). The total number of observations included in the sample exceeded three thousand.

Using statistical research methods, Genadek (2018) analyzed the cross-sectional data from the previously conducted studies. Special attention was paid to correlations between the number of minutes that the subjects spent on household production and core housework activities and whether they lived in U.S. states with unilateral divorce laws. As for the main conclusion, unilateral divorce affected the number of minutes that male subjects spent on housework to some extent. The difference was 30 extra minutes of core housework activities a day for married men in states allowing unilateral divorce (Genadek, 2018, p. 76).

In the case of female subjects, on average, women from states allowing unilateral divorce spent 87 fewer minutes a day on tasks related to household production and 97 fewer minutes on core housework (Genadek, 2018, p. 76). Regarding interesting ideas, the article suggests links between the risks of divorce for men and the size of the gap between women and men in household labor (Genadek, 2018). The source encourages the audience to look at the housework gender gap from the viewpoint of wives bargaining power, thus being different from other articles that mainly focus on the social perceptions of gender roles.

The Housework Gender Gap in Older Adults and Womens Health

The housework gender gap is relatively under-researched when it comes to elderly married heterosexual couples in the United States, but such studies would probably shed light on new tendencies explaining the phenomenon. According to the primary conclusions of the study by Geist and Tabler (2017), the distribution of housework between elderly spouses becomes a bit more equal when a wifes health deteriorates. In spite of that, in seniors, gender norms continue to play a greater role in housework allocation than health. Apart from the main conclusions, interesting ideas from the article are presented by observations that health matters more than gender roles in housework distribution only when it comes to severe physical limitations (Geist & Tabler, 2017). Other thoughts that deserve attention include negative correlations between housework inequality and psychological health.

Both authors of the mentioned study are qualified enough to be regarded as trustworthy researchers. Geist is an Associate Professor of Sociology working at the University of Utah, whereas Tabler is a medical sociologist and an Associate Professor at the University of Texas Rio Grande Valley (Geist & Tabler, 2017). The writing seems to be relatively unbiased since the researchers do not express opinions on the fairness of such housework distribution patterns.

The researchers mostly focus on the findings implications for healthcare practitioners collaboration with female geriatric patients. Also, they acknowledge the risks of biases resulting from the use of subjective health assessments in data collection and the potential effects of market influences on the final results. The authors conducted their research by analyzing statistical data from the Disability and Use of Time studies dated 2009 and 2013 (Geist & Tabler, 2017). All data units included in the sample were peculiar to married couples in which both spouses were sixty or older and had no paid jobs.

The article is drastically different from other sources since it focuses on the older population, which allows studying housework distribution in couples that are not part of the paid labor force anymore. Basically, working womens contributions to their families economic well-being are often more modest than those of men because of the difference in wage levels (Doan & Quadlin, 2018). This argument is sometimes used to justify the patterns of housework distribution in which wives are held responsible for the majority of housework tasks to compensate for earning less money. However, as the researchers state, such explanations do not apply to elderly couples, whereas beliefs based on gender norms can still be strong (Geist & Tabler, 2017). Therefore, apart from discussing health, the source contributes to current knowledge by demonstrating that gender continues to affect inequality in housework distribution even when differences between spouses in terms of working time and wages disappear.

Stereotypes and Societal Expectations as Contributors to the Housework Gender Gap

Gender stereotypes refer to sets of beliefs that link an individuals sex to specific strengths and weaknesses and the role that he or she should play in society. The evidence to prove that such beliefs significantly contribute to the gender gap in the allocation of housework can be found in modern research, including the survey experiment conducted by Doan and Quadlin (2018). Both authors specialize in sociological studies and fulfill the responsibilities of Assistant Professors of Sociology.

The writing seems to be objective, and the researchers acknowledge the risks of social desirability biases in participants responses and report measures to make all respondents give honest opinions. Doan and Quadlin (2018) conducted their research by asking over one thousand participants to view a vignette referring to a homosexual or a heterosexual married couple. After getting acquainted with information about each characters gender and income level, all participants were to distribute responsibility for twelve housework and childcare tasks between the spouses. Then, their responses were analyzed using regression analysis, and the effects of three different variables (income, masculinity/femininity, and gender) on housework distribution were examined.

Among the primary conclusions are Americans willingness to rely on relative income to decide which parent should leave the workforce in case of necessity. At the same time, the study demonstrates that heterosexual women are commonly expected to be responsible for more stereotypically female and non-gender-specific tasks compared to their partners (Doan & Quadlin, 2018). As for interesting ideas following from such conclusions, housework expectations are still largely dictated by a persons gender and can probably be traced back to essentialist views on gender.

The mentioned article contributes to the existing knowledge on the housework gender gap and the reasons why it still exists. It does that by demonstrating significant links between many time-consuming household chores, such as cooking, cleaning, shopping, or tasks involving physical caregiving, and expectations of heterosexual women. Unlike other articles, including that by Latshaw and Hale (2015), the source in question also studies peoples opinions on task distribution in same-sex couples, thus shedding light on the links between gender expression and task allocation. Particularly, it reports that in the absence of sex differences, participants try to determine peoples gender expression (feminine or masculine) to assign roles according to the traditional understandings of task distribution in couples.

There are other interesting studies to suggest that gender stereotypes do not completely disappear when it comes to task distribution in heterosexual couples. For instance, Latshaw and Hale (2015) support this thought by studying the experiences of American married couples that seem to challenge traditionalist views on task distribution. Latshaw is a Sociology Professor at Widener University, whereas her co-author is a young researcher working for the Government Services Group in Florida.

The researchers do not report taking a specific perspective but discuss the potential limitations of the utilized data sets in a thorough manner. Overall, the writing does not look biased, but the essential drawbacks of qualitative interviews, such as participants willingness to conform to social expectations or difficulties in interpretation, can be the potential sources of inaccuracies. The study being discussed was focused on American families with female breadwinners and male stay-at-home dads and consisted of two parts. Firstly, the researchers analyzed data coming from the American Time Use Survey to compare the patterns of time use in five types of families, including those with female breadwinners. Secondly, in-depth qualitative interviews were conducted to explore thirty stay-at-home fathers use of time. The primary conclusions based on the ATUS data suggest that unemployed stay-at-home fathers spend less time on housework but have more leisure time compared to unemployed stay-at-home mothers (Latshaw & Hale, 2015). Also, regarding conclusions based on qualitative findings, even in female breadwinner families, women often remain responsible for the majority of housework tasks after coming home from work (Latshaw & Hale, 2015).

Unlike other articles, this source shows the powerful influences of gender stereotypes on housework distribution by looking at families that seem to ignore the traditional gender roles. Interestingly, the researchers suppose that female breadwinners unwillingness to fully rely on their husbands help can be linked with stereotypes about mens inability to do housework properly (Latshaw & Hale, 2015). In many instances, interviewees wives criticized their housework skills and feared that they would simply forget to complete certain tasks (Latshaw & Hale, 2015). Additionally, it is possible that the need to receive praise and validation as women sometimes encourages female breadwinners to complete as many housework tasks as possible (Latshaw & Hale, 2015, p. 19). Thus, stereotypes about what men and women should do continue to affect heterosexual couples even if they give preference to the female breadwinner model.

Other high-quality studies highlight the great role of gendered social expectations and stereotypes in housework distribution. As an example, the study by Thébaud et al. (2019) concludes that there are no significant differences between female and male respondents perceptions of cleanliness and messiness. However, women are judged more harshly when the cleanliness of their rooms is evaluated, and they are expected to be more responsible for household chores than men (Thébaud et al., 2019). All three researchers are qualified sociologists working at universities in Australia and the United States.

The mentioned article appears to be relatively unbiased since the researchers review dissimilar theoretical assumptions about why women continue to spend more time on housework than men. Also, they consistently apply the scientific method to evaluate one interesting hypothesis  the difference in cleanliness standards resulting from peoples gender socialization. In terms of biases, the researchers discuss them only with reference to respondents and specific measures taken to maximize the chances of getting honest answers.

The experimental study in question was conducted with the help of the Amazon MTurk platform. Over six hundred participants from the United States were recruited online. Within the frame of the survey, all participants were supposed to view the photo of the room (either clean or messy) with a male or a female occupant and then rate its cleanliness and answer other questions about the occupants psychological and moral characteristics (Thébaud et al., 2019).

It is interesting that no links between the respondents gender and the perceptions of cleanliness were found, whereas the hypothetical occupants gender affected the results to a large extent. The respondents thought that the cleanroom occupied by Jennifer was messier than the same room occupied by John (Thébaud et al., 2019). This study is unique and different from other sources included in the review since it demonstrates strong gender-specific standards regarding room cleanliness. Thus, it implies that women may pay more attention to housework than men just to conform to expectations and not because they are naturally more sensitive to messiness.

Gender-Specific Preferences in Housework Division

According to another popular suggestion, the gender gap in housework exists because women and men have totally different preferences regarding household chores. This argument implies that women are naturally more likely than men to enjoy certain tasks. The experimental study by qualified sociology researchers from the United Kingdom and Germany criticizes this hypothesis by demonstrating no differences in preferences when it comes to housework (Auspurg et al., 2017). There is no clear evidence of biases or partiality during data selection and evaluation, and the researchers provide a substantial review of the previous findings in the field and the limitations of their research design.

To conduct the discussed study, the researchers asked adults in more than one thousand households to read different scenarios referring to approaches to sharing housework. Then, all participants were to evaluate their satisfaction with specific ways to distribute responsibility for household chores. The main conclusion reported by the researchers is that both female and male subjects prefer an equal distribution of housework between spouses (Auspurg et al., 2017). It is also interesting that the researchers disprove that the male breadwinner model is positively evaluated by both women and men. Instead, they report the absence of evidence to suggest that modern people of either sex prefer this model over other approaches.

The article contributes to the field by evaluating questionable arguments about womens informed choice and the sincere desire to be responsible for the majority of housework activities. In other articles, participants were expected to express their opinions by making decisions for other hypothetical people or reporting the actual state of things in their families. In contrast, Auspurg et al. (2017) encouraged participants to visualize themselves in dissimilar scenarios and make the best possible choices for themselves.

Although this study was conducted in the United Kingdom, its results are similar to the findings from less recent studies in the United States and Sweden. According to them, the unequal distribution of housework contributes to mental health problems in women (Auspurg et al., 2017). Thanks to this source, it becomes clear that the housework gap does not exist because women make a decision to be responsible for most of the tasks.

Conclusion

To sum it up, the housework gender gap still exists in the United States and other countries when it comes to dual-earner heterosexual couples. It can be associated with dissimilar factors, including social expectations of women and men. Despite legal and technological advancements, multiple couples still face issues when deciding to live and do household chores together. Although the main cause of the housework gap remains unknown, modern sociological research offers insights into factors that can reduce or increase gender inequality when it comes to household chores.

The findings from different peer-reviewed articles have strengthened my conviction that the problem of the household gender gap is more complex than it may seem and does not have one concise explanation at the moment. For instance, the cited sources suggest that housework division becomes a bit more equal when women can easily declare their marriage invalid, which has to deal with the distribution of power between the spouses. Apart from legal aspects, gender norms and gendered social expectations remain so strong that they affect housework distribution even more than health when it comes to elderly couples. Basically, most research focuses on the factors that have to deal with peoples understandings of gender. This includes the belief that housework is womens area of responsibility and that women should actively participate in housework to be considered good wives.

References

Auspurg, K., Iacovou, M., & Nicoletti, C. (2017). Housework share between partners: Experimental evidence on gender-specific preferences. Social Science Research, 66, 1-22.

Doan, L., & Quadlin, N. (2018). Partner characteristics and perceptions of responsibility for housework and child care. Journal of Marriage and Family, 81(1), 145-163.

Geist, C., & Tabler, J. (2017). Somebody has to DUST! Gender, health, and housework in older couples. Journal of Women & Aging, 30(1), 3848.

Genadek, K. R. (2018). Unilateral divorce and time allocation in the United States. Feminist Economics, 24(1), 63-87.

Latshaw, B. A., & Hale, S. I. (2015). The domestic handoff: Stay-at-home fathers time-use in female breadwinner families. Journal of Family Studies, 22(2), 1-24.

Thébaud, S., Kornrich, S., & Ruppanner, L. (2019). Good housekeeping, great expectations: Gender and housework norms. Sociological Methods & Research, 1-29.

According to Friedan & Anna (2001), gender refers to the character traits that are seen to be creating the distinction between a male and a female. The most discriminating traits under its disparity include the sexual dimensions as well as the social roles and the gender identity of an individual. The factual definition is traceable to a true sexologist referred to as Money John. He in his work was able to create the boundary between the biological sex and gender roles and confines. Feminist literature does embrace the same argument that was brought about then, to facilitate the realization of what they are out to achieve.

The segregation of the males and females is what gender is concerned with moreso when the leadership and organizational management are concerned. Gender roles are conjectural constructs within the social and humanitarian field and it is perceived as a set of norms that are within the definition of society and behavior. These are taken to be particular to a certain culture and are considered applicable to the specific gender individuals.

Gender offers two main divisions of the human race: the males and females. For one to be taken to be of either side the gender identity shall have to be realized and this is dependant on a particular set of social modes of identification.

Susan (2001) says Leadership on the other hand refers to a process of availing some relative sociological assistance to others for the sake of realizing a mutual goal in an organization. It is the process of organization that is related to human beings for the sole aim of having to realize an objective and target that is perceived to be beneficial to all the parties involved to the least. Leaders need some sought of an official authority to execute the responsibilities attached to leadership. If one lacks authority, then the leadership roles and realization of goals shall be hard to realize.

It is commonly taken that gender disparities do affect the leadership of an organization and community at large. If one is a man or a woman, the chances of having to be accorded the resources paramount to realization of the certain target is based on how people perceive the party can handle the challenge. The masculine gender is taken to be stout and strong to face the vicissitudes associated with leadership as opposed to the feminine gender hence resulting in the sidelining of women. It is from this perspective that gender is perceived to be influenced either positively or negatively by leadership and the choice of the leaders. Segregating women and the weaker sex in general while making proposals for the leaders to be is what led to the feminist movement that saw millions of women in the streets demanding the right of equality. The giving birth of the feminist movement was influenced by gender imbalances in literally many of the organizational leadership. Affirmative action where women are supposed to get a thirty percent share of all leadership posts is also traceable to the gender preferences of men at the expense of their counterparts. The majority of the worlds Chief executive officers are men because women who can face the challenge are countable. Many of them do not even think of themselves as the leaders who are holding the topmost organization posts but they prefer being the secretaries and other low standard workers. Women are comfortable when they are serving men who might be their bosses and very uneasy when they have men of great reputation under their service. Such ways of running away from the reality of equality do make the women be undermined even when chances of employee promotions arise. If all human races were of the same sex, leadership would be a common thing and people, who have the skill and expertise to steer the organization to profitability, could hold many of the top posts (Colvin 2010). Gender does affect such managerial roles to a very extreme extends.

According to Malcom (2008), Gender and leadership are related to the determinants of the male as well as the females variability about who does have the mandate of leading the others. Covey (2008) says that Leaders are the people who hold the executive offices within an entity. Since time immemorial, gender has precluded the female counterparts from being leaders in organizations. Due to such, the males have been for a long time unquestionable about the leadership roles that they do play.

From Simone & Parshley (1989), the low number of women as leaders is related to the initial discrimination of girls as far as the schools are concerned at the expense of men. The equal chance that could have enabled the women to gain the same qualifications academically hence challenging men as far as leadership is concerned was denied right from below due to the underrating of a baby girl when she too needed the chance.

Various other reasons are related to why there is a small portion of women as leaders. From Millet (2000), Nuclear family initial socialization of the women deters their aspirations in the industrial and job market. Ladies are natured ever since they are young on being submissive as well as passive and if possible, they should avoid competing with men. Their reticence to jeopardy amongst other variables that the society defines as being related to feminine more than masculine is what does facilitate their segregation and misappropriation of posts (Moustakas,1991). If the culture did allow them to face men and rub shoulders as they formulated policies and strategic plans for a particular goal, the high cases of gender imbalance in leadership could not be prevailing. Thus, the cultural and communal definitions of role boundaries should be avoided at all costs.

Traditional stereotypes of women as being less suited for the leadership roles is also one of the reasons why gender has been linked to leadership( Murphy, Hildebrandt &Thomas( 1997). It has been investigated and found that people think the most successful leaders are linked to masculine characteristics yet for one to be practical enough as a leader, embracing both the male and female traits is reasonable. A good leader needs to be task-oriented as an example and should too have a peoples bother, which is a feminine trait. Stereotypes give a man a higher chance of being preferred as opposed to a woman who possesses similar qualifications when they are contesting for a leadership post.

It is common from all sides that for a woman to make it into a leadership role and position, she needs to be able to fight with the socialization at childhood and the peoples perception of the males as the preferred leaders.

Womens discrimination during the promotions, selection, and recruitment decisions by the personnel in charge and the biological clock that is highly influenced by gender perspectives are the other reasons as to why leadership about sex is not even (Marcuse & Kellner, 1991).

The leadership of the organizations is more tinted by gender issues because it, is one of the logical points of view where programs to be implemented are based (Hooks and Shapiro, 2000). The majority of the social needs in an organization are related to gender reason being it places all the employees in their rightful position. Gender-based led organizations do expose to the whole world the ills and bottlenecks that women have been exposed to at the expense of men as they tried to go up the corporate ladders. Leave alone being pulled back by the stereotypes, the weaker sex is ignored wherever they forward their applications for leadership roles against other applicants, which are masculine.

According to Friedan and Anna (2001), Leadership is the act of influencing the human resources to get them to do things that are paramount to the productivity of the organization with quality and accepted standards; it does not speculate the most probable gender to do so. Due to the traditional points of view of mens roles and womens chores, gender has been dragged into it to the benefit of men at the expense of feminine characters. Leadership should be involving visionaries and the effort of ensuring the human resources have what it takes to handle the jobs they do effectively with good communication and charisma building. Competence of the staff is what can make them hold the positions available and not the gender, which they belong (Georgia & Rita,1996).

References

Colvin, G 2010, Talent Is Overrated: What Really Separates World-Class Performers from Everybody Else, Portfolio Trade, Sydney.

Covey, M 2008, The SPEED of Trust: The One Thing That Changes Everything, Free Press, SYDNEY.

Friedan, B &Anna, Q 2001, The Feminine Mystique. W. W. Norton & Company, ND.

Georgia, D &Rita, K 1996, Gender Power, Leadership, and Governance, University of Michigan Press. New York.

Hooks, B &Shapiro, P 2000, Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center, South End, NY.

Marcuse, H & Kellner, D 1991, One-Dimensional Man: Studies in the Ideology of Advanced Industrial Society. Beacon Press.Uk.

Malcom, G 2008, Outliers: The Story of Success, Little, Brown and Company,NY.

Millet, K 2000, Sexual Politics, University of Illinois Press, Illinois.

Murphy, A., Hildebrandt, W., &Thomas, P 1997, Effective Business Communications, McGraw-Hill/Irwin, UK.

Moustakas, C 1990, Heuristic Research: Design, Methodology, and Applications, Sage, NY.

Simone, B &Parshley, M 1989, The Second Sex, Vintage, Uk.

Susan, C 2001, The Impact of Women in Public Office, Indiana University Press, NJ.

Introduction

Males and females are different from both biological and psychological perspectives. Despite numerous exceptions, men are generally physically stronger and more competitive, while women are kinder and more creative. Unfortunately, these highly subjective ideas have led to gender inequality, a critical and complex issue affecting everyone. Without any doubt, females should not be inferior to males in the modern world, even though it was acceptable in the past, as gender inequality adversely influences many aspects ranging from culture to the global economy. Nevertheless, many women still suffer from the problem in the workplace or at home, and the considerable progress towards gender equality and womens empowerment makes people blind.

Main body

To begin with, it is crucial to understand where the problem begins before trying to eliminate it. On the one hand, many females would state that they unconsciously aspired in their childhood to find a loving boyfriend, get married, and have children. On the other hand, males would say that they wanted to embark on different adventures, earn money, be successful, and enjoy themselves. Undoubtedly, the difference between the childhood dreams of boys and the ones of girls is enormous. The reason for it is the way children are educated in most societies. For example, boys are taught to hide their emotions, be brave, and concentrate on success by their teachers, parents, and the media. What is more, many people disregard the males, who are not masculine, which means competitive, confident, rational, and disciplined. In contrast, feminine means dependent, compassionate, kind, tender, and sensitive. Undoubtedly, social attitudes towards masculinity and femininity largely contribute to gender inequality, and it is the main obstacle for women struggling for equality.

Nevertheless, numerous individuals are convinced that campaigns for womens rights and gender equality in the Western world are irrelevant in 2020. Undoubtedly, the problem is less critical nowadays than it used to be in the past. For instance, most women do not only take care of children, cook, and keep home clean. They more often appear among top managers of big corporations or political leaders and have the same opportunity as men to obtain high-quality education or excellent patient care. Furthermore, public figures can face severe criticism for making sexist comments on social media or lose their jobs for unconscious gender-biased remarks. Gender inequality in the labor force and in the family highlights increasing trends toward gender equality, and the persistence of inequality as the form of stratification adapts over time in changing social and economic conditions (Scarborough and Risman 9). However, the issue still exists, and the recent progress prevents many individuals from realizing its urgency.

In the workplace, gender inequality is easily noticeable, as there is much data over the issue. Many scholars research it, and the results of their studies in most cases reveal that females face unfair treatment while searching for a job or already working. For example, full-time working women earn only about 80% of what men make, and they remain underrepresented in the highest-paying occupations (Scarborough and Risman 5). It is impossible to ignore such information, as millions of females, despite their profound knowledge and remarkable skills, still struggle to receive a reasonable salary or get the position they truly deserve. Sometimes recruiters may indirectly discriminate against women because of different stereotypes. Sometimes females do not even try to get a job with the fear of being rejected due to their gender. Although many people in the Western world have already realized the importance of gender equality in the workplace, many years will likely pass until women receive the same treatment as men.

At home, gender inequality can often be even more evident than at work for ordinary people. Although, they do not pay attention to it but discuss the significant shift, which has occurred through the last years and whose results are primarily overestimated. Fortunately, women no longer have to invest all their time in caring for children or doing household chores, but these responsibilities remain theirs. According to Scarborough and Risman, fathers have started to perform childcare but only in tandem with mothers, who are responsible for routine tasks such as cooking or hygiene (1). Besides, regarding housework, men tend to occupy themselves with periodic do-it-yourself projects, while women do weekly cleaning (Scarborough and Risman 1). Such data proves that males still do less childcare and housework compared to women. Besides, when people hear about domestic violence, women are victims of their partners in most cases. The reason is not that men are physically stronger but that they put into action the unreasonable idea of being superior to women, which is encouraged by social attitudes towards masculinity and femininity.

Conclusion

In conclusion, gender inequality is a serious issue, which affects everyone. It starts with the stereotype of males superiority and turns into numerous problems. Despite having made a big step towards gender equality, humanity still faces the issue regularly, as it persists in the workplace and at home. Millions of women struggle to get different positions, receive a reasonable salary, or share household chores and childcare with their partners. Undoubtedly, the problem will persist unless social attitudes change.

Work Cited

Scarborough, William J., and Barbara J. Risman. Changes in the Gender Structure: Inequality at the Individual, Interactional, and Macro Dimensions. Sociology Compass, vol. 11, no. 10, 2017, pp. 1-16.

Introduction

There are many types of inequalities evoking the concerns of scholars, and one of them is related to gender. Its investigation has shown that it still exists in the present-day society while it has definitely changed its form (Amis et al. 2018). The perceived male and female occupations play a significant role in the lives of people affecting their decisions not in favor of such considerations as natural preferences and other psychological factors. Therefore, this paper aims to present the current status of the issue while evaluating the importance of ideologies and institutions, masculine and feminine norms, racialization of gender, and sexism deriving from it.

The Role of Ideologies and Institutions in Gender Inequality

The effects of institutions on the phenomenon of reproducing and maintaining gender inequality can be seen in the organizational context. The researchers claim that the traditional approach to this topic implied the division of workers on the basis of this characteristic (Amis et al. 2018). Thus, for example, the first studies on management emphasized only women with exceptional educational qualifications and talent, whereas men were not limited in this regard (Amis et al. 2018:1138). The shift in the attitudes from the subordinate position for women to the explanation of differences by preferences did not improve the situation (Amis et al. 2018). Therefore, such institutions as companies still present a threat to this disadvantaged population group.

Another factor affecting the situation with gender inequality is the presence of ideologies. They can be seen in education and, more specifically, in the choices, beliefs, and subject preferences of students (van der Vleuten et al. 2016). However, the researchers claim that the outcome of this areas perception through the lens of gender inequality is more severe for boys rather than for their female classmates (van der Vleuten et al. 2016). Thus, girls tend to shape beliefs regarding their competencies, whereas male students try to avoid the common feminine careers such as teaching (van der Vleuten et al. 2016). In this way, gender ideology plays a significant role in the professional lives of people and maintains existing inequality.

Contemporary Norms and Traits Associated with Masculinity and Femininity

There is a number of contemporary norms, which are usually associated with the socially constructed traits of masculinity and femininity. They are connected to the gender stereotype theory, according to which men and women are perceived as more masculine and more feminine, respectively (Kachel, Steffens, and Niedlich 2016). These norms can be measured with the help of various tools, and one of them is the Traditional Masculinity-Femininity (TMF scale) (Kachel et al. 2016). In this way, the self-ascribed qualities of an individual can define his position on the scale and, therefore, the degree of masculinity and femininity.

The contemporary norms included in such assessment instruments represent the two extremes. From this perspective, men are supposed to be independent in their actions, competent in the sphere they are engaged in, and competitive (Kachel et al. 2016). Hence, their description corresponds to the image of a perfect employee or manager. As for women, they are believed to possess such characteristics as warmth, a tendency for communion, and expressiveness (Kachel et al. 2016). From this point of view, females are seen as the people oriented on others and relationships with them.

Institutions Supporting the Norms and Traits

The prevalence of allegedly masculine or feminine traits in a person is contrasted by contemporary social norms and defines the attitudes of other people. This situation is complicated by the support they receive from specific institutions, such as schools or businesses. As can be seen from the organizational perceptions, the typical masculine traits mentioned above are crucial for ones career (Amis et al. 2018). Due to their seeming importance for professional growth, women are blamed for not having such qualities as assertiveness (Amis et al. 2018). As a result, the present-day companies intend to change people instead of allowing them to be themselves and appreciating the significance of communion during negotiations.

Another example of institutions instilling their norms in people is schools and other educational facilities. They attempt to guide their students on the grounds of what occupations correspond to men or women instead of providing support in the development of their unique personalities (van der Vleuten et al. 2016). As a result, male students might select the wrong occupations or risk not being accepted in the workplace as valuable specialists since the preference will be given to their female peers (van der Vleuten et al. 2016). This policy allows including them in the list of entities, which maintain the common social norms in terms of gender.

Racialization of Masculinity and Femininity in the US

The dominant notions of masculinity and femininity in the United States are primarily racialized through the preferences of people regarding their partners. The studies devoted to this subject demonstrated the reproduction of gender racial hierarchies by same-sex daters. Thus, the researchers proved that Asian, Latino, and Black population groups are more likely to select white partners than representatives of their communities (Rafalow, Feliciano, and Robnett 2017). What is more important, the white masculinity plays a decisive role in the process of partner selection (Rafalow et al. 2017). This outcome is significantly affected by the norms related to masculine traits, and this consideration is as vital for people as social status (Rafalow et al. 2017). It allows concluding on the intersection of perceived gender norms and race.

The Support for Sexism and Racism

The phenomenon of intersecting racial and gender characteristics contributes to maintaining both sexism and racism in the country. It can be examined through the lens of discrimination experienced by teenagers. The study conducted by Roberts, Tamene, and Orta (2018) showed that 40.1% of participants experienced issues resulting from their race and gender, and 93% of them faced dating violence based on the same reasons (p. 257). From this perspective, Black females represent the most vulnerable population group (Roberts et al.). Moreover, the cases of violence against them evoke a wider public resonance in the case if an abuser is a Black male (Roberts et al.). Taking into consideration the results regarding the role of gender and race in interactions with others, it can be concluded that the attitudes of people towards this combination maintain sexism and racism in the country.

Conclusion

To summarize, the situation with gender inequalities in American society presents a challenge for specialists studying this phenomenon. Their initiative aimed at eliminating these issues meet resistance from the majority of educational facilities and businesses. The formers ideology in this respect is connected to the existence of typical male or female jobs. In turn, the latters position is based on the preference of men as managers due to the presence of such qualities as assertiveness, independence, and competitiveness. This situation leads to changes in peoples perceptions and maintains sexism and racism in the country. When complemented by racialization of gender reflected in the seeming attractiveness of white men compared to their peers from other ethnic groups, it remains one of the leading social problems of the United States.

References

Amis, John M., Kamal A. Munir, Thomas B. Lawrence, Paul Hirsch, and Anita McGahan. 2018. Inequality, Institutions and Organizations. Organization Studies 39(9): 1131-1152.

Kachel, Sven, Melanie C. Steffens, and Claudia Niedlich. 2016. Traditional Masculinity and Femininity: Validation of a New Scale Assessing Gender Roles. Frontiers in Psychology 7.

Rafalow, Matthew H., Cynthia Feliciano, and Belinda Robnett. 2017. Racialized Femininity and Masculinity in the Preferences of Online Same-Sex Daters. Social Currents 4 (4): 306-321.

Roberts, Lynn, Mahader Tamene, and Olivia R. Orta. 2018. The Intersectionality of Racial and Gender Discrimination Among Teens Exposed to Dating Violence. Ethnicity & Disease 28 (Suppl 1): 253-260.

Van der Vleuten, Maaike, Eva Jaspers, Ineke Maas, and Tanja van der Lippe. 2016. Boys and Girls Educational Choices in Secondary Education. The Role of Gender Ideology. Educational Studies 42 (2): 181-200.

The Role of Gender in the Employment, Career Perception and Research Performance of Recent PhD Graduates from Dutch Universities

Abstract

Recent decades have seen a sharp increase in the number of female PhD graduates in the Netherlands. Currently, the share of females among newly graduated PhDs is almost on par with that of males. A considerable body of scientific studies has investigated the role of gender in the academic workplace. However, the role of gender in the careers of all PhD graduates, including those outside academia, has been studied less.

In this study, we investigate gender differences in type of job, occupation, career perception and research performance of recent PhDs. The study is based on a survey of persons who obtained a PhD from one of five Dutch universities between 2008 and early 2012. We show that gender differences in post-PhD careers are non-existent in some aspects studied, but there are small differences in other aspects, such as sector of employment, type of contract, involvement in teaching and management, and career perception. In contrast, male and female PhDs differ sharply on two factors. The first is field of PhD, females being heavily underrepresented in engineering and the natural sciences.

The second is part-time employment, females being much more likely to work part-time than males, especially if they work in the Netherlands. In later career stages, the combination of the small and large differences can be presumed to affect the career progression of female PhDs through cumulative disadvantage.

Annotation of the Article

Summary

The number of women graduating with higher education, especially earning a doctoral (PHD) degree has been on the rise in the Netherlands. Waaijer et al., (2016) seek to understand the role of gender in the occupations of all PhD graduates, plus those outside the academic world. Specifically the researchers investigate gender disparity in type of occupation, job, career observation and research performance of the recently awarded PhDs.

Data

Waaijer et al., (2016) surveyed a sample of 2,193 PhD graduates from top universities between April 2008 and March 2009. They sent emails and used LinkedIn to contact the potential. respondents.

Findings

The researchers find that some aspects in post-PhD careers do not show gender differences, however there are small differences in other parts, such as type of contract, sector of employment, career perception, and involvement in teaching and management. Also, contrastingly the results show sharp differences between male and female PhDs. One, female PHDs are very much underrepresented in technical fields of engineering and natural sciences. Two, females are more likely to work part-time than males.

Connection to Sociology and Improved Understanding of Sociology

Sociology assigns women particular roles that they are required to undertake. Traditionally, division of labor is organized according to gender roles and as some roles are considered best performed by women and others are left for men. Therefore, it is expected that roles performed by men and women will not be the same. Therefore, sociology can explain that women encounter various gender-based problems at the place of work.

The article has captured a concept of inequality that sociologists argue that there is gender inequality because of different roles assigned by society. Also, gender functions at every level of communal life and is entrenched in how work is structured. States that gender is not just an element that people carry with them to the workplace, but is entrenched into the place of work itself. Regardless of the huge headway women globally have made in chasing careers, there remain major impediments that challenge women in the workplace. The upper limit and work-related prejudice against women mirror the constraints on women as they endeavor to enter and rise through the ranks of the labor force.

Gender Equality in Employment: The Experience of Kazakhstan

Abstract

No country in the world has achieved full gender equality in labor relations. Kazakhstan has just begun a long way of creating legislative and organizational conditions for equality in the workplace. It is obvious that to create a more equal, gender-sensitive society, a state will require profound changes in perceptions, attitudes, stereotypes, and laws. Facilitating such changes is justified not only from a moral but also from an economic point of view.

Today, the requirements for women in society in the performance of labor functions are the same as for men. However, in family and domestic relations, there is a persistence of the gender stereotype of male privileges. There is no change in sectorial gender segregation. Women still make up more than 70% of employees in the health, education, and social services sectors, while womens representation in the financial and public sectors is slightly more than half. Traditionally, these types of sectors are less profitable compared to male industries, such as construction, oil and gas, mining, and transport. The level of attracting female labor in innovative, infrastructural, and high-tech projects and programs is very low.

The issue of expanding the economic opportunities of rural women, who are denied access to public and state resources and services, remains relevant. In the article, we show the possibilities for ensuring equal employment of men and women in Kazakhstan. The proposals on the improvement of legislation on labor protection and labor conditions and improvement of working conditions are presented, and the possibilities of introducing and expanding flexible forms of employment are considered. Conclusions are drawn on the revision of the list of works prohibiting the use of female labor and ensuring that women have access to types of work that do not pose a danger to womens health due to their automation, technologization, and informatization.

Annotation of the Article

Summary

Kazakhstan has been implementing a legal framework and implementing organizational requirements to promote equality at the workplace. Apart from the regulatory framework, Buribayev and Khamzina (2019) state that creating a more equal and gender-sensitive culture must be supported by deep changes in peoples perceptions, attitudes, and stereotypes. Even though women have been employed in some sectors of the economy, other key sectors including oil and gas, construction, transport and mining are male dominated. Buribayev and Khamzina (2019) seek to show that equality can be realized among men and women across all sectors of the economy.

Data

The researchers did not collect any data for the research study. The researched relied on overall scientific methods.

Findings

The study findings indicate that women are mainly employed in sectors of the economy regarded as less profitable. However, men dominate employment in key industries such as construction, oil and gas, mining, and transport. The country has, therefore, not realized equal employment across all sectors of the economy.

Connection to Sociology and Improved Understanding of Sociology

Even though women are succeeding at work, they cannot be at the same level as men. Sociology describes specific gender roles for women that restrict their ability to be equal to men at the place of work. There exist inequalities of work in society as a result of conflict between family and career, gender inequality, structural barriers, social exclusion, such as psychological stereotyping as well as gendered socialization. Sociology assigns women particular roles that they are required to undertake. Traditionally, division of labor is organized according to gender roles and as some roles are considered best performed by women and others are left for men.

Therefore, it is expected that roles performed by men and women will not be the same. Therefore, sociology can explain that women encounter various gender-based problems at the place of work. The article has captured a concept of inequality that sociologists argue that there is gender inequality because of different roles assigned by society. Also, gender functions at every level of communal life and is entrenched in how work is structured.

States that gender is not just an element that people carry with them to the workplace, but is entrenched into the place of work itself. Regardless of the huge headway women globally have made in chasing careers, there remain major impediments that challenge women in the workplace. The upper limit and work-related prejudice against women mirror the constraints on women as they endeavor to enter and rise through the ranks of the labor force.

Gender Still Matters: Effects of Workplace Discrimination on Employment Schedules of Young Professionals

Abstract

The influx of women into the legal profession has significantly changed the landscape of legal practice. Women lawyers today no longer face the challenges to entering the legal profession they encountered thirty years ago. However, despite these advancements, research continues to demonstrate that there are still gender-based issues women have to face in the legal workplace. Among these issues to date are the difficulties in combining responsibilities of work with responsibilities of families and children that underpin womens employment and earning disadvantages. Using survey data from a national representative U.S. panel study of lawyers, we examine how work schedules, comparing full-time to part-time work, vary by personal disposition and workplace characteristics.

Drawing from prominent explanations of gender inequality in the legal profession, we focus on inquiries of commitment to work, performance, ideal worker expectations, practice settings, and job satisfaction among dimensions of workplace characteristics and examine their effects on women and men lawyers work schedules. Logistic regression results show that work schedules significantly vary by gender, parental role, and experience of workplace discrimination. We find that, although all parents experience types of discrimination, there are still major differences in work schedules between mothers and fathers. Our study adds to the gender debate of employment and organizations by examining quantitatively experiences of workplace discrimination.

Annotated Bibliography

Summary

Women today do not face serious challenges in entering the legal profession. However, women lawyers still encounter various gender-based problems at the place of work. Plickert and Sterling (2017) examine how work schedules (full-time or part-time), differ by personality and workplace attributes.

The article focuses mainly focuses on commitment to work, ideal worker expectations, practice settings, performance, and job satisfaction among dimensions of workplace characteristics and examine their effects on women and men lawyers work schedules.

Data

The researchers used survey data from a nationally representative U.S. panel study of lawyers. The first sample of 5000 U.S. women and men lawyers was randomly selected and interviewed particularly in the years 2002 and 2007.

Findings

Findings from the survey reveal that there is a huge variation in the work schedules, parental role, and experience of workplace discrimination. There exist key dissimilarities in work schedules between mothers and fathers.

The findings are consistent with the researchers statement that women lawyers still grapple with numerous gender-based problems at the place of work.

Connection to Sociology and Improved Understanding of Sociology

Sociology assigns women particular roles that they are required to undertake. Traditionally, division of labor is organized according to gender roles and as some roles are considered best performed by women and others are left for men. Therefore, it is expected that roles performed by men and women will not be the same. Therefore, sociology can explain the findings of Plickert and Sterling (2017) that women encounter various gender-based problems at the place of work. The article has captured a concept of inequality that sociologists argue that there is gender inequality because of different roles assigned by society.

Also, gender functions at every level of communal life and is entrenched in how work is structured. States that gender is not just an element that people carry with them to the workplace, but is entrenched into the place of work itself. Regardless of the huge headway women globally have made in chasing careers, there remain major impediments that challenge women in the workplace. The upper limit and work-related prejudice against women mirror the constraints on women as they endeavor to enter and rise through the ranks of the labor force.

References

Cathelijn, Waaijer1., Hans, Sonneveld., Simone, Buitendijk., Cornelis, van Bochove1., Inge, van der Weijden. The Role of Gender in the Employment, Career Perception and Research Performance of Recent PhD Graduates from Dutch Universities. PLoS ONE, 2016, vol. 11, no. 10: e0164784.

Yermek, Buribayev and Zhanna, Khamzina. Gender equality in employment: The experience of Kazakhstan. International Journal of Discrimination and the Law, 2019, vol.19, no. 2, pp.110-124.

Plickert, Gabriele and Sterling, Joyce. Gender Still Matters: Effects of Workplace Discrimination on Employment Schedules of Young Professionals. Open Access Journal, 2017, vol.6, no. 4, pp.1-22.

A research question that can be addressed by a two-way factorial ANOVA is as follows: Is there an interaction between a persons gender and their level of education that results in differences in the levels of depression between different groups?

A factorial ANOVA would be an appropriate analytical method for this research question because it allows for comparing the means of different groups into which the sample is split by several independent variables (two variables, in this case), as well as by combinations of levels of these independent variables (Warner, 2013).

There will be two predictor variables. The first one, gender, will be nominal, will describe a participants gender, and will have two levels (e.g., 1 = male, 2 = female). The second one, education, will be ordinal and will reflect the level of education one has attained. It can have four levels:

1. no high school diploma;
2. a high school diploma, no college;
3. a high school diploma and some college, no college degree;
4. at least an undergraduate degree.

The outcome variable will assess the levels of depression. It needs to be quantitative (Warner, 2013). Its values can range, for instance, from 0 (no depression) to 100 (extremely high level of depression).

The null hypothesis for the first main effect will state that there is no statistically significant difference in the levels of depression between different gender groups. The null hypothesis for the second main effect will assert that there are no statistically significant differences in the levels of depression between different education groups. The null hypothesis for the interaction will state that there are no statistically significant differences in the levels of depression between different gender × education groups.

It is expected that females will have more severe depression than males (Parker & Brotchie, 2010); that people with higher levels of education will have lower levels of depression than those with lower levels of education (Bjelland et al., 2008); and that males with the highest levels of education will have the lowest levels of depression.

A question that can be addressed by a one-way repeated measures ANOVA is as follows: Does a psychological intervention aimed at lowering levels of depression has a significant, long-lasting effect?

The within-subject factor will be the time. The levels of this variable may be as follows: 1 = one day before the beginning of the intervention, 2 = one day after the end of the intervention, 3 = one month after the end of the intervention, 4 = three months after the end of the intervention.

The outcome variable will be the levels of depression of participants. It needs to be measured using a quantitative variable (Warner, 2013). It is possible to use e.g. a scale ranging from 0 to 100, where 0 indicates no signs of depression in a participant, and 100 reflects an extremely high level of depression.

It is expected that the levels of depression will be the highest one day after the end of the intervention, then they will become lower one month after the end of the intervention, and then will go down, even more, three months after the end of the intervention. However, it is also expected that the levels of depression as measured three months after the end of the intervention will be lower than those identified one day before the beginning of the intervention.

A one-way repeated measures ANOVA will be appropriate for such a research question because this test allows for comparing the means of a variable of the same sample when these means were measured in different situations (Field, 2013). In this example, the means of the same variable (levels of depression) will be measured in different situations (according to their temporal disposition concerning the psychological intervention) to assess whether the intervention had a long-lasting effect.

References

Field, A. (2013). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS Statistics (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

Warner, R. M. (2013). Applied statistics: From bivariate through multivariate techniques (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

Bjelland, I., Krokstad, S., Mykletun, A., Dahl, A. A., Tell, G. S., & Tambs, K. (2008). Does a higher educational level protect against anxiety and depression? The HUNT study. Social Science & Medicine, 66(6), 1334-1345. Web.

Parker, G., & Brotchie, H. (2010). Gender differences in depression. International Review of Psychiatry, 22(5), 429-436.

Warner, R. M. (2013). Applied statistics: From bivariate through multivariate techniques (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

Trifles is an early example of a feminist drama, written by Susan Glaspell in 1916. The drama revolves around the murder of John Wright, a farmer described by his peers as an honest and hard-working man. The man was found in his house, strangled with a string. His wife, Mrs. Minnie Wright, is suspected of murder. The main characters of the drama include George Henderson, who is the county attorney charged with investigating the crime, Henry Peters  the sheriff, Mrs. Peters  his wife, and Mrs. Hale  the neighbor of the Wrights.

The four principal characters investigate the scene of the crime, but the investigation itself does not serve as the main theme of the drama. The play is dedicated to depicting the untold story of the domestic suffering of Mrs. Minnie Wright. In the end, we learn that she is the one responsible for the murder. However, she is painted in a sympathetic light  as a victim of her husbands misogyny and domestic abuse. Trifles is a challenge to the misogynistic tendencies of the time the play was written in.

Character development in trifles

There are four principle characters in the play  two men and two women. As it is a staple in many feminist dramas, the play is focused on the women. They are portrayed as deep, complex and multi-layered characters. The men, in contrast, are painted as shallow, two-dimensional characters who are there to represent the ideas that the playwright opposes, rather than actual characters. In order to see this, let us examine the characters one by one.

 Mrs. Hale. This character represents the archetype of a Strong woman. She is not afraid to call men out and defend Mrs. Wright from accusations of being a bad housekeeper. Although, she does it subtly, without being aggressive or causing a direct confrontation. Still, there is more to the character than simply being a foil for the male antagonists. Mrs. Hale feels guilty about not visiting Mrs. Wright while being fully aware of how unhappy and shallow her life was after the marriage. The woman believes that she should have done so if only to alleviate her neighbors loneliness. Her line about how women should band together is the strongest feminist message in the entire play. She challenges the male-dominated society by hiding the bird within her pocket, thus saving Mrs. Wright by removing this critical piece of evidence.

 Mrs. Peters. She is the character that underwent the most character development throughout the entire play. She starts off as a typical Good housewife. Mrs. Hale never opposes men and constantly apologizes for their misgivings. However, there is more to her than meets the eye. As she and Mrs. Peters investigate the room, they find a dead canary in a handkerchief, which was choked with a wire. The realization came quick  the death of the canary was what triggered Mrs. Wright to do what she did. Out of pity for her, Mrs. Peters breaks the facade of a good housewife and attempts to hide the canary. Mrs. Hale quickly catches up to the idea. Mrs. Peters protest is a more silent one, and it has buildup, which makes it more powerful.

 Mr. Henderson. At first, he seems like an amicable character  polite and handsome, he could have qualified for the role of the main hero in a detective movie. At first, he even seems like the less misogynistic kind of character, even admitting that they would be nowhere without women. However, the sympathy for the character ends the moment he comments about the towels. He shows disdain towards anything that has to do with the household, thus finally revealing his nature of a stereotypical misogynistic male.

 Mr. Peters. This is possibly the flattest and one-dimensional character within the entire play. His purpose, apparently, is to voice low-key misogyny and to serve as Mr. Hendersons yes-man. He follows the attorney around like a dog and does not contribute much to the investigation. His presence is rather pointless to the story, and removing him from the script entirely would not have changed much. Naturally, neither of the two male characters receive any character development throughout the story.

A comparison between a character from the play and myself

I found Mrs. Peters to be the character I can relate to the most. Although the male dominance is a lot less prevalent in modern society than it was a hundred years ago, the gender roles and society expectations are still present. I comply with them, often, in order to avoid trouble and constant lectures from my parents or strangers about what I should and should not do. However, it ticks me off sometimes, especially when I am being forced into compliance with a gender role. I can sympathize with Mrs. Peters and her actions. It is what I would have done in her place. However, unlike her, I would not allow others to thread on me as much as she did.

If I were to direct the play&

If I were to direct the play based on Trifles, I would have re-written parts of the script about the male characters. I believe it is wrong to portray the men as stereotypical and shallow creatures full of misogyny alone, without any additional traits, as it diminishes the depth of female characters. It implies that women can only show depth and complexity when the opposition is made out of straw and fetch. I would either remove Mr. Peters altogether or write him into a proper character.

The focus, the pivotal point of my play would be the scene with the canary. It has to look powerful yet subtle at the same time. I would dispense with the dramatic cage rattling and have Mrs. Peters quietly hide the bird herself, with Mrs. Hale noticing and giving a silent nod of approval. I think it would give the scene more power, through subtlety.

Throughout the known history of much of the world, including the regions where the English language originated and developed, society has been dominated and controlled by the patriarchal rule. The resulting product of the Language represents this dominance by means of categorizing the realities of society. Male references in everyday speech dominate language usage simply because males have historically dominated society and, to a large extent, still do.

Sexist language can be deliberate, concealed, or controlled. The deliberate use of obvious and overtly derogatory sexist terminology is generally considered discriminatory and is patently unfair treatment of women as compared to men. Controlled sexism is subtle and more usually not intended to be disparaging or harmful. This type of sexist language is integrated into societys everyday speech, is considered to be normal, and is not recognized by most people as the unfair or unequal treatment of women it is. People may use sexist language simply because the use is habitual, and they find it hard to alter terms or phrases used most or all of their lives. Additionally, people are continually exposed to sexist terms in the spoken and written language. To not disrupt a normal, rhythmic, and understandable conversation, people use these terms without a thought of inappropriateness. Conversational sexism is learned at an early stage, from the time a child is learning to speak (Parks & Roberton, 1998).

Though women tend to use fewer gender-specific pronouns, both males and females use similar references to gender when describing occupations, another study discovered. According to the study, stereotypes are equally prevalent in both male and female college students vernacular when describing a persons professional title. They typically refer to a college professor with the correct feminine or masculine pronoun, but when describing a nurse or corporate executive, revert back to stereotypical language usage, feminine for nurse and masculine for the executive. This matched other studies that also reported occupational stereotyping is frequently associated with pronoun use that is of gender bias (McMinn, Troyer, Hannum & Foster, 1991).

The sexist language of society represents the actions, beliefs, and characteristics of males as if they are the model for humans representing all people, both male, and female. Women are not only excluded, they are invisible in terms of language usage. The status of women in language often depends on or is derived from the independent status representing men. By consigning women to a subordinate, dependent standing, the sexism ingrained in language precludes the representation of men and women as dissimilar yet equal persons. One example of this entails pairs of terms that obviously restrict referencing of gender, with the term describing females usually encompassing the less complimentary meaning of the pair. The words master and mistress are a typical example of this language pairing. Master refers to host, the feminine version mistress refers to hostess. Master also means the dominant one in a relationship, and mistress can also mean the mans lover outside of his marriage, a negative connotation. The word mistress is dependent on there being a man involved who is the dominant one in the relationship. Governor is a term referring to an individual who has been chosen above all others to rule over or to govern a state, but the term governess generally refers to a maid or caretaker of children. Professional is a word that, when used to describe a man, means a highly qualified, well educated, and/or well-paid person. (Liu, 2005).

When someone says, hes a professional, the meaning is generally interpreted as a man who is a lawyer, doctor, or football player, for example. By contrast, when someone says, shes a professional, most interpret the meaning as a woman who makes her living as a prostitute. The word tramp, when directed at a woman, also has the same meaning, but when applied to a man, it refers to a homeless person that travels around and is not steadily employed. The phrase the man on the street refers to an ordinary guy, but the woman on the street refers to, again, a prostitute. A shrew is a small animal that can become ill-tempered when provoked. The dictionary defines a shrew as an animal or as an ill-tempered woman. The word shrewd is an adaptation of the word shrew. This word is commonly used in a phrase such as hes shrewd in his business dealings. Its meaning for men has evolved in language as being quite different than for women. The use of sexist terms to describe and usually demean females is typical in the English language. Another good example is schoolchildren who have many degrading terms of a sexual nature in which to describe females, but there are much fewer to describe males. American English has no fewer than 220 words for a sexually promiscuous woman, but only twenty for sexually promiscuous men (Liu, 2005).

The English language illustrates the implied inferiority of women in society, such as in the titles Mrs. and Miss. It is unimportant for men to be identified as married or not as their status does not change in either case. When a woman is identified as Mrs., they now belong to a man and are deemed more important to society, albeit in a subordinate role. Though in recent years this particular type of labeling has all but disappeared, the historical significance is relevant as the subordination of women as identified in the Mrs. and Miss categorizations remain apparent in language usages. The stereotypical imagery in these types of words is rooted in the generalized and simplified behaviors of men and women as seen through the eyes of a patriarchal based society. The images portrayed in language are inaccurate and impede how the evolving functions of women are typically characterized by both males and females.

Men are seldom portrayed through language by what relationship they have with women. Men are rarely described in terms of their appearance, while women are routinely described in such a way that serves to exclude other features of women. The stereotyping of men and women often occurs relative to archaic gender roles and occupations. Professional women, those who are employed, are still referred to as being the mother of, daughter of, or wife of someone, while professional men are much less likely to be referred to in this way. The use of he/his, him as generic nouns and pronouns for both genders is a frequent form of sexism in language. Suffixes such as better and ess trivialized the social status of women. The English language does not possess a third person singular pronoun which is gender-neutral; instead, the masculine pronouns he, him and his are generally used to refer to both men and women (Liu, 2005). These inaccurate terms are confusing and demean women.

The language closely reflects the attitudes of a society. The prevalent sexism that permeates society has resulted in sexist language. Until recent times, women, throughout many generations of humankind, were thought of only as secondary to men in society. They remained at home and had little or no voice in the family or societal matters. For example, black males were allowed to vote in the U.S. approximately 60 years before females of any color. The country where all men were created equal has been a place of severe subjugation and repression, especially for women. This fact has been well represented in the language. Sexism present in the language is a reflection of peoples sexist perceptions, which, by the use of this language, only perpetuates this societal shortcoming. Therefore, if the language is to be altered so as to be inclusive to women, the perceptions of society must first change.

Works Cited

Liu, Xiaolan. Sexism in Language. E-writer Magazine. (2005). Web.

McMinn, M. R.; Troyer, P. K.; Hannum, L. E.; & Foster, J. D. Teaching Nonsexist Language to College Students. Journal of Experimental Education. Vol. 59, (1991), pp. 153-161.

Parks, J.B. & Roberton, M.A. Contemporary Arguments Against Nonsexist Language: Blaubergs (1980) Revisited. Sex Roles. Vol. 39, (1998), pp. 445-461.

Introduction

Jean Rhys novel, Wide Sargasso Sea, places importance on colonialism coupled with its effects on the social dynamics in society, hence enabling the reader understand the social environment around the Caribbean during the period before the enactment of the Emancipation Act of 1833. This paper presents some of the impacts of colonialism and civilisation on the novels society and specifically regarding its impact on gender roles in society. The paper also provides evidence from the text and other articles that explain ways in which colonialism and subsequent civilisation of the society regulate women, how the author describes and regulates the concept of masculinity in her book, and why such control on gender is significant for the story.

Colonialism and civilisation: regulation of women

In Jean Rhys book, colonialism and civilisation play a significant role in altering the social dynamics in society. The book is set in the Caribbean during the colonial period, specifically at the beginning of the emancipation period that would put an end to slavery. Colonialism mainly weakens the role of women in society by portraying them as inferior to men. Men objectify women and use them as property rather than equal partners in relationships. Unfortunately, as Drake (195) notes, women accept the role and actualise it. However, with the looming emancipation, as a sign of civilisation, some changes in the social set up are evident, though not significant in impact.

One of the ways in which colonisation alters the social dynamics is through the introduction of a foreign culture. For instance, Annette, Antoinettes mother, gets ill treatment from white Jamaican women simply for being a foreigner and her beauty. In the book, Annette represents the introduction of something new to society and peoples reaction to it. Ignorance creates a scenario where the Creole women ostracise her instead of getting to know and understand her. She brings out the concept of resistance to change (Rhys 36).

Secondly, colonialism changes the social dynamic in the book is through the introduction of Christianity. In the book, the convent school represents Christianity and provides a glimpse of the teachings it introduces to the society in contrast to the Caribbean form of religion. In Christianity, the society specifically designs convents for young women with the aim of providing knowledge of the religion in addition to formal education. At the school, Mother St. Justine teaches the girls about female saints. She also teaches them proper etiquette, cleanliness, and what society expects of them as proper Christian women (Rhys 46). Submission is one of the most common teachings in Christianity in relation to interactions between men and women. Women learn to submit to and respect their husbands as well as other male members of society, which is evident in the entire book. Antoinette, the main character in the book, is mainly submissive to her husband, even though he lacks affection for her, and this aspect brings out the perception of weakness in women in the book.

Racism is another aspect of society that colonisation seems to enhance mainly because foreigners occupy leadership or dominant positions in the society while the locals serve them. Most servants in the story are local men and women including Amelie, Mannie, and Mailotte. In the story, characters that possess wealth such as Richard Manson, Alexander Cosway, and Mr. Luttrell come from England.

Male dominance also stands out as a major issue affecting the roles of women in society. In the book, women form part of a mans property and thus men can sell or buy them at will. For instance, Antoinettes marriage arrangement is more of a business transaction than a relationship. Richard Manson gives thirty thousand Euros and Antoinettes inheritance to an Englishman he barely knows in exchange for his marriage to her (Rhys 38). The arrangement takes place without Antoinettes involvement in the negotiation or her consent on the matter. Christophine, Annettes servant, forms another example of how women in the society comprise part of a mans property. Christophine is Alexander Cosways wedding gift to Annette and serves Annette until her masters death after the fire at the Coulibri house. In another instance, Rochester offers Amelie money after sleeping with her, which is a clear indication of the objectification of women in society (Rhys 154).

On the other hand, the emancipation, which forms part of the civilisation process in the book, indicates the presence of some changes regarding how women view themselves. For instance, unlike Annette, Aunt Cora chooses not to remarry after the death of her husband, which presents her with wealth. She even attempts to secure Antoinettes monetary freedom by giving her some valuables before she dies. Although the impact of the gesture does not carry through in the story, the gesture is indicative of changes occurring in society. Additionally, when Amelie, a servant, slaps Antoinette back for slapping her and calls her a white cockroach, it shows her resolve to free herself from servitude and subsequent victimisation (Rhys 152). Although the intention behind the act is malicious, the outcome speaks volumes. Antoinettes husband shows affection for Amelie after the act and even sleeps with her, which is more than he ever does for his wife. This gesture is indicative of the respect that Amelie obtains for standing up for herself. She also refuses to accept his money and indicates her desire for a bigger price, hence her resolve to leave Massacre for Rio.

Element of masculinity

Mona Fayad, in her article Unquiet Ghosts: the Struggle for Representation, provides an analysis pointing out the element of masculinity in the Jean Rhys novel and explains how the author uses the same to develop the story. She explains that even though the author of the article is female, she enhances the role of male characters by making them appear superior and making female characters appear weak and thus inferior to their male counterparts (Fayad 439). However, the author revises and regulates the level of masculinity of her characters throughout the story by presenting certain elements of weakness and vulnerability.

One of the elements that depict masculinity in the story is the characteristic of men in the story to own most of the wealth in the community. Alexander Cosway, Mr. Mason, Rochester, and Mr. Richard Cosway all own substantial property in the initial stages of the story. Aunt Coras wealth comes due to her husbands death while the author describes Nelsons Rest, the estate next to the Cosway house, as Mr. Luttrells house, even though his widow lives in it and she is thus the current owner. It is also important to note that men in society treat women as property as part of their show of masculinity. For instance, Alexander Cosway gives Christophine to Annette as a wedding gift.

Men also largely dictate the roles that women play in society. For instance, Rochester assigns Leah to take care of Antoinette in England. She works as a cook in his house in England, and she is one of the three cooks aware of the existence of the mad woman in the attic of the house. In another example, Mr. Manson, Annettes husband, leaves his wife with a black couple during her unstable phase. In effect, he makes his wife susceptible to humiliation and maltreatment by the couple.

In her article, Mona Fayad suggests that the author portrays weakness in women in her story and enhances masculinity for the male characters through the incorporation of insanity as part of Antoinettes story. She describes the story as a, &tale of a schizophrenic& whose search for identity leads to madness&a story of a woman too weak to resist the onslaught of a strong male&and whose response is escape through madness (Fayad 440). In the initial scenes, Antoinette seems comfortable with her life and the environment in Granbois, mentioning her love for the ferns, the insects, and other creatures living in the same environment (Rhys 20). She however expresses her discomfort with the environment in the period of marriage with Rochester. In addition, Antoinette narrates how her marriage and her husbands lack of concern and affection for her welfare unsettle her inherent mental instability (Rhys 78). Arguably, Antoinette chooses insanity as an escape instead of facing her problems head on as a strong woman would do. In addition to insanity, the author mentions the choice of Antoinettes mother to give her brother the rights to her inheritance. With regard to the issue, Fayad states that, From the beginning, the self is represented as objectified by society (Fayad 437), in reference to Antoinette using the phrase they instead of I in her narration of events. Mona mentions that Antoinette narrates her story with consideration of societal views instead of her own.

The author regulates the level of masculinity for the male characters by introducing aspects of weakness and vulnerability in the story. Rhys includes a scene in the story where Rochester gets a fever at Massacre, which makes him weak and vulnerable. In order not to make him seem too weak, she mentions his resolve to stand in the rain instead of taking refuge at Carolines house even in his period of sickness (Rhys 40). Rochester also expresses his loss of control over his environment due to racial segregation, disease, and alienation by the local community, stating that he feels &uneasy as if someone was watching him (Rhys 50), thus indicating some level of paranoia. Rhys finds it important to mention that Rochesters family in England leaves him penniless after giving all the inheritance to his brother. Lastly, Rochesters gullibility in believing Daniel Cosways story regarding Sandi and Antoinettes possible sexual encounter during their childhood years back presents another form of weakness, especially because Rochester does not take any initiative to investigate the accusations concerning his wife. Rhys also includes bastard boys in the story, as Antoinettes half brothers. The fact that they are male provides masculinity while societys view of them limits such masculinity.

Control of genders

The control of genders in the narrative is a crucial part of Rhys novel. It ensures that Rhys account of events and the period during which the events took place match. According to Sandra Drakes article, the novel is set during the colonial era just before the enactment of the Emancipation Act, which means that tension and racial segregation were at an all time high (Drake 198). It also means there were elements of English culture in British colonies, part of which include social dynamics regarding roles that men and women in the British society played (Drake 202). Inclusion of such elements makes the story credible and allows readers to relate to the events in the book. Fayad (438) emphasizes this point by stating, In a history of patriarchy, the well-being of a man depends on the reduction of a woman to a ghost, which in this case is Antoinette. In response to the question on why a writer dedicated to portraying a female point of view chose to write more than half the novel from the male perspective, it is noteworthy that Rhys control of genders enables the author to tell a story that gives it distinction from other similar stories such as Jane Eyre. Charlotte Bronte wrote her story from the female perspective.

Conclusion

Colonialism and civilisation play a significant role in the development of the Jean Rhys story. Apart from enabling readers to relate to the events in the story, the concepts of colonialism and civilisation affect the gender roles or the people in society as the author suggests. This element creates a form of uniqueness to Rhys story and separates it from stories such as Charlotte Brontes Jane Eyre.

Works Cited

Drake, Sandra. Race and Caribbean culture as thematics of liberation in Jean Rhys Wide Sargasso Sea. A Norton Critical Edition: Wide Sargasso Sea: Backgrounds, Criticism. Ed. Judith Raiskin. New York: W.W. Norton, 1999.193-206. Print.

Fayad, Mona. Unquiet Ghosts: The Struggle for Representation in Jean Rhys Wide Sargasso Sea. MFS Modern Fiction Studies 34.3 (1988): 437-52. Print.

Rhys, Jean. Wide Sargasso Sea, New York: W.W. Norton, 1966. Print.