Category: Gender

Gender segregation refers to unequal distribution of men and women in the occupational structure. Vertical segregation refers to placing men at the top of occupational hierarchies and women at the bottom of the ladder regardless of the academic qualifications. Whereas horizontal segregation describes the fact that both sexes are at the same occupational classes but each is assigned different job tasks. In this essay we will explore the paradox of womens academic employment in Turkey. How there is low rate of employment of female Turkish labour market yet there is a higher percentage of women professors than any other western country. Canada, German, Denmark and UK countries have been experiencing gender inequality in distribution of labour with women being the worst affected with lowest income brackets as compared to men.

Over the years women in Turkey have always had lowest employment rates as compared to their male counterparts. Vast majority of these women work in agricultural sector, food industry and textile industries as low paid or unpaid family workers. Most of them are employed in rural sectors where skilled labour is not required which means that they are excluded from legal and social protection and benefits such as housing allowances, medical covers that are available in formal sector (Queen Mary 2005, p.3). Turkey women have faced severe career constraints which have resulted to underemployment of women with tertiary or even higher education. Mischau (2001) studies argues that while there is high percentage of female students in the universities, their success is not reflected in the labour market activities (Queen Mary 2005, p.14) (Acar, 1993, p. 70).

Labour markets in Europe face discrimination against men and women in determining occupational distribution. Basing on the study carried out in 2001 of the European Community Household Panel (ECHP), we see how different Europe countries discriminate against sex in occupations. The countries included are Denmark, Germany and the United Kingdom. Studies show that Germany discriminates in positions such as managerial, sales/services, plant and manufacturing and elementary occupational whilst UK segregate against technician and associate professionals and crafts/trade workers and Denmark does on clerical occupations. Researchers reveal that a country which has a gender equality laws such as Denmark, men and women are not employed in the same occupational categories. Female dominate clerical occupations while men are employed in the plant/machine operators in the three countries. Despite womens progress in labour market, research carried out by Organization for Economic Co-operation Development (OECD) reveal that Europe labour employment markets still discriminate against gender concentrating women on clerical, sales, service and teaching professions while men are over-crowded in managerial and administrative positions at the very higher end of hierarchy while in productive jobs, they are placed at lower ends. This reveals that segregation on female labour force results to gender wage inequality (Chzhen, 2006, p.3).

Reports basing on Canadian firms to the federal government on the employment initiatives reveal that female employees are more likely to be employed in certain sectors of occupation as compared to male counterparts. For instance, Air Canada has a high degree concentration of female employees. About 74 percent of them are deployed in intermediate sales and service personnel categories while male employees are concentrated in technical tasks such as engineering, skilled and semi-skilled crafts and trades which amount to only 19 percent. In this kind of occupation, women are more likely to be on intermediate sales and services groups than men but they are on the lowest salary quartile of 23 percent compared to that of 16 percent of men. At Bell Canada, 51 percentage male employees are reported to have been employed in skilled crafts and trades while 69 percent of females are concentrated on clerical personnel categories. Despite the gender imbalance, in all occupations, women are over-represented in the lowest salary groups of 83 percent as compared to 69 per cent of men (Chzhen, 2006, p.21).

In conclusion, women labour markets have improved over the years but preliminary steps need to be taken in order to promote gender equality. Horizontal segregation has remained constant since mid-century while vertical lines have improved significantly following increased number of womens educational attainments. The pattern of horizontal segregation cast pay equality proposal will significantly reduce gender wage gap. With this policy implemented, blue-collar jobs such as skilled crafts and trades which pay relatively well and leaving out women will offer equal opportunities to both sexes.

Bibliography

1. Acar, F. 1993. Women and University education in turkey. Higher Education in Europe, vol.18, pp. 65-77.
2. Chzhen, Y. 2006. Occupational Gender Segregation and Discrimination in Western Europe. pp. 1-24.
3. Fortin, N. M., & Huberman, M. 2002. Occupational Gender Segregation and Womens Wages in Canada: An Historical Perspective, 3-51.
4. Queen Mary, University of London 2005, Academic Employment and Gender: A Turkish Challenge to Vertical Sex Segregation , Vol.11, no.2, pp. 247-264

Introduction

Income inequality based on gender is the dissimilarity between male and female earnings usually expressed in part by male earnings (Miller, 2014). In other scales, it has been fondly described as the average divide between men and women, in terms of hourly earnings. These are also seen to be in popular practice because men generally go for high demanding jobs, which attract high remuneration. On the other hand, women tend to evade high paying jobs. Moreover, other scholars view this tendency as a representation of the amount of work experience, as well as breaks in employments, which in most cases go against womens competitiveness (Miller, 2014).

Debates on income inequality continue to be a key issue in most circles. So debatable has the topic to the point of seeking whether both women and men should make specific choices due to socio-economic pressures. The most amiable standpoint from which to view the inequalities in the income structure between the genders is to approach it from the median wages that men and women take home at the end of the month. According to Miller (2014), this model of comparison between men and women is somewhat limited or outright illogical given that both genders exhibit totally different characteristics, which eventually shape the scope of their assignment and affect their pay as well. Men in their nature tend to be engaged in fields that offer the utmost average pay, and have a culture of working more hours per day (Sullivan, Sheffrin, & Perez, 2013).

Women, on the other hand, have a tendency of working the least hours, as most have to leave work places much earlier to attend to various household chores, thereby delimiting their chances for higher pay. It is also not lost, however, that women record the highest frequency for absenteeism and experiences many breaks in employment.

Income Inequality Case

Given the differences that characterize men and women in their individual capacities, it would be imprudent to explore the differences that inform the various career choices that men and women have to make. The averaging wages of rewarding both men and women at work have been misrepresentative ways used to inform public policy without necessarily giving an explanation to all that appertains to this commonplace income inequality (Hill, 2014).

According to Miller (2014), observable differences exist between men and women, thus affecting their delivery at work; this accounts for the difference of income inequality. Available statistical analysis that explores this situation often provides variables that account for these inequalities (Hill, 2014). Much of the work done by researchers in this field show that gender inequality is at the forefront in shaping the income inequality while tilting these advantage to men. Many researchers, as Miller (2014) notes, have attested to the fact that the difference that exists between men and women when it comes to making career choices is in part because of the inequalities or social pressures that the society dictates on the female gender. As women continue to be discouraged from lucrative jobs, men, on the other hand, continue to be discouraged from committing to choices at work, especially by way of prioritizing on job satisfaction against pay.

The wholesome fact about gender-based income inequality addresses these issues succinctly by offering archetypical case scenarios within the report entailed in the Gender Pay Gap (GPP). The report explores the gender pay gap in the service sector in the US (Hill, 2014). Under these considerations, the report explains how the gender factor affects women of all walks, all ages, education levels yet no much can be done to shut this gap (Worstall, 2014).

Equal Pay for Equal Work

According to The Gender Wage Gap and a Solution to Income Inequality (2014), in the event that the leave has to be granted to a woman, the same should be extended to their spouses. The author opines that it is high time the term maternity leave be eradicated to stop the stigmatization of women at the workplace; the author opines that in place of maternity leave, a phrase like parental leave should be effected so that both the father and the mother of the unborn can be treated equally. Over the past few weeks, debate has been heightened in Washington with President Obama categorically calling to attention what he referred to as an embarrassment in the US  the fact that the American womenfolk continue to earn just below what their male counterparts were doing in most service sectors in America was the main theme (Shear & Lowrey, 2014).

According to Shear and Lowrey (2014), women, on average, make a paltry 76 cents against a dollar earned by men. According to Kollipara (2014), this case scenario means that for the women in America to rival their male counterparts, they will have to work an extra 60 days to match the already tilted women-biased economy. New empirical study also shows that technological changes have contributed largely to the current increase in income disparity among full-time workers. The impact on income disparity also could be a mirror reflection that changes in technology might shape the demand for medium skilled income earners by reducing their demand in the labor market; statistics has shown that women have scored lowly in this area. In addition, in a scenario where there are shifts in demand and labor fails to reciprocate, it is evident that technological progresses reduce the earning of medium-skilled personnel (Sullivan et al., 2013).

In trying to achieve the ideals of gender equality, women have to be trained in production, management, technological improvements, and systems assuring safety and quality in manufacturing in order to augment their pay.

Gender Pay Gaps

Recently, President Obama made a shockwave across America when he hatched a plan aimed at cutting down the wage gap between men and women (Perry, 2014). Proponents of these developments note that the idea of ordering the federal contractors to give their employees the information regarding the salary structure would be a positive aimed at solving the pay gap, as many workers would be willing to share their experiences, thereby making it easy to have a unified workforce (Kollipara, 2014).

According to Kollipara (2014), the presidential decree to ensure shared salary information is part of the broader effort by the Obama administration to address the numerous challenges women face in the service sector in America. The senate has further sounded this call to decency in the American service sector as the Democrats continue to push for a popular vote on the PayCheck Fairness Act (Kollipara, 2014). Accordingly, these developments are part of a larger scheme that aims to fast track the reforms in the United States service sector.

The Obama administration has continued to push for the application of this lease on federal contractors across America (Perry, 2014). In order to realize gender impartiality, it is imperative to build a society in which both women and men share all things equally in the distribution of power and influence in order to have equal access to decent work, health, and education and above all an equal pay as their male counterparts. How the society is going to approach these challenges is essentially, what will close down gender-based income disparities (Kollipara, 2014).

Women Education

Despite the tremendous expansion of educational opportunities globally, women not only in America, but also in various developing countries continue to receive compromised schooling as compared to men (Miller, 2014). Yet there is fascinating evidence that girl child education promotes the welfare of the society in general. A living example is the strong link between a womans education, subsequent employment, and income. It is no doubt that well-educated women bear few children, who have higher chances of surviving infancy, thereby assuming a healthy life, with the likelihood of acquiring better education, securing a better job and a better pay. Whenever women are deprived of education, families, children, as well as the societies suffer the consequences, as this replicates in their salary scales (Miller, 2014).

Whenever women are adequately educated, everyone in the vast society benefit. Why then do womenfolk in the American society continue to lag behind men in terms of payments? Our concern at the moment should begin to address this puzzle by examining how educational decisions are made across the board. This should be done by exploring the costs and benefits that determine how much the government invest in educating the girl child. A subsidized fee in secondary schooling and college education for girls can increase their future employability, by about 10% to 20%. In addition, evidence demonstrations that those resources that are under the watch of women go into household consumption that benefits children and the society by large. Previously we have witnessed situations where our women folk have excelled exceedingly if they are given a chance to partake similar opportunities that men hold so passionately.

In 2012, for example, over 80 percent of the new loaning and grants embraced gender in their project operations and received tremendous positivity  a proof that women have come of age, and can always put chances into good use whenever considered (Miller, 2014).

Entrepreneurship

The participation of women in the productive sectors, especially as entrepreneurs, can be nurtured through policy assimilation, capacity building, and institutional support amongst other initiatives (Worstall, 2014). It is undeniably that in the current society, poverty has often been synonymous with women. Women and girls, according to United Nations, constitute three-fifths of the poor population globally; their poverty rating is worse than that of men because of clear gender disparities in various areas including remuneration aspects. Women empowerment response seeks to foster active participation of women in income generating activities, with a robust focus on entrepreneurship. This effort should aim at delivering women to a sustained income and equitable salary to their male counterparts in the service sectors.

According to Hatt (2014), this can be achieved amicably through enterprise development programs that address the inequalities faced by women at various workplaces. Enhancing womens access to credit facilities, business financing, as well as the capacity to be accorded equitable salary pay, can adequately unlock the untapped human capital in women. Research indicates that global progress in achieving gender equality is lagging behind because most women are technically locked out on free enterprise (Sullivan et al., 2013).

Conclusion

Empowering women is perhaps one of the most frequently cited social objectives in achieving gender equality. The impact of gender equality on women empowerment, however, is equal to societal growth. It is clear that achieving gender-based income equality will not be feasible without closing the gap between women and men in terms of capacities, access to resources and opportunities, and reduced vulnerability to discrimination, especially in terms of job placement and payment scales. Gender-based income equality is a multi-faceted concept and an enduring process. Therefore, embracing it is in itself such a noble duty that all the service sectors in America must adopt.

As the definition of women empowerment indicates, the women empowerment process is a force to anticipate. Even though women empowerment is a complex initiative, it is a multi-dimensional process, which is expected to deliver humanity to economic freedom. A comprehensive intervention that embodies different domains of this process is essential in empowering women on a substantial scale.

References

Hatt, K. (2014). Why the New York Times richest middle class title may not be all good news. 

Hill, C. (2014). The Simple Truth about the Gender Pay Gap (2014). Web.

Kollipara, P. (2014). Wonkbook: What you need to know about the gender pay gap. The Washington Post. Web.

Miller, C. (2014). Pay Gap Is Because of Gender, Not Jobs. The New York Times. Web.

Perry, M. J. (2014). Team Obama struggles to explain, defend the 12% gender pay gap at the White House, first reported here seven months ago. Web.

Shear, M. D., & Lowrey, A. (2014). As Obama Spotlights Gender Gap in Wages, His Own Payroll Draws Scrutiny. The New York Times. Web.

Sullivan, A., Sheffrin, S. M., & Perez, S. J. (2013). Economics: principles, applications, and tools (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Web.

The Gender Wage Gap and a Solution to Income Inequality. (2014). Web.

Worstall, T. (2014). I Declare The Gender Pay Gap To Be A Truly Dead And Gone Issue. Forbes Magazine. Web.

Abstract

Formerly known as Gender Identity Disorder (GID), gender dysphoria is a discrepancy between gender and sex, which is characterized by feelings of identification with the opposite gender and discomfort with ones biological sex. People with this medical condition desire to live as the opposite sex. Therefore, their behaviors, attitudes, and dressing styles resemble those of the opposite sex. Gender dysphoria is a rare condition whose prevalence is not well known because the majority of people with the condition fail to seek professional help.

Common symptoms of the condition include isolation, depression, low self-esteem, anxiety disorder, and discomfort with ones physical appearance. Through extensive research, several potential causes of the condition have been identified. They include neurology, genetics hormones, abnormal chromosomes, and rare conditions. Diagnosis of gender dysphoria is complex. Therefore, it involves the participation of different medical professionals that include neurologists, urologists, psychologists, psychiatrists, and endocrinologists. Management of gender dysphoria is most effective if diagnosis of the condition is done early and the best treatment plan implemented.

Introduction

Gender dysphoria is a condition that manifests in a mismatch between a persons biological sex and gender identity. Biological sex and gender identity are natural occurrences for many people (Trombetta & Liguori, 2015). However, others experience problems connecting their biological sex to their gender identity. For instance, an individual might have the male genitalia, but embrace the identity of a woman. This mismatch is a major cause of distress and uncomfortable feelings. In the medical field, the confusion, distress, and discomfort that ensue due to the mismatch are referred to as gender dysphoria (Trombetta & Liguori, 2015). Gender dysphoria is a medical condition, and victims are often advised to seek treatment. In many cases, many people with the condition prefer to live in accordance with their gender identity rather than their biological sex (Tosh, 2016). For instance, a person with the male genitalia might behave and dress like a woman.

History

Gender dysphoria was included in the Diagnostic and Statistical manual (DSM-III) in 1980. The diagnosis manual included a diagnostic group referred to as Gender Identity Disorders that comprised several conditions associated with gender identity (Trombetta & Liguori, 2015). The American Psychiatric Association made that bold and controversial decision to ensure that people with gender variance got access to the same health care that other people enjoy (Vitale, 2010). The management of gender dysphoria is complex because of the involvement of different medical professionals. For instance, diagnosis is done by mental health care providers while treatment is usually done by endocrinologists (Tosh, 2016). Gender dysphoria is not a mental condition.

However, it is classified under mental disorders because of the mental anguish it causes (Trombetta & Liguori, 2015). The confusion created by discrepancies between gender and sex cause impairments in the normal social and occupational functioning. Since its first appearance in DSM-II, the definition of gender dysphoria has changed with each revision of the DSM. The term gender dysphoria replaced gender identity disorder in the DSM-5 (Tosh, 2016). The term is more appropriate because it annihilated the assumption that people with the condition had a disorder. It is a condition and not a disorder because its main characteristic is the presence of feelings of discomfort with ones physical appearance (Yarhouse, 2015).

Signs and Symptoms

Research has established that this condition is noticeable early in life, and is characterized by certain behaviors and attitudes. For instance, a girl may refuse to dress as girls dress or take part in activities that are characteristic of girls (Giordano, 2013). Early childhood is a challenging time to determine whether a child has gender dysphoria or not because certain behaviors are part of the growing up process and disappear as the child grows older (Giordano, 2013). The main difference between normal childhood behavior and behaviors characteristic of gender dysphoria is that these behaviors persist during childhood and children carry them into adulthood.

In adults, the feeling of being trapped in a body that betrays ones gender identity persists and causes a lot of pain mainly because of societal expectations (Tosh, 2016). In such cases, people with gender dysphoria live according to their anatomical sex in order to avoid the constant judgment and criticism from the society (Trombetta & Liguori, 2015). Another sign is the constant desire to change the physical signs that determine their biological sex and replace them with signs that match their gender identity. Other signs in children include social isolation, anxiety, loneliness, and depression (Giordano, 2013). In addition, disgust at ones genitalia is a common occurrence. In adults, symptoms include stress, isolation, low self-esteem, suicide attempts, and depression (Vitale, 2010).

Causes

The causes of gender dysphoria are unclear. However, scientists have suggested several potential causes including genetics, hormones, rare conditions, and exposure to estrogen drugs (Vitale, 2010). Improper functioning of hormones that trigger sex development during pregnancy could be a cause of gender differences. Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS) causes the release of excess female hormones that interfere with the normal process of sex development (Yarhouse, 2015). If the fetus is insensitive to the hormones, then gender dysphoria is likely to develop. Studies have established that Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) among other conditions predispose people to the risk of suffering gender dysphoria. CAH leads to excessive production of male hormones in a female fetus and the development of male organs. Intersex conditions lead to the birth of babies with male and female genitalia (Steiner, 2013). Other causes include chromosomal abnormalities and defects in normal human bonding during childhood (Giordano, 2013). The condition can also be caused by additional hormones in the mothers system that originates from the administration of certain medication.

Prevalence

It is difficult to determine the prevalence of gender dysphoria because many people with the condition fail to seek professional help (Yarhouse, 2015). The condition is associated with prejudice and discrimination because it is considered an anomaly. Therefore, people with the condition keep it private. Gender dysphoria is rare and few cases have been reported. However, increased research into treatment methods and initiatives to create awareness have led to an increase in the number of people seeking professional help for problems related to gender dysphoria (Trombetta & Liguori, 2015). The Equality and Human Rights Commission conducted a survey in 2012 to find the extent of the problem. The results of the survey concluded that at least 1% of the 10,000 participants were gender variant in some way (Steiner, 2013). In the state of Massachusetts, statistics show that the rate of prevalence is 0.5% based on people who identify as transgender. Projections show that approximately 0.005% of males and 0.002% of females would have gender variations if current diagnostic criteria were applied.

Diagnosis

The diagnosis of gender dysphoria is a complex process that necessitates the participation of a multidisciplinary team of professionals that include psychiatrists, psychologists, counselors, urologists, neurologists, endocrinologists, and behavioral and occupational therapists (Vitale, 2010). According to the American Psychiatric Association, the diagnosis of gender dysphoria should be conducted only if at least two of the criteria outlined in the DSM-5 have been occurring for a period of six months. The Association changed the diagnosis of gender identity disorder to gender dysphoria after several complaints that described the former term as stigmatizing (Trombetta & Liguori, 2015). The DSM also has separate diagnosis guidelines for children and adults. The diagnosis process takes place in two phases. In the first phase, the diagnosis is conducted based on the provisions of the Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders IV while diagnosis in phase two involves assessment to determine whether the patient can live in accordance with the results of the diagnosis (Steiner, 2013). This phase also involves activities such as psychotherapy, hormonal therapy, and counseling.

Treatment

Treatment for dysphoria is usually individualized to fit the specific needs of patients. The main aim of treatment is the reduction or removal of feelings of distress or embarrassment that might be affecting a patient (Steiner, 2013). Variations in treatment include conducting surgery to change the patients physical appearance and administration of hormones to stimulate the development of certain organs. The most common treatment method is surgery to change physical appearance permanently. Surgery and administration of hormones create consistency between ones biological sex and gender identity. Treatment for children and young people includes family therapy, individual child psychotherapy, parental counseling, and hormone therapy (Steiner, 2013). Treatment of this condition often involves a large team comprised of different members of the health care team.

Hormone therapy is done to children who show signs of gender dysphoria after puberty. They are administered with Gonadotrophin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH) analogues that help delay the development of certain physical changes. Treatment for adults includes peer support groups, hormone therapy, cross-sex hormone treatment, mental health support, speech and language therapy, and hair removal treatments (Steiner, 2013). Surgery is usually performed after a successful social gender role transition using the aforementioned treatment methods. Surgery options for trans-men include bilateral mastectomy, scrotoplasty, penile implant, phalloplasty, and salpingo-oophorectomy. For trans-women, surgery options include vulvoplasty, vaginoplasty, orchidectomy, penectomy, and breast implants (Steiner, 2013). Effective treatment is based on early diagnosis of the condition and the implementation of a proper treatment plan.

Conclusion

As mentioned in the foregoing discussion, gender dysphoria is a rare medical condition that is characterized by discrepancies in gender and sex. It causes discomfort and distress in victims because of the discrimination and prejudice that comes from the society. Advancements in technology have brought hope to people with gender dysphoria because more research studies are exploring different treatment options for the condition. Moreover, studies to combat the discrimination associated with the condition are being conducted. Therefore, there is hope for the acceptance of people with gender dysphoria in society. Signs and symptoms among children and adults are different. However, certain signs are hard to deal with at an individual level. They include discomfort with ones physical appearance, stress, depression, and anxiety. Diagnosis involves the participation of different medical practitioners who help in identifying the various aspects of gender and sex mismatch in patients. Treatment depends on successful diagnosis. Examples of treatment remedies available include hormone therapy, surgery, counseling, therapy, and psychotherapy. Surgery is common in adults.

References

Giordano, S. (2013). Children with gender identity disorder: a clinical, ethical, and legal analysis. New York, NY: Routledge.

Steiner, B. W. (2013). Gender dysphoria: development, research, management. New York, NY: Springer Science & Business Media.

Tosh, J. (2016). Psychology and gender dysphoria: feminist and transgender perspectives. New York, NY: Routledge.

Trombetta, C., & Liguori, G. (2015). Management of Gender Dysphoria: A Multidisciplinary Approach. New York, NY: Cengage Learning.

Vitale, A. M. (2010). The gendered self further commentary on the transsexual phenomenon. New York, NY: Lulu.com.

Yarhouse, M. A. (2015). Understanding gender dysphoria: navigating transgender issues in a changing culture. New York, NY: InterVarsity Press.

Introduction

Gender bias is a problem that plagues the hiring process, especially during recruitment and selection. It refers to the discriminatory treatment of individuals during the hiring and selection processes because of their gender. Hiring decisions could be influenced by preconceived stereotypes about a certain gender group. Gender bias is a problem that needs to be addressed for both men and women to enjoy equal opportunities about professional achievement and development.

For many years, the issue of sexism has been discussed as a common challenge in workplaces across all industries. Experts argue that the decision to reserve certain roles for men or women amounts to sexism. In many industries, including engineering, medicine, science, and construction, women are usually discriminated against during hiring because the majority of the roles are considered masculine. They are denied opportunities to pursue careers in these fields because of the implicit and explicit exercise of gender bias during the recruitment and selection processes of hiring.

Gender Bias in Recruitment and Selection

Significant progress has been made in the last few decades about increasing gender diversity in workplaces. Labor organizations have made several requests to employers for an increment in the number of women in the labor force. However, the issue of gender bias during hiring continues to serve as an obstacle to the attainment of this goal. The participation of women in careers that were traditionally viewed as the masculine has increased significantly. However, they are still underrepresented in many professions as society has not fully embraced the fact that men and women are equal in terms of their potential for achievement (Gonzalez et al., 2019).

This is evident from the numerous women who have achieved excellence in fields that include entrepreneurship, engineering, medicine, and science. Gender-based discrimination denies women the opportunity to improve their economic statuses through the pursuance of careers that they are passionate about. The challenge of gender bias during hiring is evident in many industries from the disproportionately small number of women (Gonzalez et al., 2019). In many organizations that purport to value gender diversity, women are usually denied top leadership positions and relegated to roles in the area of human resource management.

It is illegal for an employer to discriminate against a job applicant because of their gender. According to Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, it is unlawful for an employer to discriminate against any individual because of their race, color, religion, national origin, or gender. This provision of the constitution requires employers to offer employment opportunities for both men and women indiscriminately. However, over the years, the law has been disregarded and women have suffered immensely because of societal norms and social constructs that put them at a disadvantage. The situation has changed over the last three decades. However, in some societies in the Middle East, women are still considered inferior to men, and therefore, not their equals.

Causes of Gender Bias during Hiring

As mentioned earlier, gender bias is the implicit or explicit discrimination of job applicants during the hiring process, mainly because of their gender. Research has shown that during the recruitment and selection processes, employers are more likely to hire a man than a woman if the two job applicants possess similar qualifications (Ahmed et al., 2021). One of the most pervasive arguments regarding gender bias is the influence of stereotypes.

In many cultures across the world, people hold different social stereotypes regarding people belonging to specific groups (Gonzalez et al., 2019). For instance, in many societies, women are considered the weaker sex in terms of their physical and mental capabilities. Therefore, any job that requires the use of extensive use of brain and brawn, is reserved for men. This is evident from the exclusion of women for many years in several careers in the fields of engineering, security and building, and construction, as well as in sports such as wrestling and boxing (Ahmed et al., 2021).

Many industries favor women during hiring for easier roles such as counseling, teaching, acting, and cooking (Ahmed et al., 2021). In a society where gender roles are social constructs, men are viewed as better leaders, more visionary, and better committed at work than women. These factors play a significant role in influencing the decisions of employers during recruitment and selection processes.

According to Coffman et al. (2018), gender bias during the hiring process can be attributed to a concept referred to as statistical discrimination. According to economic theory, the possession of imperfect information by employers regarding certain individuals could influence their decisions during hiring (Gonzalez et al., 2019). Statistical discrimination can be described as the selection of candidates based on specific rational beliefs that originate from differences in abilities and skills between the genders, rather than prejudice (Coffman et al., 2018). They use group averages and other qualifications that are difficult to standardize in deciding who to hire (Gonzalez et al., 2019).

In that regard, employers favor men over women because of the belief that men are more suited to perform various tasks than women. In their study, Coffman et al. (2018) concluded that many cases of discrimination during hiring are not based on gender, but on the unwillingness of employers to choose candidates that belong to a group that has been shown to perform worse on average. Both gender and statistical discrimination are unethical because they deny women the opportunity to pursue careers of their choice.

How to Eradicate Gender Bias in Hiring

Gender bias is a pervasive problem that is difficult to eradicate because of its association with societal beliefs and norms. However, several measures can be implemented to mitigate the problem. One of the most effective techniques that can eliminate gender bias in the processes of recruitment and selection is the use of artificial intelligence (AI). Changing the beliefs and preconceived stereotypes that people hold about other groups is difficult.

This is primarily due to the differences in cultures in different societies across the world. Therefore, it would be necessary for employers to replace humans with AI technologies. This would be effective if AI applications used in hiring would be programmed to disregard the gender of job applicants and focus on their achievements (Geetha & Reddy, 2018). Currently, many organizations are using software applications to screen and grade job applicants based on the contents of their resumes. Technological applications cannot be as biased as humans are unless they are programmed to consider the gender of candidates during the hiring process.

AI would alleviate gender bias in hiring in two main ways. First, it would reduce the number of decisions that are made by people, and second, it would use algorithms that are based on scientific data to choose the most suitable candidates (Geetha & Reddy, 2018). In many industries, algorithms have been successfully applied to the improvement of decision-making. Research has shown that AI has the potential to address the issue of gender bias effectively because of its potential to eliminate bias in human processes and decisions (Geetha & Reddy, 2018). It would create a level field for all job applicants regardless of their gender.

The assessment of candidates for jobs based on their skills and abilities would eliminate gender bias. The only way that AI would discriminate against applicants based on their gender is if a human programming biased data into the system used for hiring. Otherwise, if the creators of AI input accurate data, then the problem can be solved completely (Geetha & Reddy, 2018). It would be important for the creators of AI applications used in hiring to embrace diversity for them to develop codes that promote inclusivity.

Conclusion

For many decades, gender bias in hiring has been a problem that many organizations have dealt with. The underrepresentation of women in various careers can be attributed to the influence of social constructs such as cultural beliefs and stereotypes that promote gender bias during the processes of recruitment and selection. Many employers prefer to hire men because of the perceived notion that they are more committed and they perform better. The major causes of gender bias are statistical discrimination and stereotypes. To solve this problem, it would be necessary for employers to use AI in the hiring process. Technological applications would eradicate gender bias by reducing the number of decisions made by people and evaluating people based on their skills and abilities.

References

Ahmed, A., Granberg, M., & Khanna, S. (2021). Gender discrimination in hiring: An experimental reexamination of the Swedish case. PLOS One, 16(1), e0245513. Web.

Coffman, K. B., Exley, C. L., & Niederle, M. (2018). The role of beliefs in driving gender discrimination. Harvard Business School, Working Paper 18-054. Web.

Geetha, R., & Reddy, B. S. (2018). Recruitment through artificial intelligence: A conceptual study. International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology (IJMET), 9(7), 63-70. Web.

Gonzalez, M. J., Cortina, C., & Rodriguez, J. (2019). The role of gender stereotypes in hiring: A field experiment. European Sociological Review, 35(2), 187-204. Web.

Introduction

Gender studies in education has become a topic of debate since the second half of the twentieth century due to the increasing importance of feminism. The growing role of women in the traditional educational system, which was previously focused on men, brought about many changes to educational practice. In addition, numerous issues related to non-educational aspects of the end of single-sex education have emerged. As a result, there have also been impacts on male students in all stages of education. Both texts chosen for this assignment discuss the feminization of classroom learning and its effect on male students, and they place it in a broader socio-political context. This paper aims to analyze the use of rhetorical devices such as pathos in both entries, and to compare the two articles based on this analysis in order to identify similarities and differences in their use of this rhetorical device.

A War Against Boys

The first entry under consideration is A War Against Boys, an essay by Michael Kimmel that discusses the feminization of educational systems as a political concept. The author draws on historical and scientific evidence to explain concerns regarding boys position in contemporary education. The text effectively uses pathos as a rhetorical device to prove the authors viewpoint and to evoke sympathy in readers. The article was first published in Dissent magazine in 2006 and is thus aimed at a general audience, including parents, scholars, and educators.

The Use of Pathos in Kimmels Work

Pathos is among the most used and most effective rhetorical devices. It has been employed by an immense number of speakers and writers to arouse the emotions of an audience. Kimmels appeal to pathos is evident throughout the work. The author introduces the topic by referring to the case of Doug Anglin, a high schooler who sued his school for sex discrimination (Kimmel 521). The description of the boy provided in the first paragraph serves to distinguish Doug Anglin from other high school boys, presenting him as quite a heroic figure fighting the systemic power of feminized education. The author quotes the boys father to establish the problem: From the elementary level, they establish a philosophy that if you sit down, follow orders, and listen to what they say, youll do well and get good grades (Kimmel 521). The fathers words are important in appealing to the readers emotions, as they reflect the viewpoint of many parents. Thus right from the beginning of the article, the author uses pathos to establish the existence of a feminized education system and its relevance to the readers children.

The author also uses pathos to explain the cause and effect relationship between feminism and the shift in education. Kimmel addresses the significance of womens achievements from a negative perspective, commenting on their adverse effects (522). Instead of remaining neutral on the issue, Kimmel argues that the environment created by feminists is unnatural and restricts the development of young boys (522). Ultimately, the language of the first few paragraphs supports the central thesis of the work, arguing that the events in education triggered by the rise of feminism are, in essence, a war on boys. The author uses the semantically powerful and emotion-provoking word war, which would appeal to the emotions of readers.

Throughout the article, Kimmel maintains emotional development by reflecting the readers thoughts and questions. For instance, Kimmel asks rhetorical questions, such as Why now?, Whose fault it is?, and Whats wrong with this picture? (522-523). Asking such questions is one of the most common representations of pathos. The author uses these questions to engage his readers in a deeper emotional connection with the text, which serves as a basis for persuasion of the audience. Also, Kimmel cites both the direct speech of adolescent males and females and statements from literature, for example, Reading is lame, sitting down and looking at words is pathetic, Real men dont speak French, In English you have to write down how you feel and thats what I dont like (525-526). These quotations are also used to provoke emotions in the audience since the boys direct speech helps readers to better understand their attitude towards education, and the citations from literature serve as another instance of emotional engagement.

How the Schools Shortchange Boys

How the Schools Shortchange Boys is an article by Gerry Garibaldi, an American writer and teacher. After working in the film industry for almost three decades, Garibaldi switched career paths, becoming a high school English teacher in Connecticut. The piece was published in City Journal in 2006; similar to Kimmels article, it is aimed at quite a broad audience and is written accordingly. The entry also reflects Garibaldis previous work as a writer, with dialogues and personal narratives mixed in with logical arguments for a more substantial effect.

The Use of Pathos in Garibaldis Work

As a writer, Garibaldi appeals to pathos consistently throughout the work. The article is structured to present episodes from the authors personal experience mixed with logical explanations and evidence about the problem. For example, on page 516, Garibaldi offers a narrative about one of his male students, Brandon, who received detention after asking one of his female teachers about the point of studying her subject. Garibaldi uses an image of a smart and active boy, which is familiar to and favored by the audience, to showcase the problem (516). Using Brandons case, Garibaldi explains the differences between male and female students based on his experience as a teacher. Although the author offers no evidence in support of his claims, his arguments seem valid to the audience as they are based on his teaching experience. In this example, an appeal to pathos allows Garibaldi to connect with the audience and improve the perceived validity of his arguments.

Another example of the authors use of pathos can be seen on page 518, where Garibaldi discusses attempts to change boys nature through special education programs. Here the author uses vivid language to appeal to pathos. For instance, he writes that boys in special ed often sat at their desks with their heads down or casually staring off into space, as if tracking motes in their eyes (Garibaldi 518). The language used by the author creates an impression that special education programs serve to break boys down instead of correcting their behavior and equipping them with valuable tools for improving learning. Garibaldi uses vivid imagery in this passage, which makes it easier for readers to perceive and emotionally respond to the situation described by the author.

Garibaldis ability to provoke emotions is closely connected with his writing abilities, and this aspect should be elaborated in greater detail. The central figure of the article under discussion is Brandon, the boy who was previously mentioned. Although the author speaks about Brandon as a specific real person, the boy becomes a generalized figure, or a symbol of numerous special ed students who struggle with the same issues. The pathos is created here by the emerging sympathy for Brandon since his case could appeal to innumerable males in his position, or to the parents of such boys. Therefore an emotional connection is created. Also, the vast amount of dialogue and direct speech should also be mentioned as a representation of pathos in the text. Through the dialogues with Brandon, the author aims to express the personality of the young man. This is done to give the readers a broader context for the boys character and the environments in which he lives (Garibaldi 519).

Comparison of Two Entries

As the articles under consideration have been analyzed separately, they can now be compared with regard to similarities between the authors use of pathos in their texts, as well as with regard to the differences. First of all, both texts share a common ground of critical exploration of feminization in the modern education system. Also, both entries tend to include this issue in a broader socio-political context. The authors want readers to be emotionally engaged in the discussion of the question, and thus pathos is used in both articles.

However, one could trace several differences in the use of pathos as a rhetorical device. Both entries are very personal in tone, but Kimmel appears to be more passionate in his writing. While Garibaldi employs examples and arguments to speak from a relatively neutral point of view, Kimmels article is much more critical in its outlook. This dissimilarity can be partially explained by the authors different backgrounds since Kimmel, as a university professor and spokesman, often formulates his thoughts in oral form, while Garibaldis primary experience is with organizing his arguments in written form. Therefore the text by the first author could easily be imagined as if he was conducting a public speech, while the entry by the latter author reads more like a personal essay.

It is also evident that Kimmel employs a large number of emotionally charged words, such as war, laughable, bashing, invaded, overheated, detriment and many others (521-522). His metaphors and similes often entail the use of war-related terms, which he does in order to provoke emotions in his readers and to engage them with the representation of his ideas. Taking the contrary approach, Garibaldi appears to be more restrained in his discussion of the topic. His lexicon is significantly more scholarly; however, he masterfully combines passages of scientific elaboration with excerpts from his dialogues with Brandon and other people. Overall, the combination of well-written criticism with examples that move readers on an emotional level creates a powerful effect.

Conclusion

Both texts under analysis represent a well-conducted critical discussion of the issue of feminization in education. Both entries were analyzed to identify specific examples and features of using the rhetorical device of pathos. The articles were also compared the two articles in order to detect differences in their use of pathos as a rhetorical device. Finally, it should be noted that Kimmels article represents passionate and emotionally appealing writing, while Garibaldi provides a more restrained critique.

Works Cited

Garibaldi, Gerry. How the Schools Shortchange Boys. The Longman Writer: Brief Edition, 9th ed., edited by Judith Nadell et al., Pearson, 2014, pp. 515-519.

Kimmel, Michael S. A War Against Boys? The Longman Writer: Brief Edition, 9th ed., edited by Judith Nadell et al., Pearson, 2014, pp. 521-527.

What determines the gender of an individual, nature or nurture, was of interest to people long before the advent of gender studies. The myth of Iphis is a prime example of it. According to Moore (2021), the myth is about a girl, raised as a boy, who loves another girl and, by a miracle of the gods, is transformed into a biological male in time for his appointed nuptials (p. 96). Nowadays, the debate on this topic has become even more heated due to the tense political and societal climate. However, it may be the right time for one to develop a critical interpretation of what defines the gender identity of a person. In this paper, a personal explanation of why nurture determines gender will be provided.

Nurture as a Crucial Factor

In the course of an individuals life, it is nurture that influences their gender identity. Gender and its variations are something that one learns in multiple social interactions of various types in the first decades of their life. Children do not have any initial knowledge hidden in their genes of conventional gender roles. They subconsciously choose who they are by observing and interacting with parents, relatives, friends, teachers, and other social actors.

Moreover, adolescent and adult people rediscover their gender identity also because society strongly influences them. US society is witnessing an increase in the number of transgender people today (Tanner, 2018). It is primarily because the societal climate has become more tolerant; that the human genome remains the same. Social acceptance of the fact that gender identity is what is being learned may result in the emergence of new types of identities. If biological interpretation becomes mainstream, this could lead to further discrimination against transgender people.

References

Moore, K. (2021). The Iphis incident: Ovids accidental discovery of gender dysphoria. Athens Journal of History, 7(2), 95-116. Web.

Tanner, L. (2018). More U.S. teens identify as transgender, survey finds. USA Today. Web.

Introduction

Gender identity is a critical element of ones overall identity and beliefs about themselves. It can be defined as individual conceptions of oneself as either male or female or, in some cases, as both or neither (Ghosh, 2020). Gender identity is self-identified and begins at an early age when children are first introduced to gender concepts. However, it does not develop in isolation, and all children are affected by a combination of internal and external factors, including exposure to societal preconceptions about biological sex and gender, social class, culture, and even race. This paper is dedicated to the development of my gender identity from an early age to the current point in my life. Specifically, it will consider how different factors affected that development.

Personal Information

It is important to discuss relevant personal information and current gender identity before considering the overall identity development journey. I am a 31-year-old woman and identify as female. I would describe my sexual orientation as bisexual, and I share three children with my partner. Furthermore, I am African American with a Caribbean Jamaican cultural background and can be described as middle class. I believe that my cultural and ethnic background, sexuality, and, in part, social class impacted my gender identity development.

Gender Identity Development

For most of my life, I have always identified as female. In my opinion, the Caribbean Jamaican culture has substantially affected that self-identification, specifically in early childhood. Jamaican society can be described as one where gender stereotypes are relatively rigid, with women expected to fulfill traditionally feminine roles, while men are ascribed traditionally masculine responsibilities in the household and community. According to Wilson-Harris (2018), these attitudes still persevere, and Jamaican women believe that a womans main role is to take care of her family (para. 1). Thus, while men are expected to work and provide for their families, women are supposed to care for children and the household. The African American community has a similar gender roles ideology, although the idea of the Strong Black Woman is being perpetuated and assigned to black females by society (Jerald et al., 2017). Although this stereotype broadens the gender roles of African American women, it does not exclude caretaking behavior. Thus, both cultures that I was exposed to since childhood and that continue to shape my experience impacted the development of my gender identity.

As I was introduced to these beliefs very early, I have always viewed myself as female as it was the identity assigned to me by family and society, and I accepted it without difficulty. I remember children of different sexes being segregated during playtimes and boys playing with toy cars or soldiers, while girls were offered dolls, toy strollers, and plush toys. There was one incident when my grandmother took away a toy firetruck I was playing with because it was, in her words, a boys toy. In addition, at home, I was often involved in household tasks such as sweeping or washing dishes, and helping my mother was labeled as my fair contribution to the household. In our neighborhood, older girls were also expected to look after younger children during group playtimes, and this experience was often presented to us as preparation for our future children. I certainly internalized some of the beliefs of the female and male roles I was exposed to as a child. For example, I still struggle to leave my children in someone elses care because I believe their care is my primary duty.

The awareness of my gender identity as a female came primarily from my family. As mentioned above, I was treated as a girl and was expected to behave in a traditionally girly manner. It should be noted that some family members often discouraged my behavior that went against the traditional stereotypes about girls, such as wearing dresses and playing with dolls. In school, teachers also supported the stereotypical ideas about men and women, with some professions and jobs being described to children as traditionally held by men or women. I did not have a clear idea of a career I would like to pursue. However, I can recall a girl from my class telling the teacher she wanted to become a surgeon and being told that being a nurse might suit her better. Due to this, I developed a bias against some jobs as being too difficult, specifically jobs that require physical or intellectual efforts such as construction and engineering. Although it is a preconception that I have overcome, it is clear that societal expectations affected my identity and understanding of gender roles.

Due to my family being middle class, I was also offered more opportunities and provided with more experiences than my peers. My grandmother insisted on me being nurturing and focusing on helping my parents or performing, in her word, my duties as a daughter. However, my parents were more open-minded, and their expectations of gender roles were different, with them insisting I should be able to take care of myself and be independent. Meanwhile, my female friends from lower social class backgrounds were taught that their primary responsibility was childcare and household duties. Thus, I believe that social class can limit or broaden ones opportunities in life and impact notions of gender roles.

Nevertheless, I struggled with my gender identity during my teenage years due to realizing that I am bisexual. I was subjected to traditional female gender roles in my childhood, and I was explained that romantic and sexual relationships were possible only between a man and a woman. In my peer groups, girls always discussed relationships with members of the opposite sex, with same-sex relationships not being introduced or clarified. When I realized that I am attracted to both boys and girls, I began to question my gender identity, as an attraction to girls was never explained to me. In my worldview, males were attracted to females, and being romantically interested in girls as female seemed like a foreign concept. In simple terms, being attracted to a girl equaled being a man to me, but as transsexuality was not a topic that my family and teachers ever discussed, the situation was extremely confusing and debilitating. However, with the support of my peer groups, some of whom were also either bisexual or homosexual, I recognized that sexual attraction to a particular gender does not always affect ones gender identity.

Conclusion

In summary, my gender identity development can be described as typical. At an early age, I was exposed to traditional gendered roles and was expected to fulfill those roles. However, refusal to do so was rarely met with disapproval, with few family members being discouraged. In the local community and school, expectations of girls were similar to my family, and I was confident in my identity as a female. However, when I realized my bisexuality, I questioned my gender identity but accepted that attraction to members of the same sex has no impact on my self-identification as a woman.

References

Ghosh, S. (2020). Gender identity and gender role. Diseases & Conditions  Medscape Reference. Web.

Jerald, M. C., Cole, E. R., Ward, L. M., & Avery, L. R. (2017). Controlling images: How awareness of group stereotypes affects Black womens well-being. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 64(5), Web.

Wilson-Harris, N. (2018). Men must rule!  New survey finds 70% of women prefer male-headed households. Jamaica Gleaner. Web.

Democratic values promoted in modern society concern not only political but also social freedoms. Opportunities for self-development and expressing individual interests openly are the perspectives that are guaranteed to a person in different areas. However, some acute issues arise regarding gender differences and equality between the sexes. In particular, the topic of bias in the workplace is a problem that concerns sociologists due to the prevailing trends and stereotypes in relation to the career opportunities of the two sexes. Providing equal opportunities for career growth and the realization of professional ambitions is a valuable objective to realize to ensure integral freedoms for both men and women. This work aims to identify the existing problems in this sphere, explain the possible causes and consequences of the issue, assess the data on the social gap, conduct a comparative analysis, and propose optimal solutions. Addressing the issue of inequality in the workplace at the organizational level is a valuable perspective for improving the situation globally and increasing the chances of both genders to pursue individual career opportunities freely.

Background of the Issue

Addressing gender inequality in the workplace is a global challenge due to the prevalence of this issue in many countries. According to Wu and Cheng (2016), this social gap is particularly acute in developing states. The researchers analyze the labor market in Chile and note that the current indicator of male employees, which is 80%, is an obvious outcome of the existing inequality policy (Wu & Cheng, 2016, p. 257). Appropriate interventions may help not only address the problem but also strengthen economies, which is a valuable prospect for developing countries. At the same time, the issue is equally relevant to developed states. For instance, Hideg and Ferris (2016) consider gender inequality in strong European Union economies. The authors cite the term benevolent sexism, which implies hidden but unambiguous stereotypes about male and female work responsibilities and opportunities (Hideg & Ferris, 2016). As a result, despite the severity of the problem under consideration in developing countries, the issue is relevant to different economic and social environments and can manifest itself both openly and hidden.

The issue of gender inequality in the workplace not only entails individual bias but also hinders the sustainable economic development of organizations. Wu and Cheng (2016) analyze the problem and note that the range of tasks assigned to employees often depends on their gender and does not imply assessing professional competencies as the essential aspects of work. Despite the contemporary emphasis on equality and the expansion of rights and freedoms, public stereotypes often dominate objective views of the current situation. This, in turn, inhibits progress and weakens the development capacity of organizations because bias causes conflicts and impairs employee performance. Access to self-development within specific industries is limited, and a person cannot realize ones individual abilities and talents comprehensively. All of these aspects of the problem in question provide powerful arguments to address stereotyping and intolerance towards equality in the workplace and consider potentially effective solutions to the existing social gap.

Discussion

The assessment of the gender issue under consideration requires a two-way analysis since focusing on one specific gender can also be regarded as bias or sexism. In other words, despite the widely discussed topic of male dominance in the labor market, evaluating the existing views on stereotyping on both sides is an objective decision. Moreover, based on the research conducted, this issue deserves attention since significant findings have been obtained by studying individual sources and reviewing feedback from two genders regarding their attitudes towards inequality in the workplace.

By considering inequality in the workplace from a career perspective, the issue can be discussed from a managerial perspective. Based on the existing data, women in leadership positions are significantly fewer than men. As Tastad and Bass (2020) argue, gender disparity in this aspect is obvious, and in Figure 1, one can see what relevant statistics the authors offer. Based on these indicators, the conclusion is clear that womens career prospects are limited, and the dominance of men in managerial positions is apparent.

Another aspect that deserves attention is the income and wage gap. According to the aforementioned statistical correlation, the number of male managers exceeds the proportion of female managers significantly, which, in turn, is a direct consequence of the compensation gap (Tastad & Bass, 2020). Since most of the senior roles are held by men, their pay level is higher than that of women. As a result, the unfair division of duties entails distinctive approaches to pay and argues for the existing inequality in the workplace from the perspective of income opportunities.

At the same time, the issue of gender bias in the labor market is not a topic that needs to be discussed only in terms of discrimination against women. According to some reports, today, men also report the existence of inequality in the workplace. According to Rosling (2019), in the UK, one of the studies has found that about a quarter of those surveyed (26%) report cases of employment discrimination they have experienced (para. 3). In Figure 2, this correlation is clearly displayed, and, no less important, a small percentage of the respondents find it difficult to give an unambiguous answer (Rosling, 2019). This indicates the insufficient knowledge of the population regarding the issue under consideration. As a result, the problem can be regarded as acute since, despite the sustainability of the British economy, this issue exists and causes challenges to the labor market.

Nevertheless, based on the data from the same study, the percentage of male discrimination reported by the respondents is higher than that of the female. Rosling (2019) notes that the key claim from men is that women have more freedom and fewer constraints in their decisions, which, thus, entails fewer obligations for them. Women remark that they are not taken seriously and are do not have equal opportunities to develop their professional potential freely and comprehensively due to the existing stereotypes. In Figure 3, the author provides this statistical correlation (Rosling, 2019). These statistics may be perceived unexpectedly since, according to the prevailing views, sexism is a gap that affects the female audience more often and more strongly. However, the findings prove that men are also discriminated against and have the right to expect the equal treatment of their work performance. As a result, the obtained data underscore the relevance of the problem of gender inequality in the workplace and indicate that the issue is not one-sided and should be considered in relation to both genders.

Finally, another significant aspect regarding the topic of gender inequality in the workplace is the leadership style supported in a particular organization. According to Sharma (2016), effective diversity management requires a culture which is inclusive of a work environment that nurtures teamwork, participation, and cohesiveness (p. 1212682). In other words, controlling non-discrimination is one of the aspects of leadership policies promoted by managers. Sharma (2016) states that today, despite the dynamic discussion of gender inequality, some HR managers are subject to social stereotypes and cannot change their approach to hiring in favor of more adaptive and equitable practices. This, in turn, creates additional challenges and serves as a brake on the advancement of equality. In addition, despite the individual nature of employee-oriented programs at the organizational level, globally, the situation can remain complex and ambiguous. Therefore, to propose objective interventions and solutions to the problem of gender inequality in the workplace, the involvement of the global context is a relevant mechanism for analyzing the issue.

Ethnology

Globalization is one of the significant aspects that determine the need to overcome the barrier of inequality and expand the possibilities for both sexes to realize their professional opportunities. As Sharma (2016) notes, diversity management has become one of the practices that aim to empower companies to address the issue under consideration. Various standards and norms designed to ensure equal access to working conditions are promoted by numerous companies, which indicates positive developments. Moreover, based on the current statistics, progress can be noted, albeit modest. According to Verniers and Vala (2018), in the past 10 years, the global gender gap across education and economic opportunity and politics has closed by 4%, while the economic gap has closed by 3% (p. e0190657). These indicators may be interpreted as a movement towards changes not only in the designated industries but also in the labor sector. Drawing attention to this issue is an additional incentive that helps reduce the negative impact of discriminatory practices on employees productive work and promotes including diversity management practices in different firms and companies.

The measures taken to combat gender inequality in the workplace are targeted globally. However, some restraints make it difficult to work productively in this direction. For instance, Verniers and Vala (2018) mention motherhood myths, which, as a social stereotype, have become part of the labor industry. In particular, the authors note that treating women as mothers who are attached to children and families affects the principles of providing career opportunities negatively (Verniers & Vala, 2018). The situation is complicated by the fact that this stereotype entails male discrimination. According to Verniers and Vala (2018), some men are forced to take care of children actively to enable women to fulfill their professional ambitions. This bi-directional bias is relevant to many countries where, despite robust economies, maternity and social welfare issues are controversial. Therefore, finding appropriate solutions to the problem of inequality in the workplace is a valuable task to address.

Solutions to the Issue

To address the issue of gender inequality in the workplace globally, appropriate interventions at the organizational level are necessary practices to establish an even and unbiased workflow. One of such measures, as Adamson et al. (2016) state, is an effective inclusion policy. Numerous organizational processes allow for the involvement of different employees to improve their skills and expand the potentially positive prospects for applying individual abilities and talents. If both men and women are given equal opportunities to realize their potential, this will not only address the problem under consideration but will also provide an additional incentive for companies themselves to increase productivity.

Another potentially efficient practice is to re-evaluate the existing HR approaches and utilize more honest and unbiased recruiting tools. According to Hideg and Ferris (2016), business leaders can offer HR professionals useful and effective training programs and courses designed to increase their knowledge of the negative impacts of sexism on the work environment. This, in turn, is evidence that senior leaders need to be engaged in such activities. Promoting inclusion initiatives should come from the leaders of organizations because, when selective recruitment strategies and inequitable distribution of work responsibilities and salaries are encouraged, leaders become the main culprits of the issue in question. As Sharma (2016) remarks, one of the central tasks in this area is to train HR specialists to identify cultural barriers timely and assess the degree of employees job satisfaction. If this approach is promoted, such a mode of work will become a valuable mechanism for tackling gender inequality at the organizational level.

Bringing unfair employers to justice is a practice that can help solve the issue in question. Verniers and Vala (2018) cite a UK initiative to report on those companies that violate ethical hiring and job sharing principles. According to the authors, any manifestation of bias towards subordinates is considered the violation of job descriptions and regarded as a reason for the imposition of sanctions (Verniers and Vala, 2018). Such a policy is an effective algorithm that may contribute to eliminating gender bias and encouraging the involvement of senior managers in subordinates problems.

Finally, as a viable solution to address gender inequality in the workplace, one should pay attention to relevant social bonuses offered by companies. As Wu and Cheng (2016) argue, providing quality child-caring facilities or family leave policies for both fathers and mothers is a practice that equalizes employees opportunities and helps them realize their career goals (p. 270). Such social assistance programs are valuable to both employees and employers. If a subordinate is not preoccupied with childcare issues, he or she demonstrates better performance and is a valuable worker. For this purpose, company leaders in cooperation with HR specialists can draw up special programs and offer them to those employees who need this support. The global adoption of these practices can help overcome the current ethical barriers and reduce gender inequality in the workplace.

Conclusion

The global fight against gender inequality in the workplace can be successful if appropriate initiatives and interventions are taken at the organizational level. This problem is acute and carries many negative implications. Moreover, gender inequality affects not only women but also men, which increases the need to address the issue. Among the manifestations of the problem, one can mention motherhood myths, limited career opportunities, leadership bias, and some other aspects. Selected practices and interventions may be seen as potentially powerful solutions to gender inequality in the workplace. They are inclusion policies, managers and HR specialists engagement, reporting systems, and social assistance programs. The use of effective tools can help overcome the existing ethical challenges and minimize the effects of sexism in organizations globally.

References

Adamson, M., Kelan, E. K., Lewis, P., Rumens, N., & Sliwa, M. (2016). The quality of equality: Thinking differently about gender inclusion in organizations. Human Resource Management International Digest, 24(7), 8-11. 

Hideg, I., & Ferris, D. L. (2016). The compassionate sexist? How benevolent sexism promotes and undermines gender equality in the workplace. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 111(5), 706-727. Web.

Rosling, L. (2019). Men more likely than women to feel discriminated at work on the grounds of gender. SME Loans. 

Sharma, A. (2016). Managing diversity and equality in the workplace. Cogent Business & Management, 3(1), 1212682. 

Tastad, C., & Bass, D. (2020). The route to true gender equality? Fix the system, not the women. World Economic Forum. Web.

Verniers, C., & Vala, J. (2018). Justifying gender discrimination in the workplace: The mediating role of motherhood myths. PloS One, 13(1), e0190657. 

Wu, R., & Cheng, X. (2016). Gender equality in the workplace: The effect of gender equality on productivity growth among the Chilean manufacturers. The Journal of Developing Areas, 50(1), 257-274. Web.

Nowadays, in the dormitories of the American University, the implementation of effective policies and norms plays an important role. The point is that students from different parts of the world are allowed to live in American dormitories and free to develop their personal needs, religious interests, political persuasions, incomes, and personal identities. Despite the fact that many modern people are not dependent on certain prejudices and remain to be open to new tendencies and decisions, the majority of social institutions and a university, in particular, are built in regard to a system with proper gender identities.

Therefore, the question of gender identification has a significant impact on the development of student relationships in dormitories and other facilities. However, this issue is now challenged by a number of additional factors and exceptions which may be accepted by one group of people and unclear to another group of people. In this research article, the goal is not only to develop a discussion about gender identification in the American university campus. The task is to underline that there is a missing point in such discussion regarding the presence of the individuals who identify themselves as the representatives of a different gender than theirs and the necessity for ordinary students to live in the same private places with such people for a certain period of time.

Importance of Gender Identification

It is necessary to identify if there are any difficulties male and female students may experience while living with the people who are born with the anatomy of one sex but believe that they belong to the opposite gender. In addition, it is interesting to investigate a deeper aspect of this discussion and clarity if sharing a bathroom with a transgender may be uncomfortable for a person of an ordinary orientation. Today, people have to live in society where individuals have to choose from identities that would seek to render them comprehensible promoting the regime of a gender dichotomy (Thorpe 1).

This kind of discussion is not to humiliate or offend transgender people, but to focus on the attitudes of other people who have to share the same place, traditions, and even needs and consider the existing policies of coed dormitories at the American University.

Coed Housing on Campuses

The policy of coed dormitories is frequently used in the American University. College or university residential life has already become an important aspect of academic experiences and personal lives of millions of students who make their decision to continue their education at the American University (Willoughby et al., The Emergence of Gender-Neutral Housing 733). Therefore, the University administration tries to consider the needs and opinions of all students in order to provide them with appropriate living and learning conditions.

During the last 50 years, many universities have successfully accepted the policies regarding the nature of campus housing and replaced gender-specific dorms with coed dorms (Willoughby et al., The Decline of in Loco Parentis 21). There are more than 100 universities in the United States that have coed dormitories today.

To facilitate the lives of students in such dorms, numerous improvements and policies have to be made. One of the recent achievements that have been made in campus policies includes the creation of female and male floors in the dormitories so that the representatives of both genders could have enough space for living, entertaining, and other social demands (Hoffnung 681; Willoughby et al., The Decline of in Loco Parentis 22). Still, in many cases, it is normal for the representatives of both genders to live on the same floor or even to share the same bathrooms. However, sometimes, dorm inhabitants have to face some new tendencies where the already established policies and norms cannot help.

Transgender Issues on Campuses

Nowadays, transgender or homosexual people deserve the same rights to education, work, and living as ordinary heterosexual individuals do. There is the position that protects gender identity and expression under Title VII according to which discrimination based on sex is prohibited (Perdue 50). Therefore, from the legal point of view, transgender people are free to demand the same conditions and opportunities as compared to other students.

At the same time, the legal support of transgender people does not promote such issues as personal respect and recognition of needs within a living place. Transgender children may receive increased attention in the media, the Internet, and press and become visible in todays society (de Jong 199; Olson et al. 467). Many students and employees do not have enough knowledge or resources to learn how to work and live respectfully and productively with transgender people (Thorpe 8). If students feel uncomfortable while living and sharing the same space with a transgender student, they are free to demonstrate their personal attitudes in case they do not contradict the law.

Human Difficulties and Personal Challenges

The policies of coed dormitories are based on the fact that there are two genders of students: male and female. Therefore, universities find it normal to create special floors for male and female students and respect gender composition of colleges and universities (Hoffnung 680). However, as a rule, in organizational management, there is no recognition of such group of people as transgender people.

Such omission may cause certain misunderstandings and concerns among students. For example, Willoughby et al. noted that gender-neutral housing has a certain impact on gender behavior and beliefs or promote outdated gender ideals (The Emergence of Gender-Neutral Housing 734). At the beginning of the 2010s, about 0.3-0.5% of the American population is comprised of transgender people (de Jong 199). It means that there are more than 1 million transgender people who live in the United States, and heterogeneous people may easily communicate, collaborate, and live with such people.

As a rule, human bodies are intended to be heterosexual, meaning that people feel safe and sound when they share the same gender zones and spaces (Westbrook and Schilt 49). As soon as the representative of another gender interfere this space, certain problems or concerns may occur, including the possibility of using force or reinforcement of stereotypical notions of femininity and masculinity (de Jong 204).

Though many people do not experience challenges while communicating and living with transgender people, there is a considerable percentage of people who still have some doubts, experience personal dislike, or simply cannot understand the choice of people to be transgender. Heterogeneous students are as free to make their own decisions about and develop their attitudes to transgender people as transgender people are free to ask for equal rights and freedoms.

Solutions and Options for Coed Housing

Regarding the latest assessments and research and the urgency of transgender issues in the American society, it is possible to suggest that universities and other academic facilities have to elaborate their policies and pay attention to the aspects that may be uncomfortable or unclear to heterosexual students and offensive and discriminative for transgender students. The university is challenged by the necessity to take the opinions of all campus inhabitants into consideration and develop the policies to support all students and provide them with appropriate living and learning conditions.

Today, it is not enough to divide students into males and females. Both genders may have their own subgroups with certain characteristics and peculiarities. On the one hand, these issues have to be recognized and respected by society. On the other hand, the identification of such issues should not cause additional problems and challenges for society. In other words, the decision of a person of one gender to be identified as a representative of an opposite gender should not cause additional problems for other people who live around. Therefore, new research, opinions of different people, and the experiences of various academic facilities and campuses have to be used in the future to clarify what solutions and alternatives can be used to support the idea of gender identification in American coed dormitories.

Conclusion

In general, the policy of coed dormitories at the American University is a powerful tool to support students and other campus inhabitants. It determines the conditions under which students have to share their space for living and recognize the norms and rules that have to be followed. For a long period of time, students had to live in gender-specific dorms. With time, it has become normal to use coed dorms and provide students of both genders with separate floors for living.

Nowadays, coed dorm policies have to undergo considerable changes again because there are transgender students who question the effectiveness of separation of students into males and females only. Certain ethical, social, and personal concerns take place and have to be solved regarding new rules and expectations.

Works Cited

de Jong, Dirk. Transgender Issues and BSW Programs: Exploring Faculty Perceptions, Practices, and Attitudes. The Journal of Baccalaureate Social Work, vol. 20, no. 1, 2015, pp. 199-218.

Hoffnung, Michele. Career and Family Outcomes for Women Graduates of Single-Sex versus Coed Colleges. Sex Roles, vol. 65, no. 9-10, 2011, pp. 680-692.

Olson, Kristina R., et al. Gender Cognition in Transgender Children. Psychological Science, vol. 26, no. 4, 2015, pp. 467-474.

Perdue, Troy J. Trans Issues for Colleges and Universities: Records, Housing, Restrooms, Locker Rooms, and Athletics. Journal of College and University Law, vol. 41, no. 1, 2015, pp. 45-70.

Thorpe, Amelia. Where Do We Go? Gender Identity and Gendered Spaces in Postsecondary Institutions. Antistasis, vol. 7, no. 1, 2017, pp. 1-17.

Westbrook, Laurel, and Kristen Schilt. Doing Gender, Determining Gender: Transgender People, Gender Panics, and the Maintenance of the Sex/Gender/Sexuality System. Gender & Society, vol. 28, no. 1, pp. 32-57.

Willoughby, Brian J., et al. The Decline of in Loco Parentis and the Shift to Coed Housing on College Campuses. Journal of Adolescent Research, vol. 24, no. 1, 2009, pp. 21-36.

Willoughby, Brian J., et al. The Emergence of Gender-Neutral Housing on American University Campuses. Journal of Adolescent Research, vol. 27, no. 6, 2012, pp. 732-750.

The Queer of Color Theory

As a diverse field of studies that includes multiple disparate ideas and points of view, the queer theory incorporates color issues. To understand the experiences of people different from the predominant groups, one should refer to the queer of color theory that seeks to disrupt binarism and normalcy in social institutions and structures in terms of persons of different races.¹ The purpose of the present paper is to identify the most significant elements of the theory and explain their importance. In this respect, the correlation between power and gender theory, the socio-cultural changes, and the past and present through the lens of the theory are considered.

To begin with, power is what both individuals and different social groups urge. While the opportunity to translate ones schemes into actions and satisfy ones needs is universal, it is simultaneously connected with more specific facts and implications. It may be stated that, in the early stages, the queer of color theory used to be a political and theoretical critique of heteronormativity: in other words, it may be called a critique of the institutions, schemes, relationships, patterns, and acts that regard heterosexuality as homogeneous and natural.²

The social sciences of the past examined hierarchy and studied the reason for the top-down way of organizing systems: male-female, heterosexual-homosexual, white-non-white; the first component of which pair was considered to be the norm while the second was automatically turned into the anomaly. However, in the course of time, there was a shift towards different issues. Since the twentieth century, the modern authors have been interested in the approach that combines the results of the gender studies, feminist theory, and power research.

Owing to this fusion, the question why some forms of identity become preferable comes to prominence.³ As I understand it, power is essential in the context of the queer of color theory because it is relevant to any society. While the experience of the past helps recognize the roots of the problem, one has a chance to improve the current situation. This aspect of the theory evolves, and it is probable to orientate oneself in the modern society where various persons and social strata seek for power.

The socio-cultural changes are another constituent of the queer of color theory that is, in my opinion, of paramount importance. It implies close connections between an epoch and attitudes towards the deviation and order. The changes in one component are to result in the mutation of the other. As long as the traditional hierarchy is doubted and religion loses its influence, people manage to form their new identities and develop in spite of the existing boundaries.

The market growth, the communication increase, and literacy led to the Enlightenment and post-Enlightenment emphasis on a human being.⁴ Further, urbanization and the density of population gave the opportunity to establish new forms of relationship. The progress of the queer of color theory has also been facilitated by the phenomena of workers rights movement, the abolitionist movement, and feminism. The constant changes characterize the theory. Nowadays, it may even become non-intuitive: the queer theory became synonymous with white gay men, although the initial intention was to take into account a wide range of groups.⁵

Overall, the social and cultural environment affects the way people perceive the reality and at the same time might change the contents of the theory. Working with the queer of color theory, one should scrutinize the setting and assess the tendencies prior to arriving at conclusions.

The third element of the queer of color theory is connected with cultural and social research in the context of the history and modern society. The idea is that theoretical frameworks appear, develop, and become obsolete, but the social processes of the past and their essence remain the same. It is probable to study the phenomena of the past and apply newly created frameworks, and the queer of color theory may be applied to various historical periods.⁶ It is not only the feature of the twentieth- and twenty-first century but also the peculiarity of any society that may be either emphasized and determined or not identified specifically.

To sum it up, the queer of color theory has changed significantly, but it seems to remain relevant today. Three elements, such as the focus on power, the socio-cultural innovations, and the social development over different historical periods, become significant. Thus, to understand the present-day processes and phenomena, these components may be of great help.

Writing the History of Queers of Color

To record any history objectively is not an easy task: it is necessary not only to select proper materials in accordance with ones goal but also to have access to credible sources. The more complicated and controversial issues are the focus of the specialists attention, the more difficulties they have to face. It is relevant to the history of queer of colors. One may state that the obstacles associated with studying their past refer to reliability.

In this context, the invisibility of queers of color that characterizes the initial situation and early development phases, the prejudice against queer people including the non-whites, and problems pertaining to older research papers and other academic sources are the realms of concern: they make a substantial impact on writing the history of queers of color.

First and foremost, the political and social climate had a strong influence on queer people. The word queer used to be offensive, and the environment not only failed to encourage people to identify themselves openly but also made them invisible.⁷ In other words, the situation concerning their status was unfavorable: in those circumstances, a queer person preferred not to reveal their identity and kept silent because of the potential dangers, the lack of understanding, and the impossibility to adapt to the surroundings.

As a result, it is probable to guesstimate that many facts, events, and details will never be discovered since the participants, the queers and the individuals and agencies opposing them, did not speak up. It means that even the known and registered facts might have been distorted to some extent because one party was invisible and silent. The predominance of one point of view inevitably leads to the perversion of the history of queers of color.⁸ Consequently, one may suspect that the present-day data about the history are seriously incomplete.

Prejudice constitutes the second difficulty in writing the history of queers of color. The roots of the bias against the queer lie at the traditions of the past when the gender roles were rigid and unquestionable, and a set of certain features and actions was prescribed to males and females.⁹ I think any attempts to change the current state of affairs were seen as trying to establish control over the societal orders, suppressed, and concealed.

Therefore, prejudice added up to the lack of correct information. Taken separately, the racial bias and bias against queer persons manifest themselves as pressing problems that have survived despite the vindication of the rights and activists great effort, and the combination of these prejudices is no less challenging. It is often believed that people of color become the victims of discrimination and suffer from both physical and mental harm.¹⁰

Since such individuals have two marked characteristics, it may give ground to consider them to be a kind of risk group nowadays, although the present-day society is more tolerant than it used to be, and the Western cultures, by and large, promote diversity and support. Even nowadays, the information about the queer is not always accessible and credible, and it is much more difficult to study the past because of the bias that was common in those periods.

Finally, the problem connected with theoretical frameworks and reliable sources is big. Since the 1970s, a large body of academic literature describing visibility, climate in educational institutes, work environment, etc., and identity studies has appeared.¹¹

Although queers of color have also been addressed, the historical approach is not the leading one: the emphasis is often laid on psychological, social, and political issues of the present-day situation, and one and the same event or fact can be interpreted in contradictory ways. Consequently, a scholar who wants to write the history of queers of color should not only consult many recent books, articles, and web-sources, but also delve in older literature and assess the approaches and theories of the past in order to see the academic tendencies, as well as the references and descriptions of the actual events.

In conclusion, one should say that writing history is linked to some objective difficulties: it is necessary to find credible sources and extract the proper information from them. However, some issues, such as the history of queers of color, pose greater problems. When a scholar addresses this sphere, it is important to examine the phenomenon of invisibility, the prejudice of the past, and the specifics of the academic literature. Having considered all these obstacles, one will significantly improve the quality of their work and present the historical events impersonally and accurately.

Heterosexual and White Voices Domination

Although a researcher is to be non-biased by definition, the real practice demonstrates that a personality makes a substantial impact on studies.¹² In order to evaluate some theory or article and get the insight of the contents objectively, one should refer not only to the author but also the groups to which they belong. It is especially important when a scholar belonging to a certain social group investigates issues concerning the categories that do not seem to be linked with their background.

However, some relation may be found in terms of African American and queer studies. The possible answer is that both race and gender characteristics are intertwined, and the queer of color theory becomes the contact point and the subject of interest in these cases. It is peculiar that the sphere of African American studies has been dominated by heterosexual voices, and the sphere of queer studies has been addressed by white voices, and there are the external and internal reasons for these phenomena.

Similar to other study areas, the African American studies may serve as the example of the predominance of heterosexual voices. It is probable to single out the biological and social ground. It is estimated that approximately 10% of the whole population are queer, although the approaches and figures tend to vary in different sources.¹³ As a result, it is only natural that a large number of scholars choose the African American studies as the sphere of their primary interest.

However, there is another reason, the social one, that plays the more important role. As it has been mentioned, black people are studied from different perspectives, and the queer of color theory is quite popular. Judging by the fact that many research papers concentrate on queer black persons, it may be assumed that it reflects the subconscious guilt because of the past.¹⁴ It means that the modern people realize that the policies of the past were wrong and wish to make some compensation by means of studying the most urgent issues and addressing the problems that affect the present-day black population.

At the present stage of development, it has become clear that the political, economic, social, and cultural events of the previous decades account for the processes that the society has to face at the moment. Consequently, one wishes to improve the situation now.

As for the predominance of the white voices in the field of queer studies, the causes pertain to social peculiarities only. First of all, the current trends in education are not positive. According to the statistics, black students are drastically underrepresented in colleges and universities: while the enrollment rates have recently improved, the graduation indexes are still unsatisfactory; in 2013, approximately 40% of whites between the ages of 25 and 29 had reportedly a bachelors degree or more, compared to about 20% of blacks, 15% of Hispanics and 58% of Asians.¹⁵ Gender issues are involved: black males are in a disadvantageous position in comparison with other groups.¹⁶

As this external issue implies, black people who receive the corresponding education less frequently do not carry out research, and their white peers are prevalent. On the other hand, the influence of the internal issues is equally significant. The events of the past have demonstrated that it is necessary to try and build the society based on peace and tolerance. In the modern world, it is impossible to avoid contacts with persons of different races, ethnicities, genders, religious views, and so on.

Regardless of whether certain individuals want it or not, the process of globalization proves that the humanity moves to the solidarity. In my opinion, researchers understand it and address those groups that used to be discriminated in order to educate the general public, make the population aware of the true values, such as harmony, cooperation, and equality, and introduce the measures that may be effective to solve the problem of inequality and discrimination.

Overall, the modern research is notable for two tendencies: the predominance of heterosexual voices in the field of African American Studies and the prevalence of white voices in terms of queer studies. It is possible to state that there are inner and outer reasons for this phenomena. In the first case, it is the number of heterosexual people all over the globe and the guilt caused by the events of the past. In the second case, both reasons are social: the access to education and the need for peace and harmony. Thus, the white and heterosexual voices predominance is explained by the history and the present-day processes.

Bibliography

Anyon, Jean. Radical Possibilities: Public Policy, Urban Education, and a New Social Movement. New York: Routledge, 2014.

Beresford, Sarah. The Age of Consent and the Ending of Queer Theory. Laws 3, no. 4 (2014): 759-779.

Blackwood, Evelyn. The Many Faces of Homosexuality: Anthropological Approaches to Homosexual Behavior. New York: Routledge, 2013.

Boyd, Nan A. Who Is the Subject? Queer Theory Meets Oral History. Elspeth Brown, Historian: Markets, Visual Culture, Gender, Sexuality. Web.

Carrol, Rachel. Rereading Heterosexuality: Feminism, Queer Theory and Contemporary Fiction. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2012.

DeLombard, Jeannine Marie. In the Shadow of the Gallows: Race, Crime, and American Civic Identity. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012.

Hall, Donald E. Gender and Queer Theory. In The Routledge Companion to Critical and Cultural Theory 2013, edited by Paul Wake and Simon Malpas, 107-119. New York, Routledge, 2013.

Harper, Shaun R., and Charles H.F. Davis. They (Dont) Care About Education: A Counternarrative on Black Male Students Responses to Inequitable Schooling. The Journal of Educational Foundations 26, no. 1/2 (2012): 103-120.

Lovaas, Karen. LGBT Studies and Queer Theory: New Conflicts, Collaborations, and Contested Terrain. Binghamton: Routledge, 2013.

McCune, Jeffrey. Sexual Discretion: Black Masculinity and the Politics of Passing. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014.

Means, Darris R., and Audrey J. Jaeger. Black in the Rainbow: Quaring the Black Gay Male Student Experience at Historically Black Universities. Journal of African American Males in Education 4, no. 2 (2013): 124-141.

Mischel, Walter. Personality and Assessment. London: Psychology Press, 2013.

Renn, Kristen A. LGBT and Queer Research in Higher Education the State and Status of the Field. Educational Researcher 39, no. 2 (2011): 132-141.

Warner, Michael. Queer and Then? The Chronicle of Higher Education. Web.

Weber, Cynthia. Why is There no Queer International Theory?. European Journal of International Relations 21, no. 1 (2015): 1-43.

Footnotes

1. Darris R. Means and Audrey J. Jaeger, Black in the Rainbow: Quaring the Black Gay Male Student Experience at Historically Black Universities, Journal of African American Males in Education 4, no. 2 (2013): 124.
2. Sarah Beresford, The Age of Consent and the Ending of Queer Theory, Laws 3, no. 4 (2014): 770.
3. Donald E. Hall, Gender and Queer Theory, in The Routledge Companion to Critical and Cultural Theory 2013, ed. Paul Wake and Simon Malpas (New York, Routledge, 2013), 111.
4. Cynthia Weber, Why is There no Queer International Theory?, European Journal of International Relations 21, no. 1 (2015): 23.
5. Karen Lovaas, LGBT Studies and Queer Theory: New Conflicts, Collaborations, and Contested Terrain (Binghamton: Routledge, 2013), 116.
6. Ibid., 118.
7. Nan A. Boyd, Who Is the Subject? Queer Theory Meets Oral History, Elspeth Brown, Historian: Markets, Visual Culture, Gender, Sexuality. Web.
8. Jeffrey McCune, Sexual Discretion: Black Masculinity and the Politics of Passing (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014), 33.
9. Rachel Carrol, Rereading Heterosexuality: Feminism, Queer Theory and Contemporary Fiction (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2012), 72.
10. Michael Warner, Queer and Then?, The Chronicle of Higher Education. Web.
11. Kristen A. Renn, LGBT and Queer Research in Higher Education the State and Status of the Field, Educational Researcher 39, no. 2 (2011): 136.
12. Walter Mischel, Personality and Assessment. London (Psychology Press, 2013), 41.
13. Evelyn Blackwood, The Many Faces of Homosexuality: Anthropological Approaches to Homosexual Behavior (New York: Routledge, 2013), 17.
14. Jeannine Marie DeLombard, In the Shadow of the Gallows: Race, Crime, and American Civic Identity (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012), 106.
15. Jean Anyon, Radical Possibilities: Public Policy, Urban Education, and a New Social Movement (New York: Routledge, 2014), 29.
16. Shaun R Harper and Charles H.F. Davis, They (Dont) Care About Education: A Counternarrative on Black Male Students Responses to Inequitable Schooling, The Journal of Educational Foundations 26, no. 1/2 (2012): 104.