The Gender Differences Concept

Gender differences exist for different reasons, but their most significant feature is that they have an impact on social interactions and building up relationships between men and women. This paper will explore the causes of gender differences including biological, cognitive, and social ones, discuss the influence of gender differences on the perception of such concepts as flirting, joking, and harassment, and reflect on some stereotypes regarding gender differences widely spread in society.

First of all, it is vital to draw the line between the concept of gender and sex. Gender is a behavioral and cognitive state of an individual influencing his or her behavior while sex is a biological characteristic (Gray, 2013). Gender differences have an impact on understanding flirting behavior, its motivations and potential consequences such as joking, having fun, and the threat of sexual harassment. It has been proven that sexual behavior of men and women differs.

That said, men often interpret womens behavior as such having more sexual context than it usually does. It means that men tend to see courtship intentions in situations, actions, and jokes in which women do not actually put such hint in (Henningsen, 2004). It leads to communication misunderstandings that often result in attempts to sexually harass a partner in flirting. As of the perception of the concept of sexual harassment, there is nearly no distinction made between men and women when it comes to defining it.

However, there are differences in interpreting ambiguous situations and behaviors (Nielsen, Bjørkelo, Notelaers & Einarsen, 2010). Again, men tend to imply more sexual intentions in action than there really are.

There are several reasons for the existence of gender differences. First of all, they derive from the biological characteristics, i.e. being born as a man or a woman, brain operation, and hormonal influences (Miller & Halpern, 2014). Second, they are influenced by social and cultural factors. On having children, parents start shaping their gender roles by painting their rooms in specific colors or treating them in particular ways. It means that parents teach a child to behave with regard to a babys sex.

Moreover, parents often point to gender differences imposing a belief about behavior models peculiar for boys and girls (Gray, 2013). It later becomes a cognitive cause of gender difference because men and women are treated differently, that is why they see the world differently and are expected to act differently (Miller & Halpern, 2014).

There are various stereotypes regarding gender differences in sexual behavior. For example, people tend to think that sexual harassment results from miscommunication between the sexes. For the most part, I agree with this statement because it was shown that men and women interpret same situations in a different manner. Furthermore, there is a belief that women invite rape by their behavior, actions, and the way they dress.

This statement can only be true in the case when it implies comprehensiveness, i.e. when a woman is both dressed outrageously and behaves sexually explicitly. Otherwise, I cannot agree with it. Moreover, there is a stereotype that paying for a date implies that sex is expected. I do not believe that it is so because paying for a date is a demonstration of good manners and social etiquettes, which does not have the rule that the pay equals sex.

Finally, some people believe that they are not responsible for their sexual behavior under the influence of alcohol. I am strongly inclined that you are always responsible for your behavior starting from the amount of alcohol you have and the consequences it entails. There is no justification for saying that you are not responsible for what you have done.

So, gender differences influence our lives whether we are aware of this connection or not. There are numerous reasons for their existence, but the fact remains: men and women see the world in a different way, that is why they will always be different.

References

Gray, M. J. (2013). The relationship between gender identity and flirting style (Masters Dissertation). Web.

Henningsen, D. D. (2004). Flirting with meaning: An examination of miscommunication in flirting interactions. Sex Roles, 50(7/8), 481-489.

Miller, D. I. & Halpern, D. F. (2014). The new science of cognitive sex differences. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 18(1), 37-45.

Nielsen, M. B., Bjørkelo, B., Notelaers, G. & Einarsen, S. (2010). Sexual harassment: Prevalence, outcomes, and gender differences assessed by three different estimation models. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 19(3), 252-274.

Gender Identity in Life-Span Development

Gender identity is an issue that affects an individuals lifespan development. Today the question of gender identity is acute for people who struggle to find themselves in a world full of stereotypes and misunderstandings. It is vital for a social worker to develop strategies to help such individuals and their families to understand what gender identity is and overcome prejudices that they have around it.

Society more tolerant now despite the fact that misconceptions around gender still exist and can affect ones coming-of-age. Because of the generation gap, some adults cannot react adequately when their child struggles with gender identity. This aspect is influenced by genetic and non-shared environmental factors (Burri et al., 2010). Understanding of gender comes from examining ones family and environment outside an individuals household.

A person begins to explore their gender during preadolescence years. Young people start identifying the gender when they experience the development of secondary sex characteristics (Pleak, 2009). It is the time when parents and their children have a conversation about gender identity to understand the severity of the issue. If an adult ignores this problem, it may lead to anxiety, depression, and lower self-esteem of a child.

Adulthood is the period of inner exploration and greater identity. During the ages of 18 to 25, a coming out process of accepting ones gender identity or sexual orientation can be followed by various forms of discrimination and oppression (Ferguson & Miville, 2017). Because of such intolerance, people who identify themselves with the LGBTQ+ community seek out mental health services more frequently than heterosexuals.

The LGBTQ+ community is not willing to attend hospitals or clinics due to intolerance from therapists. Studies show online treatment helps minorities because they feel more comfortable on the Internet (Brewster & Moradi, 2010). One strategy for a social worker to treat the LGBTQ+ community is to reach out to them through the Internet and become a friend who understands them more than society does.

For a social worker, it is important to be aware of methods to treat individuals of the LGBTQ+ community when it comes to gender identity or sexual orientation. Prejudice can harm the community; thus, social workers must be educated and research the topic thoroughly. Right strategies such as becoming a person who simply understands what members of the LGBTQ+ community experience might help a lot.

References

Brewster, M. E., & Moradi, B. (2010). Personal, relational and community aspects of bisexual identity in emerging, early and middle adult cohorts. Journal of Bisexuality, 10(4), 404-428.

Burri, A., Cherkas, L., Spector, T., & Rahman, Q. (2011). Genetic and environmental influences on female sexual orientation, childhood gender typicality and adult gender identity. PloS ONE, 6(7), e21982.

Ferguson, A. D., & Miville, M. L. (2017). Its complicated: Navigating multiple identities in small town America. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 73(8), 975-984.

Pleak, R. R. (2009). Formation of transgender Identities in adolescence. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health, 13(4), 282-291.

Gender Norms, Roles, and Stereotypes: Act Analysis

Introduction

Gendered roles, norms, and stereotypes play a highly significant role in any community all over the world in any stage of its development. As a result, they are dramatically embedded in both individual and social consciousness and observably resistant to changes. In general, all kinds of stereotypes and norms connected with gender, age, race, ethnicity, education, economic status, or family perpetuate and promote inequality. Gender roles may be defined as a specific set of expectations that are associated with peoples perceptions of femininity and masculinity. In turn, gender norms are the prescriptions of these roles and a particular type of social and cultural regulation that aims to encourage socially desirable or acceptable behavior. Gender norms regulate the activities of individuals that represent their social position as members of a community, under given circumstances. For the achievement of this purpose, gender norms imply a specific social control mechanism that is characterized by consciousness and generality. In other words, people know about and accept general rules that cannot be applied in various contexts.

In general, social roles and norms are traditionally connected with societys value system. Although any prescription related to the persons gender is an exclusively social phenomenon, it is frequently perceived as natural and valid with historical confirmation or biological origin. Such a conscious or unconscious approach leads to the formation of gender stereotypes. They are social and psychological mechanisms that regulate peoples evaluation and perception of various social phenomena. Gender stereotypes are highly stable elements that form in consciousness and result in emotional and irrational judgment, influencing opinions, positive or negative attitudes, and particular behavior. They imply the undifferentiated attribution of specific characteristics to all group members. It goes without saying that throughout history, gender stereotypes have substantively altered due to substantive and inevitable historical changes. However, in the present day, they still maintain an unequal relationship between women and men in multiple societies all over the world.

Gender stereotypes may cause unfair and unequal treatment, or sexism, which has no additional reason except the persons gender. Traditionally, there are four significant types of gender stereotypes related to women  domestic behaviors, occupation, personality traits, and physical appearance. Domestic behaviors include the division of household duties according to gender. For instance, a substantial number of people think that women should be responsible for cooking, cleaning the home, and childcare. Gender stereotypes related to occupations imply the existence of feminine professions. In other words, only women maybe school and nursery teachers, health care providers, hairdressers, or nail artists. Personality traits stereotypically associated with women include pliability, obedience, emotionality, and humbleness. Gender stereotypes related to physical appearance may vary in different countries across the globe. The traditional stigmatization of women that currently exists in western societies is based on cultural perceptions and history. Therefore, women are frequently expected to be thin and graceful, they should have long hair, or wear dresses and makeup. Wearing makeup became my role-reversal act taken to analyze the significance of gendered roles and evaluate peoples reactions and factors that have an impact on them. I was wearing makeup at work for an entire day to understand my feelings and co-occurring emotions as well. The purpose of this paper is to describe my act and thoroughly analyze it from the perspective of peoples perceptions of womens gender norms and the viability of these norms in modern society.

Acts Description

In general, my act related to the evaluation of the impact of gender socialization on my working community. Balvin (2017) defines the phenomena of gender socialization as a process by which individuals develop, refine and learn to do gender through internalizing gender norms and roles (para. 2). Various social institutions, such as family, close settings, mass media, or social networks, have a substantial impact on the formation of gender roles, norms, and stereotypes. Makeup is one of the womens most specific attributes of gender. In other words, women are expected to wear makeup during the day to express their femininity.

I perform my gender in another way, as I do not wear makeup daily. I commonly make an exception in the case of special occasions, celebrations, and photography sessions, however, the practice of applying and wearing makeup every day is highly challenging, time-consuming, and exhausting for me. Nevertheless, I decided to perform the role-reversal act of wearing makeup at work for an entire day to challenge the norms of gender socialization.

An effective performance inevitably requires preparations; in my case, for the act, I primarily identified the type of makeup I would do and the time of its application. I chose natural and nude makeup as it was less challenging to put on in comparison with evening or bright makeup and did not require exceptional skills for its applying. In addition, simple makeup is highly suitable for work and daytime in general. However, even the most appropriate variant was highly complicated for me. I woke up at 4:30 am to apply makeup and be at work at 7 am. It is obvious that I will not repeat my act or start to apply makeup every working day as I do not want to spend such a substantial amount of time on it and limit my sleep.

At work, my fundamental goal was to observe peoples verbal and physical behavior as a response to the change in my appearance (Mack et al., 2005). In general, my colleagues and other employees of the company noticed it, though they reacted in different ways. Some people have shown visible signs of surprise without commenting, while others did not express any emotions; I may conclude that they did not notice my makeup. Another group of people compliments my appearance, but some workers had detected my transformation, though they had not understood its reason. These colleagues told me that day that I looked different, however, they did not know why. Surprisingly, no one expressed negative emotions or mentioned that makeup had made me charmless or ugly. At the same time, no one stated that I looked more feminine, and I should apply makeup all the time. Although I got a positive response from workers, my personal experiences were highly controversial. On the one hand, wearing makeup improved my self-confidence. On the other hand, I was substantively focused on my makeups quality as my face began to sweat.

In general, this act did not change my attitude to makeup. I did not like it as it felt highly unnatural on my skin. In addition, particular attention to me from other people did not allow me to work efficiently during the day. If I perform the same act again in the future, I will wear makeup at work on Friday for half of a day or in the church as there are substantially fewer people inside. I do not think that my makeup will disharmonize with my appearance in general, as I will dress up for church. Moreover, the setting spay may be useful as it will help me to focus on essential things rather than on the quality of makeup.

Acts Impact

Stereotyped thinking and specific behavioral patterns caused by it are peculiar for the majority of people from their childhood. They may shape individual performance and motivations for a lifetime. According to recent research, the gender-brilliance stereotype is present in children as young as six years of age (Jaxon et al., 2019, p. 3). They subsequently act according to their stereotypes that were learned from both personal experience and broader cultural messages. For instance, if children form their attitude towards the intellectual abilities of people based on prejudice, they may avoid certain activities regardless of their interests (Jaxon et al., 2019). Gender socialization and stereotypes that intensified during childhood and adolescence later contribute to gender inequalities in empowerment, education, employment, and income.

Before the performance of my role-reversal act, I believed that makeup had a specific impact on peoples attitudes and behaviors based on stereotypes against womens intellectual abilities. However, I did not observe this tendency  the management of my company and colleagues did not change behavior to demonstrate disrespect to my professional skills or intelligence. Even though a substantial number of scientific research demonstrate that women encounter severe penalties for violating gender stereotypes, I had never experienced any tension at work previously caused by the absence of makeup (Keck & Babcock, 2017, p. 276). At the same time, I did not notice any possible benefits from wearing makeup in a professional setting as well (Keck & Babcock, 2017). That is why I conclude that the organization and its staff concentrate on the employees professionalism, productivity, and the result of their performance without particular concern over gender.

However, I cannot categorically consider the general reaction of approval that I received as a demonstration of agreement with gender norms. Although my transformation has got positive feedback, people did not advise me, directly or in a reserved way, to apply makeup to emphasize my femininity. Colleagues liked me with makeup as it made my face look better, correct features, and cover the skins insignificant blemishes.

From a personal perspective, such categories, as age, gender, race, economic class, and sexuality, play an essential role in gender socialization, and the presence or absence of stereotyped thinking may be dependent on peoples characteristics. During the performance of my act, I noticed that women expressed their attitude to my transformation more transparently while mens reactions were unclear. In other words, the majority of women came and directly complimented my makeup, and men did not say anything or did not even notice any change. This phenomenon may be explained by personal characteristics related to women as they are traditionally regarded as more sensitive and emotional (Drake, Primeaux, & Thomas, 2018). Moreover, I suppose that age, race, and sexuality of a person may affect his perception of gender norms and roles as well.

Although a prevalent number of people remain unbiased and non-judgmental throughout their lives, senior citizens of various societies have a particular tendency towards stereotyped thinking against their younger counterparts about their gender. According to the psychologists previous studies, greater prejudice among older adults was since older people grew up in less egalitarian times (Do people become more prejudiced as they grow older? 2015, para. 4). However, stereotyped thinking that leads to behavioral transformations may be determined by normal brain changes typical for late adulthood as well (Do people become more prejudiced as they grow older? 2015). In addition, I believe that the representatives of certain races or ethnicities have their gender stereotypes derived from the history of their societies. In turn, the members of the LGBT community may be characterized by the absence of stereotyped thinking. They manifest equality and a positive attitude to all people regardless of their gender and know a negative experience of stigmatization. Nevertheless, a persons education is a fundamental criterion that defines the presence of gender stereotypes.

Besides, I suppose that I may regard my role-reversal experiment as an act of feminism in some specified sense. There are several significant types of feminism that include liberal, radical, cultural, socialist, separatist and lesbian, black, transfeminism, and eco-feminism. The act of wearing makeup based on its everyday absence relates to liberal feminism that implies sexual equality and freedom for women to express themselves. That is why when I applied makeup, I demonstrated my right to be different any time I wanted regardless of gender stereotypes.

Conclusion

Wearing makeup became my role-reversal act taken to analyze the significance of gendered roles and evaluate peoples reactions. I was wearing makeup at work for an entire day to understand my feelings and co-occurring emotions as well. I perform my gender in another way as I absolutely do not wear makeup daily as I find this practice highly challenging, time-consuming, and exhausting for me. In general, the response from colleagues was positive, though no one emphasized the importance of makeup to express my femininity. I noticed that women frequently expressed their attitude to my transformation in a more transparent way while mens reactions were unclear. This act did not change my approach to makeup, and I do not like it due to the experience of discomfort even though makeup substantially boosts my self-esteem.

As a woman, I am expected to follow gender roles, however, I discovered that my identity and the way I express myself are immeasurably significant for me. Gender attributes cannot describe and identify any person, and peoples internal and external characteristics should not constantly be under socially prescribed gendered roles. However, my act demonstrates that gender stereotypes are continually losing their positions. Makeup and its absence do not change the attitude of other people toward me. It goes without saying that gender socialization and specific perception of gender roles and norms still exist worldwide, though, in the present day, people are less judged according to their gender and its attributes.

References

Balvin, N. (2017). What is gender socialization and why does it matter? Unicef: Evidence for Action. 

Do people become more prejudiced as they grow older? (2015). BBC News.

Drake, C. E., Primeaux, S., & Jorden, T. (2018). Comparing implicit gender stereotypes between women and men with the implicit relational assessment procedure. Gender Issues, 35(1), 3-20. Web.

Jaxon, J., Lei, R. F., Shachnai, R., Chestnut, E. K., & Cimpian, A. (2019). The acquisition of gender stereotypes about intellectual ability: Intersections with race. Journal of Social Issues, 75(4), 1192-1215. Web.

Keck, S., & Babcock, L. (2018). Who gets the benefit of the doubt? The impact of causal reasoning depth on how violations of gender stereotypes are evaluated. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 39(3), 276-291. Web.

Mack, N., Woodsong, C., MacQueen, K. M., Guest, G., & Namey, E. (2005). Qualitative research methods: A data collectors field guide. Family Health International.

Racial and Gender Disparities Among Evicted Americans

Eviction is a significant problem among low-class communities, which directly relates to poverty. Disproportionately forced dislocation from housing between various ethnicities calls for researchers to comprehensively analyze such notions, reasoning, and consequences. Establishing a sufficient statistical basis will provide a clear picture of racial disparity in eviction cases, which has a high possibility of influencing further control and policymaking. Despite the high eviction rates, with an estimate of about an annual rate of 1.6 million household displacement, there is no sufficient research that studies the matter from a nationwide perspective (Hepburn et al., 2020). All previous works include data related to a single location, however, lacking a full picture of Americas eviction demographics.

The article Racial and Gender Disparities among Evicted Americans explores the pattern of racial inequality among evicted individuals, specifically focusing on African-American and Latinx minorities. The research seeks to determine racial and gender disparities among evicted renters in the United States based on the legal data from 1195 counties (Hepburn et al., 2020). All the information was thoroughly validated, free of duplicates and invalid cases, with only reliable facts. The retrieved records were included in the calculation of statistical conclusions of racial and gender disparities among American evicted households.

The primary hypothesis of the presented work centers upon the statement of inadequate eviction rate distribution between black and white individuals, therefore, proposing the systems racially prejudiced attitude toward such communities. As a result, the authors expect to demonstrate the disproportion in the eviction based on ethnicity, expecting policymakers to acknowledge and act upon the issue to increase access to affordable housing. Based on the papers findings, the hypothesis was correct, indeed confirming a significant disparity in the eviction rates based on race.

The research was published in December 2020; thus, the information provided is relevant and up-to-date. To provide a comprehensive analysis of the issue, the researchers extracted eviction records from 2012 to 2016, storage in the Eviction Lab at Princeton University. A total number of 4.1 million defendants listed in court were analyzed, including 1,195 counties, drawn from 3,663 analyzed country-years, which makes up 37.5 percent of American renter households (Hepburn et al., 2020). The sample size included all counties in the United States that had sufficient, definite data of eviction records of at least one year in the aforementioned time period.

The research presents quantitative data, expressed in graphs and calculations, based on the retrieved statistics. The researchers used the statistical analysis method, which includes analyzing data collected in a statistically valid manner. The authors utilized court records to examine the racial disparity prevalence throughout the 5 years (Hepburn et al., 2020). The choice of using concrete court records instead of self-reports or surveys was made due to its higher reliability and ability to broadly assess the issue of eviction across different locations at a vast period of time.

To retrieve additional data from the cases, researchers used a Bayesian predictor algorithm, which calculated race probabilities. Such a method allowed to determine necessarily details hidden in the court cases, therefore providing an accurate estimate of the evection rates. The accuracy of such a predictive method is precise, with 94.3 percent of correct predictions with a variance of 0,007, which confirms the methods feasibility (Hepburn et al., 2020). Such a strategy allowed to determine the ethnicity and race of individuals whose names were not included in the court cases with high accuracy.

The collection of data in the research is followed by the statistical calculation process. The authors reported the eviction filing rate, which I determined by the formula of the number of eviction filings divided by the renter population (Hepburn et al., 2020). Such a step is the first part of the eviction process, after which a major part of tenants leaves their houses. Secondly, the authors identified the eviction rate: the number of eviction judgments divided by the renter population (Hepburn et al., 2020). The correct calculation of the variable facilitates identifying the forcibly removed renters by the court ruling in favor of the homeowner.

The third part of the research methodology is to determine the serial eviction filing rate: the number of individuals who are serially filed against divided by the total number of unique filing recipients (Hepburn et al., 2020). The retrieved data from such statistics demonstrate which ethnicities and minorities are more vulnerable to the forced displacement of are filed against more regularly than others. Collectively, the correctly calculated information from the court files will demonstrate whether there is a racial and ethnic disparity between individuals who get evicted.

As a result of correctly elected methodology, the research has shown the results, which confirmed significant racial disparity among forcefully displaced people. The outcomes demonstrated that black individuals were overrepresented in the sample of evicted households. Such tendency was most vividly apparent in densely populated counties, which is frequently greater than times their share of the renter population.

Moreover, females of Black and Latino ethnicity are under an even higher possibility of being evicted, the research finds (Hepburn et al., 2020). The last finding displayed that black and Latinx renters are more likely to be at risk of serial eviction filings than Caucasian individuals. Thus, the research presented empirical evidence that confirms the prevalence of racial disparity in eviction cases, which was based on reliable facts and methodology.

References

Hepburn, P., Louis, R., & Desmond, M. (2020). Racial and gender disparities among evicted Americans. Sociological Science, 7, 649662. Web.

Gender Stereotypes in Womens Opinion Study

This study focuses on the opinions of women and their perspectives on the prevalence of gender stereotypes. The qualitative research will best fit the purpose of the study. The participants will explore their experiences and the way they affected the formation of gender-related stereotypes. The qualitative methodology is the most appropriate when it comes to peoples ideas, beliefs, opinions, and so on (Mertens, 2014). It is necessary to add that the inductive approach will be utilized. This approach implies the use of a research question rather than a hypothesis and existing theory. The researcher will analyze the participants accounts and will attempt to explain some trends related to the development of gender stereotypes in women (as seen by women).

The qualitative research methodology is chosen due to the tools available within this paradigm. The data collection methods allow the researcher to elicit peoples ideas and opinions on a variety of issues. Importantly, many layers of meanings can appear. All these meanings can be analyzed and transformed into a sound theory that explains peoples behavior as well as trends existing in society. The participants will share their ideas as well as emotions during face-to-face interviews and discussions.

As far as the research model is concerned, empirical phenomenology will be utilized. This model implies the use of the dialogue and interview, which equips the researcher with a significant pool of data (Wertz, 2011). The researcher can examine the participants ideas and meanings. The model enables the researcher to identify and interpret the participants experiences that explain their behavior and attitudes. The method involves a close analysis of the participants accounts. The participants meanings are elicited and analyzed, which leads to an understanding of the essence of their experiences and opinions.

One of the most important stages will be recruiting samples. It is crucial to make sure that the participants have diverse backgrounds (ethnicity, education, socioeconomic and marital status, jobs, and so on). The data collection will be carried out in two stages. The first stage will be the conversational interviews, and the second phase will be focus group discussions. The researchers will ask open-ended questions during the interviews. At that, the researcher will have a set of questions, but the list can be adjusted. First, the researcher may ask for clarifications to make sure that the participants opinions and meanings are well-described and quite clear.

At the same time, the researcher may also ask some questions depending on the participants accounts. As has been mentioned above, the participants will have diverse backgrounds, and the questions will be adjusted to elicit as much information from the participants as possible. The conversational interviews will also help the participants to feel relaxed and share their opinions freely.

The preliminary analysis of the participants answers will result in the development of a list of questions for the focus group discussions. The most recurrent themes will be identified, and the participants will be encouraged to reveal their ideas on those themes. The researcher will focus on topics that evoke different feelings and ideas in the participants. The discussion will unveil some controversies (if any) and will make many participants look deeper into the problem. The researcher will manage the discussion through the provision of some topics to consider and discuss. The participants will also be encouraged to unveil new facets of the issue.

Reference List

Mertens, D.M. (2014). Research and evaluation in education and psychology: Integrating diversity with quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

Wertz, F.J. (2011). Phenomenological currents in twentieth-century psychology. In H.L. Dreyfus & M.A. Wrathall (Eds.), A companion to phenomenology and existentialism (pp. 394-412). Malden, MA: John Wiley & Sons.

Gender Wage Gap: The Pay Disparity Issue

Introduction

In the article Gender Wage Gap, the pay disparity issue is discussed, whereby in the past women were allowed to work in service and clerical occupations only, hence they could not support themselves financially. Arguably, Blau and Kahn state that one reason why there are instances of the gender pay gap in the U.S. is that women have less experience than their male counterparts. The article also reiterates that another reason why males are in a more advantageous position than women is their tendency to engage in different industries. However, today, females are narrowing the gender pay inequality gap by entering professional fields previously considered male by embracing education. Since the 1980s, technology has enabled women to compete with men for jobs since physical strength is no longer required. Lastly, the authors mention that the gender pay ratio increased in the 1970s by about sixty percent.

Reaction

First, the authors use ethos to raise emotions among the audience. The authors emphasize the morality of the gender pay gap issue, urging on the importance to eradicate this discrimination. Regarding pathos, it is evident that this article this authentic, thoughtful, and scientific considering that it is written in a consistent, clear, and strict tone. Denotatively, the article logos are at its ability to influence the audience, reflect the main content of the study, and equally describe the conclusions. Arguably, this article is critical for contemporary research on workplace discrimination. Holistically, instilling discipline to children at a tender age is vital to make them respect one another despite their gender to have a future workforce that is unbiased to payment of wages according to gender.

Reference

Blau, F. D., & Kahn, L. M. (2017). The Gender Wage Gap: Extent, Trends, and Explanations. Journal of Economic Literature, 55(3), 789865. Web.

Gender and Sexual activity: Literature Review

Literature suggests that social scientists have always attempted to address complex relationships between various attitudes of society while constructing the interrelated constructs of sex, gender, and sexuality. This literature review focus on various perspectives of gender and sexuality in the context of different arenas of social groups. In this context, we start the review from university students. Sociologists have tried hard to explore what students perceive of sexual activity when they talk about sexual process and sex partners. The definition of having sex here is confined in a general manner that is shared by respondents and does not include the exclusive intercourse mechanism to be taken into account.

Research conducted by Trotter & Alderson (2007) presented a synopsis which consider those students who possessed varying attitudes in their perceptions of having sex, choosing sexual partners, and their personal experience with same and opposite sex partners. It was found that among students who participated mostly were university girls who defined sex not in terms of orgasm but what they focused upon were the scenarios and the circumstances behind orgasm leading to sexual behavior while determining the sex of the partner. The sexual experience questionnaire on one hand resulted in the notion that women were more specific in defining sexual encounters than men, while men only defined sexual process in terms of orgasm. On the other hand the findings sensed the prevalence of pessimism found in majority of the female sexual definition.

This pave way to the sociologists to seek detail about how females feel about the sexual process. Therefore, I would like to mention the work of Carr (2005) who performed research in defining how lay persons illuminate sex, gender, and conflation on the basis of tomboyism and lesbianism, particularly from a womens narrative. This was to investigate the empirical relationship among womens types to choose the reasoning behind choosing masculinity and rejecting femininity during childhood and adolescence (Carr, 2005). Tomboyish position was differentiated on the basis of normal and deviant attitude pertaining to heterosexuality, homosexuality or bisexuality. After discovering chi square tests and qualitative analyses of womens discussions, it was discovered that a womans stage of the life cycle in context with gender and sexual status influences distinct merging and separations of sex, gender, and sexuality. Findings revealed a large minority of women who recalled wanting to be boys in order to do the things that boys got to do (Carr, 2005). This gender order disclosed sexual controversies and childhood rejection of being feminine.

Childhood rejection in any form leads to a generalized gender belief system which ultimately reflects homosexual attitudes, and as Lamar & Kite (1998) mentions that males who are stereotypically feminine in nature are more likely to be fit in homosexuality than are men described in stereotypically masculine terms. On the contrary females possessing stereotypical masculine attitude are more towards the lesbian side than femininity. Investigation on the basis of factor analyses by Lamar & Kite (1998) revealed the hypothesis that behavior toward homosexuality is a multidimensional but unpredictable construct which through appearance of sex differences depends on personal attitude component. Within each component possessed by individual there is a probability that attitudes differ toward gay men and lesbians. Meta analyses by Lamar & Kite (1998) unveiled four attitudinal components toward homosexuality that includes tolerance level, morality, contact, and stereotypes. Except stereotypes, all factors indicated that males were less tolerant of homosexuality or we can say they possess the least potential for being gay than were lesbians.

Lesbian gender literature established by Levitt & Hiestand (2004) points out that feminine butch gender authenticates themselves to their sense of self by living their own identity. This on a negative side permeates a restricted attitude to many girls who perceives to be boys in their childhood and consider themselves as a mistake. Such an isolated attitude led them to struggle with their own self alone since they had no one with whom they could share their experiences. Even many women preferred to transgender themselves in order to feel comfortable and proud of themselves. Participants of the butch community through transcription of the interviews allowed resources for butch females to help them develop a strong and positive identification. This was because their lives were full of challenges that were unique from those faced by other lesbians (Levitt & Hiestand, 2004). Analysis suggests the childhood confusion to be responsible about their sexual orientation and conflicting gender, often experienced by butch girls who confront psychological challenges in developing a healthy self-esteem.

If we talk about gay marriage issues in Canada, youth feel more convenient with the idea of the gay marriage with 66% aged between 18-34 years (Mazur, 2002). Canadian key accomplishments of acknowledging gender freedom has escorted gays and lesbians to form various movements in the spheres of community building and self-perception. This can be illustrated from the fact presented by Mazur (2002) that homosexuality is no longer classified by psychologists as a cognitive deficit. Instead contemporary literature suggests that being gay or lesbian now serves as a source of identity and pride.

What I personally feel is that a lesbophobic or gayish society is the result of those tiny knots that somehow develop into our personalities as a result of childhood rejection or due to some mishap. Although the society welcomes sexuality in the form of gender versatility, but in order to be part of a social structure gay and lesbian liberationists still have a long way to join the struggle for same-sex marriage and their acceptance in various professional settings.

Works Cited

  1. Carr Lynn, C. Tomboyism or Lesbianism? beyond Sex/gender/sexual Conflation. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research. 2005, 53(1-2): 119.
  2. Lamar Lisa & Kite Mary. Sex Differences in Attitudes toward Gay Men and Lesbians: A Multidimensional Perspective. The Journal of Sex Research. 1998, 35(2): 89.
  3. Levitt, M. Heidi & Hiestand, R. Katherine. A Quest for Authenticity: Contemporary Butch Gender. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research.2004, 50(9-10): 605.
  4. Mazur Paul. Gay and Lesbian Rights in Canada: A Comparative Study. International Journal of Public Administration. 2002, 25(1): 45.
  5. Trotter, C. Eileah & Alderson G. Kevin. University Students Definitions of Having Sex, Sexual Partner, and Virginity Loss: The Influence of Participant Gender, Sexual Experience, and Contextual Factors. The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality. 2007, 16(1-2): 11.

Promotion and Gender: Scenario Analysis

The connection between Promotional Status and Gender

In order to find out if the connection between promotion and gender exists, the assistant chief can design two hypotheses. The null hypothesis will tend to prove that these two dimensions are independent while the alternative hypothesis will be focused on the dependence between promotion status and gender of applicants.

According to the information mentioned in the case study, the p-value is 0.054919 (Chegg, 2016). This value is more than the significance level of 0.05 or 0.01. Thus, it can be claimed that the null hypothesis cannot be rejected, which presupposes the independence of the promotion status and gender of the applicants (Frost, 2015). As a result, there is no necessity to discuss the alternative hypothesis because it is automatically rejected. It can be concluded that the recent promotion of professionals who work at the local fire department was not affected by gender bias.

Reasons for Justifying the Absence of Gender Bias

Of course, it is not enough for the assistant chief to provide the outcomes of the case only if one is willing to ensure the chief that the promotion was not affected by any gender biases. It is critical for the professional to justify ones conclusion and prove that he is able to work with promotions efficiently. First of all, one should present the chi-squared test that deals with the independence between the promotion status and gender of the applicants to prove that no bias occurred.

After that, the assistance chief can show the senior the ratios of promotion. In this framework, he can pay attention to the ratios of male and female employees who received promotion separately. Further, he can refer to the ratios of male and female firefighters who obtained promotion in comparison to all workers who applied for higher positions. The bias can be proved if the results show that the higher percentage of the accepted applications belong to the representatives of the particular gender (Sharpe, DeVeaux, & Velleman, 2016).

Gender Bias Impact on the Fire Department

If eventually, the assistant chief realizes that the promotion was affected by gender bias, one can expect further complications. Unequal employment opportunities will lead to employee dissatisfaction and women will not be motivated to work hard to enhance their positions.

References

Chegg. (2016). Scenario Analysis: Promotion. Web.

Frost, J. (2015). Understanding hypothesis tests: Significance levels (alpha) and p values in statistics. 

Sharpe, N., DeVeaux, R., & Velleman, P. (2016). Business statistics. Harlow UK: Pearson.

Womens Stereotypes of Gender Roles Distribution

Advancing the Scientific Knowledgebase

Your study should advance the scientific knowledge base in your field by meeting one or more of these four criteria:

  1. The study should address something that is not known or has not been studied before.
  2. The study should be new or different from other studies in some way.
  3. The study should extend prior research on the topic in some way.
  4. The study should fill a gap in the existing literature.

Specifically describe how your research will advance scientific knowledge on your topic by answering all of these 3 questions. Include in-text citations as needed.

Advancing Scientific Knowledge

Demonstrate how the study

  1. will advance the scientific knowledge base;
  2. is grounded in the field of psychology;
  3. addresses something that is not known, something that is new or different from prior research, something that extends prior research, or something that fills a gap in the existing literature.

Describe precisely how your study will add to the existing body of literature on your topic. It can be a small step forward in a line of current research but it must add to the body of scientific knowledge in your specialization area and on the topic.

To respond to this question you will need to:

  1. Provide a paragraph that describes the background of your study and how your research question relates to the background of the study.
  2. Then, in a second paragraph discuss previous research and demonstrate exactly how your study (answering research question) will advance the scientific knowledge base on this topic. Include in-text citations and place the references in the reference section.

The US society is still overwhelmed with stereotypes and bias as regards gender roles. It is believed that males should occupy high posts and earn money while women should focus on their children and households. Such beliefs affect the way females take up roles in society. Females are often paid less and prevented from occupying high posts. Importantly, US women often share the common beliefs concerning the roles and power distribution in society (Helgeson, 2015).

This trend is especially remarkable as many US women have become financially and socially independent compared to the previous generations. This study will attempt to unveil the reasons for the persistence of females gender stereotypes concerning the distribution of gender roles in society.

The topic has received quite considerable attention in the academic world. Helgeson (2015) provides an analysis of the existing literature and states that researchers mainly focus on the extent to which the trend persists. Thus, researchers try to identify whether females share the stereotypes mentioned above and to what extent. Researchers also try to define the correlation between womens background and their beliefs.

However, there is little attention to particular accounts of women. It can be beneficial to examine females perspectives on the matter. For instance, Aluko (2015) explored the experiences of women who enjoy certain financial independence. The researcher found that women still did not make decisions due to the notion of obligation. However, the researcher does not attempt to explain why the notion of obligation persists. More so, womens views on the experiences that influence the way they see gender roles distribution have not been considered.

This study will address this gap as the experiences that contribute to the development of gender stereotypes in women will be in the researchers lens. It is necessary to add that womens gender stereotypes under study include females views on the distribution of gender roles. The researcher will explore the way such experiences as family history, education, and psychological traits contribute to the development of gender stereotypes.

Theoretical Implications

Describe any theoretical implications that the proposed study may have for understanding phenomena. For example, will the study generate new theory, provide a description of the lived experience of the participants, or provide a description of a cultural phenomenon?

The research will employ the case study methodology with some elements of the empirical phenomenology model as it will develop a psychosocial lesson based on the analysis of the lived experiences of the participants. This qualitative research approach will be instrumental in identifying experiences that affected womens beliefs as seen by women. The analysis of females accounts will help the researcher describe the peculiarities of the phenomenon.

This knowledge can be further used in quantitative research. Researchers may try to identify the extent to which each of the experiences described affects the development of gender stereotypes in females. The theory concerning factors affecting the development of gender stereotypes in women can be developed based on these studies.

Practical Implications

Describe any practical implications that may result from your research. Specifically, describe any implications the research may have for understanding phenomena for practitioners, the population being studied, or a particular type of work, mental health, educational, community, stakeholders, or another setting.

This study can have a variety of implications in the sphere of mental health, education, social work as well as women and the overall society. The study aims at explaining the development of gender stereotypes in women. These stereotypes often result in the development of depressive symptoms as women are unable to realize their potential (Helgeson, 2015). Understanding the reasons for the persistence of gender stereotypes in women will help mental health professionals and social workers explain female clients the reasons of their psychological state.

Practitioners will also be able to develop a set of coping strategies that will help women to get rid of the stereotypical views. Women will be able to take up more active roles in society. IO psychology can also be enriched by the findings as female employees behavior can be explained. More so, practitioners will be able to develop strategies that will increase females engagement, motivation, and performance. Finally, the study can become one of the first steps in the process of societal change.

For instance, it can be found that education plays a central role in the development of gender stereotypes in women. The curriculum, as well as the entire system, can be modified to create a truly egalitarian society. It has been acknowledged that womens active participation in social life is beneficial for the development of society. However, a lot of barriers still prevent females from being active members of society. This study may help change this trend.

  • Reviewers
  • Does the study advance scientific knowledge in the field and the specialization area by meeting one or more of these four criteria?
  • Does the study address something that is not known or has not been studied before?
  • Is this study new or different from other studies in some way?
  • Does the study extend prior research on the topic in some way?
  • Does the study fill a gap in the existing literature?
  • _____YES or____ NO
  • Reviewer Comments

Contributions of the Proposed Study to the Field

Contributions to the Field

Your study should make a contribution to your field based on the approach used to conduct the research:

  1. Ethnography  The study should produce a description of some psychological dimensions of culture.
  2. Case Study  The study should develop a psychological or psychosocial lesson to be learned from the case.
  3. Grounded theory  The study should generate new psychological or psychosocial theory or an emergent psychological or psychosocial theory.
  4. Phenomenology  The study should yield a description of the lived experience of the participants.
  5. Heuristics  The study should yield a description of lived experience which includes the experience of the researcher as well as those of the participants.
  6. Generic Qualitative Research  The study should answer the question using qualitative data.

Describe how your study is grounded in and/or adds to knowledge in the field of psychology.

This study involves elements of the case study and empirical phenomenology. On the one hand, the study focuses on a phenomenon of the persistence of gender stereotypes in females. The study will explain the phenomenon and will add to knowledge through the analysis of particular reasons for the development of the phenomenon. On the other hand, the study employs the elements of the empirical phenomenology as it is based on the analysis of females accounts.

This approach enables the researcher to identify views on the phenomenon, which can help explain it. This study will describe possible experiences (as seen by women) that result in the development of gender stereotypes. The findings of the study can be further analyzed and generalized. They can also be used to develop a theory concerning the nature stereotypes existing in society.

References

Provide references for all citations in APA style. Submit your reference list below.

Aluko, Y.A. (2015). Re-evaluating the empowerment potential of womens paid work. International Journal of Gender and Womens Studies, 3(2), 190-201.

Helgeson, V. (2015). Psychology of gender. New York, NY: Psychology Press.

Racial Gender Inequality in the United States

Introduction

Human beings are said to be complex beings whose behaviors are influenced by many factors, among them the surrounding environment and their origins. Understanding how human beings behave is important as it helps in dealing and handling them under various circumstances. The study of how human beings behave, the society in which they live, as well as their origin, organization, development, and networks, is referred to as sociology (Allan 145).

In a bid to study sociology, many theories have been developed by various sociologists and scholars explaining different circumstances that influence the life and behavior of people. These theories can collectively be referred to as social theories. Social theories are theoretical frameworks that have empirical evidence that can be used in the study of social phenomena and interpret it. The theories are used by sociologists and social scientists. Social theories relate to the many historical debates that have happened in the past and had valid, as well as reliable methodologies such as positivism and anti-positivism. These theories can be scientific or descriptive, but some are usually objective.

One of the major social theories is about the issue of gender inequality. This issue of gender inequality has been highly featured in the United States of America presidential debates that have dominated the country in recent times. The debate has especially heated up because one of the presidential candidates, Hillary Clinton, is a lady seeking to become the first-ever U.S. woman president. Racial inequality has also been common in the country, and it is an issue that has also been a major focus following several utterances by Donald Trump, the Republican candidate, on racism. This paper will focus on how this issue is perpetuated and resolved. The discussion will be centered on the works of one of the sociologists of recent times, Kenneth Allen, in the book titled, A premier in social and sociological theory.

The United States Racial Gender Inequality

As the presidential elections in the United States draw near, some issues have dominated the debate. One of the major issues that have also been dominant in the last two presidential elections is the economic condition of the country. In the forthcoming elections, which are barely one year to go, the economic issue is among the seven major election issues, which include environment and science, criminal justice, health care, privacy, and data security, education, as well as religious and social justice.

The main focus of this paper is the last issue, which is the issue of religion and social justice. Over the past years, the United States has been a hub of racism and gender-related issues. The country has many ethnic and racial groups, who are residents or visitors. There has been a long history of white Americans discriminating against the rest of the Americans, who include the Africans, Asians, and Islamic, as well as Hispanic people.

Race

According to Allen, racism has been a major problem that affects nations in the areas of development and social interactions. Racism is manifested where one race discriminates another. In most cases, the race that is discriminated against is usually the minority. This has been the case in the United States, where the whites, who are the dominant race, tend to discriminate against the rest of the races. In doing so, they deny the other races access to their rights.

African Americans have been the main victims of this vice by often being accused of crimes and being denied access to many public resources. The issue of race has been muted for quite some time following the accession to power of President Barrack Obama, who is the first black president of the United States of America. The issue, however, seemed to have resurfaced with the Republican presidential aspirant Donald Trump being highly critical of the minority races.

The United States of America experiences double consciousness as stated by Kenneth Allen in his book. Double consciousness is a term that was first coined by an American, W. E. B. Du Bois, who was referring to the oppression of African Americans (Allan 189). The term has since been used in various situations that display social inequality, including the oppression of women in society. The issue has come to the limelight in the recent presidential debate in the United States.

Donald Trump has been accused of being racially discriminative, especially to Africans and Muslims. Trump has not been short of controversies in his campaigns, often spitting words that have provoked different reactions among the Americans. Some of his words have been directed to particular religious groups that live in the U.S. Recently he stated that he will not allow Muslims in the country if he gets elected to be the President of the United States (Crilly par. 1).

Trump used very strong words that affected the Muslims in the country and provoked reactions from entire America. In his view, Trump refers to Muslims as terrorists. He feels that they have been responsible for the many terrorist attacks that have been directed to various countries across the world, including the U.S. itself. In defending his sentiments, Trump said that this move would not be aimed at isolating the Muslims, but improving the security of the United States. He says that the country is out of control of its security and accuses Muslims of being responsible.

The words used by Trump were not highly criticized by most people. The people who perpetrate terrorist attacks are just a few among the many Muslims, who reside in the United States (Crilly par. 2). People felt that it was wrong to victimize all Muslims as most of them are innocent and are also affected by the insecurity the same way the rest of the Americans are affected. It is not fair to associate over one million Muslims in the country with a few terrorist organizations. Trump has been heavily criticized for his words and his hatred towards the Muslims. Instead of victimizing all the Muslims, the country should find ways of dealing with the specific insecurity problems.

Also, Trump has made negative utterances that have been directed to Africans living in the United States, terming them as primitive and uncivilized. He has gone on to state that African nations need second colonization and that he will deport them once he is elected the next president of the United States of America. This has been an issue that has attracted so many reactions from different people who feel that Trump has been unfairly harsh not only to the people who his words are directed to but also to America as a nation.

Trumps stand has been contrary to the position of the Democrat presidential aspirant, Hillary Clinton, who believes that America should be an all-inclusive nation where all ethnic groups, races, and religious groups should be given equal opportunities and access to public resources. According to Clinton, it is the role of the U.S. government to take all precautionary measures that will ensure security for the nation rather than accuse particular races of the vices. According to Allen, the term double consciousness can be a useful theoretical framework that can be applied in the bid to understand the social divisions that have hit the United States of America. The racial conflicts are experienced at both group and individual level. It is the issue of double consciousness that has highly influenced the behaviors of African Americans (Allan 190).

African Americans always try to act in ways that will help them survive in the harsh environment, given that the African Americans are viewed as a minority group. Some have tried to adapt to the westernized way of living while others find it hard to survive. They always fight their way to survival. This is an issue that is likely to dominate much of the country, especially if the Republican presidential candidate, Trump, emerges as the winner in the 2016 polls. Trumps presidency might raise cases of insecurity as the minority races will be fighting for their survival.

Gender

Gender has been an issue in the history of the United States as women have been denied top priorities in the societies for a long time. For instance, the top positions in the government and major organizations have been dominated by men. Women have been viewed as a weak gender; hence, they are not given the responsibility to hold high offices (Coday par. 1). The debate on gender inequality has heated up in the current presidential debate and could be one of the factors that will determine the person who will win the upcoming elections.

Clinton recently launched a Women with Clinton campaign. As per the Democrats, it is the high time that the United States gets a female president. The Democrats say that it has been an embarrassing fact that very few women have been offered a chance to serve in the upper-level politics. Clinton, in one of the Democrats presidential debates, stated that she has experienced mammoth support of women through donations. These women want a change in the male dominance in the United States political arena. She said, I have hundreds of thousands of donors most of them small, and Im very proud that for her first time a majority of my donors are women (Coday par. 2).

Among the issues that Clinton is promising to address regarding gender inequality is the funding for Planned Parenthood, the endorsement of the Equality Act, gender identity, as well as sex and sexual orientation issues.

YWCA, an organization that has worked for over a century trying to eliminate the vice of racism, social injustice, and gender inequality, has been pushing for more consideration of these issues in the presidential debate (YWCA USA par. 1). Before the presidential debate held in February, Dara Richardson, who is the CEO of the organization, released a statement that urged for a change of tone in matters relating to women and race discussions. In his statement, Richardson said:

It is time to elevate the dialogue in our country when it comes to women and people of color. The 2016 presidential campaign has seen these as touchstone issues, and some candidates have proposed policies and made statements that would worsen current inequities. We need candidates and elected officials to create, champion, and sign into law real policy solutions that address racial and gender inequality in the United States (YWCA USA par. 1).

Gender inequality refers to the treatment of people unequally based on their gender. Gender inequality is said to stem from distinctions that could either be socially constructed or empirically grounded (Allan 162). Most scholars agree that men have been the dominant gender in nearly all societies. Women, on the other hand, have been subordinate. The position of men in families has been one of the main reasons why women have been subordinated in most societies.

Men and women are unequal in families, which forms the basis for gender inequality in society. In other words, this is the fundamental position of gender imbalance structures; it has been the main reason why women are never given top positions in the society and the government institutions (Allan 165). From a family set up, women are always seen as second fiddle to men. This perspective is perpetuated even in national leadership.

The issue of double consciousness can also be applicable in the case of women being treated as unequal to men. Women acquire particular behaviors in their bid to edge out male dominance in society. In the United States presidential race, women are committed to supporting their own and fighting for their rights. In one of her speeches, Clinton stated that womens rights are not lesser than human rights and that human rights are equal to womens rights.

The debate of women and their rights has not featured a lot in the campaigns of the Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump. Trump has focused on other issues instead of gender issues. The other presidential candidate who contributed to the debate is the Republicans Carly Fiorina, although she is no longer in the race. Her sentiments were in line with those of Clinton as she believed that women should be empowered and given equal opportunities as men both in governmental and political institutions.

Conclusion

Race and gender inequality are among the issues that have been dominant in the United States for quite a long period. Racism has especially been a major problem of concern for years. It is an issue that continues to feature even in the politics of today. Each of the presidential candidates who are seeking to clinch the top job in the upcoming presidential elections has their agenda for race and gender. While Donald Trump seems to be highly racial with his utterances, the Democrat candidate has been coy on the matter.

On the other hand, Clinton is highly focused on the gender issue while Trump has been quiet on the same issue. This will be among the other agendas that are likely to influence the outcome of the next election. Kenneth Allen has addressed the issues of gender and racial inequality in most of his social works. He has explained the major sources of these inequalities and suggested some things that can be adopted in the bid to solve the problems. If applied, the theories of Allen on social and sociological matters could be effective in addressing the inequality problems in the U.S.

Works Cited

Allan, Kenneth. A Primer in Social and Sociological Theory: Toward a Sociology of Citizenship. Los Angeles: SAGE/Pine Forge, 2011. Print.

Coday, Emily. Gender Inequality in the Presidential Race. Liberal America, 2015.

Crilly, Rob. Donald Trump on Muslims: Theyre Not Coming to this Country if Im President. The Telegraph, 2015.

YWCA USA. Candidates to Present Real Policy Solutions for Racial and Gender Equality. PR Newswire, 2016.