Category: Gender

Abstract

The global purpose of this paper is to explain race and gender in the context of power dynamics in modern society. Now that social justice movements are gaining as much traction as ever, the issues of race and gender find themselves in the spotlight, drawing the attention of researchers. More specifically, this paper endeavors to explain why sociology is still too rigid and susceptible to sexism, racism, and chauvinism to allow marginalized communities to make their contribution.

One of the claims that this paper makes is that sociological tools and methods were originally created by White men to describe their own experience. Because of that, women scholars, and especially, Black women scholars struggle to conceptualize what they are going through. On top of that, these demographics still have poor access to academia where they could be sharing their thoughts and ideas.

Another issue is the twisted subject-object relationships that permeate the sociological field. Black people, women, and Black women often feel like an object that can be observed but that cannot do anything meaningful on its own. Lastly, this paper discusses at length the split personality that many marginalized communities have to adopt. This paper was put together by means of systematic analysis of the works by Smith, Collins, and Fanton.

Introduction

As sociological topics, up until the 1960s, race and gender had only been touched upon but never thoroughly examined. In the second half of the 20th century, race and gender started to gain more traction in sociological scientific communities mainly due to the leverage of social movements fighting for the rights of women and people of color. As a result, sociology got closer to treating race and gender as fundamental categories shaping a persons experience.

This was a more precise and quite refreshing perspective after seeing these two properties as nothing more than variables to be factored in or factored out of the analysis at a whim. Despite the tangible progress that sociology has made in the past few decades, there are still plenty of issues that it has yet to address. This paper argues that sociology is still a field under the White male hegemony that serves as a gatekeeper for Black and female theorists and practitioners.

Sociology and Female Experience

Once the topic of female liberation and empowerment has grown to be as prominent as ever, a logical question arose as to how sociology was supposed to conceptualize female experiences. According to Smith, it soon became clear that sociological tools and methods as is were not exactly apt for addressing womens issues for a variety of reasons (Calhoun et al., 398). First and foremost, for the most part, women were excluded from the narrative.

Smith argues that White male sociologists were only interested in social and political structures that were male dominated while the rest was deemed not worthy of their attention. For example, household maintenance, child rearing, and taking care of the neighborhood are all still predominantly female social aspects. They are important parts of our lives, and yet, sociologist communities that consist mainly of men fail to analyze them properly and gain any meaningful insights.

The main difficulty that arises from this limited worldview is that female sociologists are forced to adopt manmade tools and methods. To think, throughout the history of sociological thought, men explored the womanhood as the ultimate otherness. They could not be women themselves and take on their perspective, hence, they had to resort to treating women as an object of scientific inquiry without a proper understanding. Now that women are on the way to acquire their own voice, they face this objectification in science. This leads them to struggle with becoming an autonomous subject that creates knowledge and instead of serving for mens observations.

This mode of being a subject rather than an object is called the governing mode. To Smith, to be in the governing mode means to have a better conceptual comprehension of reality, and studying sociology is one of the ways to enter it (Calhoun et al. 400). It should be noted that in the context of Smiths work, the governing mode does not refer solely to the government and politics. Instead, it describes a position of power derived from deep knowledge, which allows a person to join the power elites analyzed by another author, Wright Mills (Calhoun et al. 229).

The question arises as to how different the chances are for men and women to enter the governing mode. Smith shows that in actuality, women struggle more with gaining self-agency and leverage in society (Calhoun et al. 400). According to the writer, there is a certain duality to human existence, on the one hand, we are cerebral creatures. We explore the world and try to conceptualize it; by doing so, we grow more capable of fulfilling our higher level aspirations. On the other hand, however, humans are physical beings that need to meet their most basic needs before ascending to the next level. This is where the skewed gender dynamics chime in and change the picture.

Even at present, men still do not pull their weight around the household, and women have to deal with chores and children all alone. I recall a rather traditional family that I used to know where the woman full-on neglected her career ambitions because of the workload that she had to deal with at home. Interestingly enough, recent studies suggest that these stories are not anecdotal: they are a part of a greater tendency. For instance, Barr cites a study that showed that in 8,500 young heterosexual couples living together, the women were doing the lions share of housework. In the context of the concepts described by Smith, it is safe to say that the weight of household chores prevents women from transcending their bodily existence and entering the governing mode.

This idea reminds me of what Wright Mills wrote in his article The Power Elite. The author coins the term great men, by which he means people who are able to escape mundane responsibilities. Wright Mills says that ordinary people are limited: everyday, they have to run their errands, and it is a never-ending loop. What they lack is power and leverage to delegate some of these tasks to others and start doing something more important. If only they could do it, their lives would change dramatically. Wright Mills explains that an ordinary person meets someone elses demands; moreover, his or her well-being relies on the quality of their work and their compliance. Great men, on the other hand, are able to create demands: they are free to tell others what to do.

Wright Mills does not address the issue of gender in his article. However, taking into account what Smith says about the gender dynamics, I can tie these two frameworks together. It seems that a great man is great partly because he does not have to some of the tasks on which others have to spend a good share of their time. For example, if a man does not have to think about household maintenance or how his children are doing, he frees up time and even mental space to do something else.

Basically, this great man delegated a big chunk of his responsibilities to a woman and escaped the loop. This idea of mine is confirmed by another claim made by Wright Mills that great men are not solitary rulers. One person cannot achieve much on his own, no matter how smart or focused he is. So, bringing the gender issue back into the narrative, a man relies on his wife to provide a safe bay for him. If it were not so, he would disperse his energy and fall back in his career or other aspirations.

Another parallel that one may draw between the class readings by Wright Mills and Smith is the homogeneity of higher circles. Higher circles is a term used by Wright Mills interchangeably with power elites, and it denotes groups of people at the top of the hierarchy (Calhoun et al. 231).

The researcher states that higher circles are barely ever characterized by diversity. In fact, they are very homogenous: one will encounter the same type of people in the military, in politics, in economics, and other key social institutions. The people who belong to higher circles are so similar to each other that they can migrate between them without struggling much. Again, Wright Mills does not analyze this phenomenon from the intersectional standpoint that takes race and gender into account. However, it is possible to imagine that under homogeneity, one may mean the overrepresentation of White men in higher circles. They all hold relatively similar views, which helps them to bond and collaborate.

Interestingly enough, the gendered power dynamics fit the theory put forward by Marx. Namely, womens labor is often alienated from them: they do not get to enjoy the positive results that their efforts yield (Calhoun et al. 408). Going back to that family I mentioned, from my observations, man benefited himself greatly by dedicating a bulk of time to his studies and his work. His wife, on the other hand, was not exactly benefiting herself by taking over housework. She only created a comfortable environment for her husband so that he could stop caring about menial tasks and concentrate on the work of his life.

I think almost anyone can think of examples similar to what I described. However, it remains unclear how to construct the new sociological knowledge that would take them into account. With regards to this issue, Smith explains that the female experience needs to become the new source of knowledge. Women should become independent storytellers not fearing backlash and resistance. When experience is accumulated, it can be transformed into perspectives. Smith draws a clear distinction between these two concepts: experience is factual and indifferent whereas perspective is more attitudinal.

On a larger scale, taking into account lived experiences will help sociologists to transform the relationship between the subject and the object in science. Smith argues that sometimes the positivist approach to scientific inquiry may as well be faulty: it is not always possible nor favorable to disengage from the research process (Calhoun et al. 406). This is why it makes sense for a sociologist to be both a knower and a discoverer. An example I would like to bring up is how sometimes we fail to perceive our cultures with thoughtfulness. When I was a kid, I used to think that Chinese people were arguing all the time because of their high-pitched, intonation-rich language.

With time, I understood that their language provided different tools for self-expression, and my understanding was wrong. This everyday example illustrates a relationship between the subject (me) and the object (another nation). Without understanding the linguistic intricacies of the Chinese culture, I made a snap judgment about people I did not even know. I imagine that this is what happens when a particular demographic serves only as an object of observation in sociology.

Another goal that considering real experiences might help to reach is to address the so called bifurcation of reality. According to Smith, bifurcation of reality happens when there is a schism between the real events and how other people perceive them (Calhoun et al. 404).

To a degree, this phenomenon took place in the example with the Chinese language that I provided. Another example that relates to bifurcation directly is an event and its description in the media. More often than not, it is extremely difficult to pinpoint what actually happened. Not everyone has direct access to real witnesses, and even the latter sometimes have fabricated memories that prevent them from sharing a truthful perspective. In sociology, bifurcation stems from treating a described demographic as an object. Therefore, to avoid this bias, the object needs to become the subject, which concurs with the aforementioned idea that women need to find their own voices amidst the chaos of modern sociology.

Black Knowledge

Surely, gender is not the only dimension of power that is worth mentioning and analyzing in sociology. Another property that needs to become a fundamental category is race. Collins addresses the issue of Black epistemology in modern sociology and the reasons why Black knowledge remains largely subjugated (Calhoun et al. 408). Firstly, it is important to clarify the terminology used in Collins work. In laymans terms, epistemology prescribes us what we need to do about knowledge. Whenever the question arises as to whether a certain fact, theory, or hypothesis deserve our trust and respect, we may want to consult epistemology to guide us.

In the context of power dynamics, epistemology turns into a race and gender issue. If women, and especially women of color, are mistreated by society, it is hard to expect that they will be listened to and taken seriously. This is why Collins calls knowledge produced by women of color subjugated knowledge  it does not bear the same value as the knowledge of White men.

In sociology just like in other sciences, epistemology provides guidance for choosing paradigms and methodology. Paradigms answer the question of how a phenomenon needs to be interpreted. For instance, one may wonder if the experiences of White men and Black women should be investigated similarly. A relatively recent paradigm, intersectionality, argues that every person stands at the intersection of the multiple power dimensions.

Therefore, the world of a Black woman where she has certain problems because of her blackness and womanhood is very different from the world of a White man even if they live in more or less similar conditions. Epistemology is supposed to help with drawing parallels between these two kinds of experience or, on the contrary, showing off the key distinctions. Methodology in this case refers to a broad set of tools and principles, the validity of which is also defined through epistemological constructs. Just like Smith, Collins highlights the schism in sociology: when it comes to Black female thought, theorists run into the inability to choose between dominant epistemology and epistemology of their own kind (Calhoun et al. 411).

The subjugation of knowledge becomes the most apparent when one studies the process of knowledge validation. This terms refers to a process during which it is decided whether a new knowledge is truthful and worth considering. As one may readily imagine, knowledge validation is heavily influenced by political forces and movements that define which groups of people get to have their opinions heard and who remain silenced. Collins states that Black women are often excluded from the process of knowledge validation, and their experiences are neglected (Calhoun et al. 410). The researcher argues that Black females are often stereotyped to the point where they are no longer taken seriously. Some of the common roles assigned to them include mammy, matriarch, and jezebel.

This reminds me of an article in Forbes penned by Grassam who addresses the stereotype of the angry Black woman. The author writes that since the segregation era, the public has often portrayed Black women as domineering and sassy, in a negative sense. They have been seen as emotional and self-expressive to a fault, which must have allegedly prevented them from making sound judgments. Taking this into consideration, one may easily imagine how a Black womans opinion can be dismissed because others would think that she is overreacting and being inadequate about the situation at hand.

The question arises as to if the system of oppression is so obvious, how come it is still in place. Wright Mills argues that the subordinates in the system still have the power to influence the social structure and rearrange it. Therefore, it would only be natural for certain demographics to unite and protest the inequality until it is removed. As Collins shows, things might not be as straightforward as one expects them to be (Calhoun et al. 409).

Researcher claims that education institutions like to actually allow some Black women in for the sake of meeting the quota. By doing so, they demonstrate to the public that they are accepting of minorities. In reality, they are only ready to let a limited number of Black women to enroll or do research while gatekeeping the rest. Moreover, Collins thinks that these Black women are picked on purpose: they are compliant and do not go against the rules. They know that if they decide to stray, they will easily be ostracized and disowned by the scientific community.

One may wonder as to what exactly these Black women struggle with in academia. It appears that the methodologies do not quite fit with what Black female thinkers might want to communicate in their works. Namely, Collins critiques the positivist approach to research (Calhoun et al. 410). Surely, in many other fields, positivism makes absolute sense; however, when it comes to sociology, it ends up on a shaky ground. One of the primary premises of positivism is reliance on hard data and objective facts. Yet, when it comes to power structures, sometimes, some oppression practices can be so subtle, they cannot be easily pinpointed, logged, and quantified to really prove anything.

One example that I can provide to show that positivism cannot quite describe some sociological concepts is microaggressions. Microaggressions are a legit form of oppression that is very subtle and seemingly innocuous. This makes the victim of this type of aggression question whether they would be in the right to speak up and retaliate. For example, DeAngelis from the American Psychological Association tells the story of his two Black colleagues. They were flying first class and were free to choose any spots in the front. However, when three White men, flight attendants suddenly changed their minds and asked the Black passengers to change their seats and move to the back. The staff explained that it was done for the sake of safety; however, it is easy to notice racial undertones as well.

From my own experience, I remember partaking in a conversation between me, my Black acquaintance, and an elderly teacher from the school we all used to go to. The acquaintance mentioned that her father was an engineer, and the teacher was surprised. Now that I think about it, it might have been her presumption that Black people cannot excel in well-paid industries such as tech. If I imagine setting an experiment or an observational study to investigate racism, I see how one may struggle with monitoring such occurrences.

Some other characteristics of the positivist approach include the observers total disengagement from the process in terms of feelings and emotions. Apart from that, research ethics state that such categories as social justice cannot be the subject or the motivation for a study. It is clear how Black feminist thought is not compatible with feminism. Collins states that because of this tangible distinction, Black feminists resorted to alternative methods of knowledge creation and validation. This led to the emergence of Black epistemology that relies on four pillars:

1. experience as the source of knowledge;
2. the use of dialogue;
3. the ethics of personal accountability;
4. ethics of caring (Calhoun et al. 414).

One of the main functions of Black feminist thought is to help Black women to embrace their truthful identity. Therefore, denying Black women their alternative epistemology actually shows how racists academia may be.

It seems to me that faulty methodologies are not the only reason why academia fails Black women. Studying the article by Collins compelled me to research a bit more into the factors that influence Black womens success in academia. The magazine Conversation features an interview with Mcunu, a Black female PhD candidate who talks at length about the various obstacles that people like her have to overcome in universities (Patel). Just like Collins, Mcunu thinks that Black women struggle with identity issues. Some faculties and departments are predominantly White, and Black students or researchers might struggle to find a role model that would provide a sense of belongingness.

Not only is it hard for them to find a mentor with which they could connect, but they also start doubting if pursuing this path is even possible for a Black woman (Patel). Interestingly enough, Mcunu mentions that Black women often fell victim to the stereotype about what real science is and what is not. The interviewee says that very often, engineering and medicine are put on the pedestal while other fields are not seen as lucrative. It is readily imaginable how pervasive ideas like this one could prevent a Black woman from entering the field of sociology. In summation, Blackness and womanhood result in many hurdles on the way to academic excellence, which in turn, robs sociology of refreshing female-centered and Black-centered perspectives.

White Masks of Black People

As it has already been shown in this paper, Black experience is often about making a distinction. Black feminist scholars have to choose between their unrecognized Black epistemology and sociological tools developed by White men. Black women in academia face another difficult choice: on the one hand, they need to comply with the predominant paradigm. On the other hand, it contradicts their lived experience and promotes the subjugation of their Black knowledge. Fanon addresses another compelling point proving that Black people often have to balance between two worlds (Calhoun et al. 418).

The researcher argues that people of color change and police their linguistic self-expression. Namely, Fanton explains that a Black person talks to people of the same race in one manner and changes it to accommodate White people.

At first glance, it might seem that changing ones linguistic code is no big deal. For instance, I do not speak in the same way to my parents, my professors, and my close friends: each time, I have to assume a new identity and transform my demeanor. However, as it appears, when race comes into play, these linguistic phenomena gain more importance. Fanton says that when a person speaks, they actually bear the weight of their culture and their civilization. From this, I can conclude that when Black people have to change their manner of speaking, they deny themselves their own cultural heritage. In a way, they erase their own identities to please the dominant class.

Even today, the phenomenon of so-called code-switching is alive. Ocbazghi explains the distinction between the Standard American English and the African American Vernacular English. According to the author, Black people are forced to sound White to get ahead in life. In particular, he cites a study in which Black and White people were calling landlords asking if their apartments were still available (Ocbazghi). It turned out that Black people were less likely to get callbacks; they were often told that apartments were no longer on the market.

In his work, Fanton mainly addresses the issue of colonization and colonized nations adoption of the colonizers languages. The researcher describes the situation with regards to the French language in certain African countries. He says that colonization imprinted the notion of inferiority into Black people (Calhoun et al. 418). Now they have to deal with the reality that they will only be taken seriously if they adopt the elements of the colonizers culture such as their language. When Black people interact with each other, they are safe from these power dynamics: they do not judge each other based on criteria imposed by White people (Calhoun et al. 418). However, once a Black person has to talk to a White person, there emerges the sense of otherness that does not go away easily.

Just like Smith and Collins, Fanton also speaks about the confusion that comes with existence within two frameworks of reference. One framework is what Black people are familiar with: their family, their culture, their customs, and traditions. The second framework is superficial: it is based on White peoples prejudice and contempt. Each Black person has to decide for him- or herself how it may be possible to survive in this duality. According to Fanton, what is really difficult is that the two frameworks merge into each other. A Black person ceases to understand when he or she is being watched and when they can relax.

It is possible to draw another parallel between Fantons article and those by Smith and Collins. All three researchers talk about objectification of people based on their race and gender. Moreover, they show how one particular gender and one particular race may be seen as something negligible and undesired. A Black man himself, Fanton discusses his own experience of being turned into an object (Calhoun et al. 423). He describes his trip to the United States were he derived quite an unpleasant reaction from White passers-by. Children were pointing at him with their fingers, calling him the N-word, and acting frightened (Calhoun et al. 423). From this, Fanton concluded that his otherness turned him into an object and deprived him of any personality.

In his article, Fanton puts forward another idea worth mentioning that also somehow concurs with what has been said by Smith and Collins. The author states that at some point, it became apparent to him that his Blackness was seen by White people as a disease or malformation. In other words, if being White is default, being Black is a mistake or an error. Fanton goes as far as claiming that White people would be glad to eradicate Blackness altogether.

He uses the metaphor of a scientific lab where they make experiments to denegrificate Black people (Calhoun et al. 424). Surely, it sounds exaggerated, but one may wonder how exaggerated it is really. Black people already lose a part of their identity when they are forced to switch to colonizers languages. Later, their culture, customs, and traditions are frowned upon if not completely downtrodden. They are further deprived of their identities through having to comply with the framework of Whiteness. Lastly, it is nigh on impossible for a Black person to prove the existence of oppression because the existing scientific methods and paradigms are not apt for doing this.

Conclusion

Previously marginalized groups were finally finding their voice through anti-colonialism, gay liberation, feminism, and anti-racism. What made a world of difference back then is that social categories were tied to fundamental identities. Through female and Black thought, underprivileged communities were able to make well through-through and concrete demands, seeking acknowledgment and recognition.

Yet, sociology has yet to become more accommodating for Black people, women, and Black women. One of the main issues that exist today is the lack of specialized methodologies for describing marginalized communities experience. Another problem is the poor accessibility of educational institutions for minorities. Lastly, women and people of color suffer from being treated as an object of observation and not as a participant of the dialogue. All three authors mentioned in this paper address the issue of otherness and alienation that being a woman or a person of color implies.

Works Cited

Barr, Sabrina. Women Still Do the Majority of Household Chores, Study Finds. Web.

Calhoun, Craig, et al. (Eds.). Contemporary Sociological Theory. Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.

DeAngelis, Tori. Unmasking Racial Micro Aggressions. Web.

Gassam, Janise. Overcoming The Angry Black Woman Stereotype. Web.

Ocbazghi, Emmanuel. Is Talking White Actually a Thing? Web.

Patel, Ozayr. Pasha 18: The Struggles of Black Women in Science. Web.

This assignment aims to highlight the role of media and television in determining gender or sex roles for the consumers to follow, among others. Queer representation, as portrayed in San Junipero, an episode from Black Mirror, incorporates several aspects of society. Religion is expected to take the higher road and actively criticize the LGBTQ agenda which is unnatural and ungodly as per the regulations stipulated in religious scriptures.

Gender and sexual non-conformity have been around long before the nineteenth century, although it has encountered much discrimination. Society used to mark, categorize, and stigmatize those individuals who are viewed as being odd and violating social norms and values. The 1960s and 1970s saw the onset of proud proclamations such as gay is okay. This was followed by fading of categorical labels such as homosexual or queer.

The television and media play a crucial role in dictating the gender or sex roles we, as the consumers, embrace. It is, therefore, advisable that the content aired in the media considers censoring sexual or gender non-conforming agendas. Queer representation came along when anti-homosexual agendas began being promoted and equally fought for by the media and society at large. Gay characters were often quickly and tragically written out or killed off.

San Junipero engages the faith of its audience in a tussle between believing in the afterlife and shunning the whole concept of life after death. Having gotten rid of this religious ideology of the after-life, many people who practice religion tend to contemplate heaven on earth granted by passing over into San Junipero. Queer representation in this case is brought into the picture. This community, the LGBTQ, is perceived as able to live happily ever after.

Another approach of the after-life is depicted by the bury your gays concept, where gay characters in television shows are written off despite attaining fulfilling relationships. This community was already not being acknowledged as worthy members of society, thus not earning places in careers such as media and journalism. Actions of the media brutally ending these characters tried to put across a point that individuals subscribing to this gender non-conformity norm do not live a happy life (Shakeri, 2017). They were and are still termed as not achieving lives full of love, in that they end up alone and dejected by the straight society around them.

Television and media try to discourage this nature of the relationship by factoring in love. Love in this case is not a result of same-sex relationships. It was also visible in the medias representation of gay people, especially in pop culture before the nineteenth century. Here, television and media did little to promote sexual identity awareness and development. The onset of the modern contemporary world welcomed a bold and vast representation of the LGBTQ community through media outlets. The idea of the homosexual agenda which is harmful to society is slowly being buried, with the LGBTQ community vocalizing their views and demanding equal rights.

The youth of the modern world heavily rely on shows containing sexual scripts and television characters for behavioral modeling. Television and media acts as the first educator for most children and youths. This age groups interest is attracted towards the type of content their preferable media plays. Whatever is displayed in these media outlets determines the resultant behavior of the subject group. They depend on these shows to obtain an understanding about their sexuality and all the elements that it constitutes. After gaining such information, they become interested in forming sex-oriented relationships. They share ideas and attempt to practice the scenes they witnessed on television and other media outlets.

It is therefore important for the society to watch and monitor the representation of LGBTQ shows. Showing concern is the best form of caring in this case. The television programs supporting queer representation do not seem to care about how the behaviors of adolescents and children with access to electronic devices are modeled. I chose to apply the Social Cognitive Theory in support of this argument. Observational learning as a component of this theory implies observing and watching the results of other people practicing and modeling the behavior of their choice (LaMorte, 2019). If one, therefore, decides to behave in a gender non-conforming way, this theory creates the link between television media and resultant behavior in consumers.

The damage will only be realized once the individual turns into the victim of queer representation. Creating awareness on the possible consequences of such unnatural acts, organizing anti-queer campaigns, sensitization on the importance of religion in the upbringing of children to avoid such gender non-conformities are ways of showing care and protection of societal values, and norms against queer representation.

The other obvious reason for showing care towards queer representation is the preservation of moral standards among the children of society. The inquisitiveness that children possess couples with the aforementioned Social Cognitive Theory. Children will immediately practice whatever they watched on television, without the knowledge of whether it is upholding moral standards. Regulating obscene content specific to queer representation ensures an almost immorality-free future within which our children will grow.

Television should not be a representation of reality as it has significant effects on the lives of those who watch and try to live by the standards they see on television. I will use reality television to discourage the relation and signifying of television content to real life. Firstly, television exerts pressure on the social and financial well-being of an individual. For instance, there are people who are underpaid, but still manage to subscribe to a channel playing a reality show. With time, the subject will loathe themselves for not living the kind of life they see on television. This already acts as a distraction to their main goal of life which is improving their welfare. Many reality television shows today depict acts of rejection and scolding against underperforming contestants. Relational aggression is also a result of these uncensored acts by the television cast (Campbell, 2018). Such scenes lead to different negative behavioral conduct undetectable to parents, as they develop into habits over time.

As stated in the introduction part of this assignment, queer representation by the television and media is clearly a misleading factor for societys future. Not only does it destroy the values of a society, but it also violates religious regulations, thus prompting severe consequences as understood by religious believers. It is therefore very important to monitor and regulate the type of content both adults and children are exposed to. This will help maintain upright moral standards and eliminate the incidences of queer representation among members of the community.

References

Campbell, L. (2018). Reality TV: Viewers, participants health effects. Healthline. Web.

LaMorte, W. (2019). The social cognitive theory. Boston University School of Public Health. Web.

Shakeri, S. (2017). HuffPost is now a part of Verizon Media. Huffington Post. Web.

Introduction

To fully understand the underlying theme and sentiments that both Flannery OConnor and Tennessee Williams tried to bring out in their respective writings, Revelation and A Streetcar Named Desire, it is necessary to understand the time and location of the novel and the social milieu in which the characters existed. Though there are many who support their views and aver that the characters would have behaved in similar fashion, if they existed now, there are critics who disagree very strongly. At a time when America was trying to cope with the internal strife and problems associated with its civil war, their upheaval was not just political or nationalistic. It was more of a turmoil that caused a questioning and a rethink of what was socially accepted hitherto. It became quite difficult for those living in the South and the North to understand the reasons behind the changes in social stratification and sensitivity that led to political changes with far-reaching consequences.

Stanley Kowalski  epitome of masculinity, albeit presumed

Not known for exhibiting any kind of niceties, Stanley has an image of himself and all other men that to most might reek of male chauvinism. It is not easy for a person like him to come to terms with the temerity of his wifes sister, Blanche Dubois, around whom the whole plot of the story A Streetcar Named Desire is centered. For a person who has spent practically his whole life, slogging in a factory, he is very conscious of the fact that there are people around him who do not succumb to the pressures of their financial status, but on the contrary, find ways to circumvent it.

Since the whole plot has a very Roman Catholic background to it, there is no way one can avoid the influence of the Church on its characters. Stanley does try to help his sister-in-law, but there is a defiance in her that he finds both repelling as well as attractive. She is not as docile as his wife and hence he finds her to be a challenge, one that he finds fairly difficult to tackle. At the same time, she is not ugly, which makes it difficult for him to ignore her. There is a way in which she seems to get under his skin, a feeling that agitates him to a great extent.

Being a man, with no lofty feminist or liberal views, he is determined to make her and the rest of the world look up to him and his (presumed) power. When he realizes that there is no way he can really ensure this, he tries to force himself on her in an ultimate act of subjugation  he rapes her, leaving her shattered more mentally than physically.

Ruby Turpin  selfishness personified

The portrayal of this southerner with extreme right leanings might not be perfectly indicative of the society she moved in, but it is certainly a good example. A person who has spent all her life, looking down at colored people cannot be expected to think and act very differently. There is a concerted effort on her part to ignore the misery of others and concentrate on the betterment of herself.

The fact that she sees herself as a blessed person merely because of her color and her financial security is best exhibited in her eulogy to Jesus Christ:

If its one thing I am, [&] its grateful. When I think who all I could
have been besides myself and what all I got, a little of everything and a
good disposition besides, I just feel like shouting, Thank you, Jesus,
for making everything the way it is! It could have been different!

Pride, they say, goes before a fall. When her daughter Mary Grace hurls a book at her in disgust, it shows a conscious dislike that the girl has for her mothers hypocritical ways and ideas.

Is it femininity or masculinity or just plain chauvinism?

As a student, this is probably the question that requires a critical study of the book and the period in which it was written. Both Williams and OConnor, the creators of Stanley and Ruby portray intense feelings of one-upmanship that are revolting to almost all those who are around them. Both books reflect the social mores of their times, vis-à-vis the treatment of those who were not as financially sound or racially similar to them.

Stanleys treatment of Blanche smacks of a contempt that he shows for her sex. He exemplifies a male-dominated society where a man works hard and expects complete servility from a woman, whether it is his wife or her sister. In like manner, Ruby does not see anything wrong in her attitude toward those who are below her in the social ladder. She is not able to comprehend that there needs to be a sea change in her thinking; this is the reason for her surprise and distress when her own daughter condemns her to hell.

Conclusion

With prayer, supplication and the Church being key ingredients of both books, both authors have tried to bring out the evil in the minds of these characters with relevant imagery in their writings. For instance, when Mary Grace insults her mother and then has a seizure, the whole episode is made to look almost prophetic (epilepsy was looked upon with awe in that period and had a similar history as well). There is a poetic justice of sorts when Blanche Dubois becomes mentally unstable after the ultimate attack of vandalism on her person, by her brother-in-law, Stanley. Where does one look for justification? There are those who would believe that Blanche richly deserved all that she suffered; but there are those who would say that no man or woman had the right to stand in moral judgment of another.

In conclusion, one could say that both the femininity and masculinity of the characters in both novels is subjective to a very large extent. In reality, violence and discrimination are born and exist because of more than just one cause. Society, religion and financial security contribute to a large extent in mitigating the two.

References

1. Paquet-Deyris, Anne Marie. Flannery OConnors Revelation  Some vast construction work. [Wise Blood 18], Cercles Occasional Papers Series 3 2005: 1-11.
2. Williams, Tennessee. A Streetcar Named Desire. London: Methuen, 1984.

The book Uncle Toms Cabin by H. B. Stowe vividly portrays different gender roles and superiority of men over women. The passage selected for analysis reveals that men dominated in society and obtained a leading role in lives of women. The passage relates to George Harris, Elizas husband. In the passage Stowe shows the moral and intellectual superiority of men over women. Harris, the husband of Eliza and brother of Cissie, had seen his mother put up at a sheriffs sale with her seven children.

He is sent by his owner to work in a bagging factory, where he invents a machine for the cleaning of hemp. George Harris talked so fluently, held himself so erect, looked so handsome and manly, that his master began to feel an uneasy consciousness of inferiority. What business had his slave to be marching round the country, inventing machines and holding up his head among gentlemen? Hed soon put a stop to it.

But George Harris refuses to go back to the field. While on a visit to Elizas residence (they were kept apart by separate masters), he divulges his plan of escape and asks what justice made him a slave and the white, his master: Im a better man than he is, I know more about the business than he does, I am a better manager than he is, I can read better than he can, I write a better handand Ive learned it all myself, and no thanks to him. (Stowe, Chapter 3) Through the character of George Harris, Mrs. Stowe interjected her colonization views. Too ambitious to remain an artisan, Harris enrolls in a French university where he spends four years in study. But in the closing pages of the novel, he departs with his family for Liberia, where a new and promising republic has arisen:

The stereotype of a black man depicted in the selected passage can be compared to Michael Stivic from All in the Family. He dominates in the family and over women. In contrast to this character, women characters are portrayed as weak and helpless. The immediate source of their confidence was the great strides man had lately taken toward fulfilling his oldest dream, the conquest of his physical environment.

The character of Michael Stivic stays apart from other make characters: he is depicted as a man who possessed female qualities such passion, sympathy and deep feelings. Social priorities were supported by economic development which always played a major role considered as the main indicator of future success or failure. It is possible to say that slavery lasted so long, because it was legitimatized by the church which played a crucial role for 20 century men.

In sum, both works show that men dominate in society and are portrayed as strong and powerful in contrast to weak women. Men are portrayed as indifferent and cruel towards women. Stowe idealizes womanhood avoiding such things as oppression and low educational level, low social status of women and their domestic role only. She tries to create a woman who is equal to men in her thoughts if not actions. Such behavior considered typical for this epoch.

Stowe also depicts that womens life and destiny defined and depended upon the men, and, particularly, upon their marriage. Although men had an influence on womens behavior and exaggerated them in many life situations. Many women characters in the novel wonder why anyone would understand a difference between slaves and masters, blacks and whites.

Works Cited

Stowe, H. B. Uncle Toms Cabin. 2003. Web.

Career achievements and personal characteristics may not be the only criteria employers consider during the hiring process. Bias based on gender or race is present whenever an employee or potential applicant is treated in a different way. Moreover, gender discrimination affects wages since it is evident that women are paid less than men due to organizations prejudice. A trade union (TU) is an association of workers engaged in the protection of their economic interests. Generally, there is a fierce debate regarding the importance of TUs and their impact on overall performance. In this essay, methods of bigotry prevention in the workplace will be discussed together with a personal opinion on TUs.

For an employer, there are specific tactics that can be used in order to discourage or reduce the effect of gender-based discrimination. A comprehensive set of manuals of business behavior with emphasis on the relationship between employees may be developed. Aspects akin to payment gap, subtle discrimination, and sexual harassment must be highlighted and brought into the subject (Jones et. al. 53). Additionally, the instruction can include a penalty section for a violation of the corporate law. Alternatively, workers can attend compulsory training sessions so as to raise awareness of the topic and explain the significance of the appropriate and respectful attitude to all colleagues. Thus, gender bias can be approached via a concrete collection of obligations and mindful education.

Skin color is another area of judgment for employers to disadvantage workers. One of the strategies against it may involve creation of the board, which will be responsible for the observation and penalization of racism in the workplace. For example, a worker who experienced unfair treatment due to racial identity may file a complaint. The committee will investigate the case and punish a culprit with disciplinary measures. Furthermore, employees can use their rights anonymously so that they do not feel pressured or fear becoming redundant. On the other hand, promotions and bonuses may be granted on the ground of career merits without the ability to reveal personal information. Hence, racial injustice in professional situations can be treated with the help of the independent board of race discrimination cases.

TUs possess the power of raising minimum wages and securing safe working conditions for the sake of its members. My personal view on TUs is in favor of their activities and impact on society. It is undeniable that corporate greed leads to the destruction of the working class, making it impossible for them to survive in the current economic climate. Therefore, TU must operate on a regular basis, encouraging potential associates to enroll and fight for the rights of people of low and middle incomes. Employers need to be considerate and respectful towards TUs so as not to imperil future relationships. Thereupon, TUs play a crucial role in protecting the workers rights and, thus, must function properly.

In conclusion, it can be noted that there are particular strategies, which can be applied when gender or racial discrimination happens. Employees may lodge a complaint with further consequences or follow courses on relevant corporate relations. Employers, for their part, might form a committee regulating these aspects. The standpoint on TU activities is for the benefit of the working class, which vulnerable positions must be guarded. I find it necessary for the management and TU to establish and sustain reciprocal relationships to ensure a stable and prosperous future for both sides.

Work Cited

Jones, Kristen, et. al. Subtle Discrimination in the Workplace: A Vicious Cycle. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, vol. 10, no. 1, 2017, pp. 51-76.

Various organizational structures, processes, and practices are some of the issues which undermine gender equality. Women, just like men, have rewarding ideas if given opportunities to be heard. Female employees are made to live with aspects of discrimination, yet their work production capability is substantial. Much worse, human resource managers have a responsibility for handling this concern, yet they are not as influential as expected. The majority of recruiters practices are controlled by the aspects of decision-making, policies, and their respective enactments which affect training, hiring, promotion, and payments of employees. Negativity towards women make most proprietors fail to employ these mechanisms positively. The processes demean these individuals ability to influence and confidently shape most administrative constructions, which would equalize duties of the working environment. These processes cause job limitation and gender sensitivity concerns, which affect women the most. Work restriction is a gender sensitive issue preventing women from attaining their potential in employment.

Women are limited to certain types of jobs because of obstacles preventing them from becoming who they want in terms of pursuing their professions. Unfortunately, society influences the resistance of these individuals efforts in becoming reliable experts. Writing professions were considered male jobs, hence limiting women from expressing themselves through this niche (Woolf 1). In a speech delivered by Virginia Woolf, women struggle to be appreciated as professionals in the writing profession (Woolf 1). Talking about herself, she admits struggling to overcome formidable barriers by sharing her own experience and journey to become the writer she is (Madgavkar et al. 2). Woolf overcame this notion by first dealing with her own personality, which she refers to as angel in the house (Woolf 1). The affirmation reveals that women have a duty of incapacitating their boundaries if they should be accepted to take part in the profession, which is men-dominated. This, therefore, proves that women are confined to certain jobs, but can manage this problem if they are able to work beyond their personality.

Women have talents, considering every person is born with specific gifts, but a few manage to utilize them. Although being gifted and talented, Philis Wheatley did not thrive during her life in the 1700s because she was a slave who was not independent in decision-making (Walker 402). According to Walkers assertion, she was a black sick woman who needed a servant of her own (Walker 403). If she were white, Walker suggests, Wheatley would be considered for her intellectual superiority, which would affect both genders positively (404). Poetry is another field which was dominated by the male gender in ancient Europe. From Walkers revelation, Philis Wheatley was exceptionally gifted in poetry, but she could not express the talent professionally because men dominated her (Walker 407). Women are limited in jobs because they cannot overcome the hindrances to their success when they secure a place among the working class. With their talents, the majority do not favorably serve in the midst of male-dominated areas.

The womens place in society during ancient times was to serve the household, as per the ancient societys believes. Wheatleys case applies here as well considering that, instead of using her talent to enrich herself, she died poor and with no friends (Walker 406). The above statement deduces that she was meaningful and impactful solemnly to her family. In ancient times, women were considered to have their rightful place at home. As any other woman of her period, she labored to give her family food, she would work strenuously, yet she had writing talent. It is not clear whether her husband was still living at this time, but it is evident she worked to serve her family on her own. From societal beliefs, she represents many women, who had a limited place in terms of serving in their area of professionalism. Females are, therefore, are given attention in the context of what they can serve conveniently, a fact that questions their ability to be effective. This cultural notion is what limits women in the context of what job they need or should be given when seeking employment.

Whether it is through cultural or societal command, limiting women to the jobs they can manage is an unworthy idea. In terms of achievement, women are rated low as compared to men (Madgavkar et al. 3). When they are undermined in their duties, women refrain from fully devoting to their work, a fact which further creates aspects of discrimination in society. When females are limited in terms of jobs, society tends to be exercising discrimination, a fact which should be avoided. (Madgavkar et al. 1). A part of society, divided in this respect, does not value women and discourages them from working to their capacity to serve the community. The repercussion for such an activity means women are irrelevant in their efforts to contribute to empowering others. The aspect of limiting women creates from attaining the work positions they deserve, make them appear unproductive and unqualified which might not be true.

The world is moving to the age of artificial intelligence, and limiting women in terms of job opportunities is one way restricting the rate of technology use in society. Various opportunities arise when people are subjected to reliable communication and implementation systems (Madgavkar et al. 1). Empowering women is another way of ensuring society is innovative and it vests everyone in terms of being useful in their professions. When females are restricted, they withhold the governments efforts to serve its community suitably. Therefore, there is a need to ensure that society enjoys cohesiveness while attracting innovation by incorporating both the two genders in accessing job. Otherwise, many potential and valuable minds will disappear without utilizing their potential. As much as the limitation is against the feminine gender it affects the community by disrupting creativeness and modernization.

In conclusion, job limitations in the context of gender are a concern in the current society. Men are dominating job sectors, a fact, which makes women fail to execute their powers of innovation as expected. Working as a writer or a poet is an example of jobs which discouraged females such as Woolf and Wheatley who were writers, from achieving their potential because of their genders societal interferences. Womens personalities and their environment act as obstacles in their strive to serve the community. Much worse, the aspect of limiting women causes the aspect of discrimination, which hinders an organizations smooth progress. When it happens, society will prioritize one gender instead of utilizing them both. As an alternative to creating discrimination in terms of job limitations, it is essential to give the participants a chance to contribute in their capacity. Women are subjected to work limits because their male counterparts think they are not well endowed to serve them.

Works Cited

Madgavkar, Anu et al. The Future of Women at Work: Transitions in the Age of Automation. McKinsey Global Institute. 2020. Web.

Quadlin, Natasha. The Mark of a Womans Record: Gender and Academic Performance in Hiring. American Sociological Review Journal, vol. 83, no. 2, 2018.

Walker, Alice. In Search of Our Mothers Gardens. Anthropology of African American Literary. 2020. Web.

Woolf, Virginia. Professions For Women. Womens Service League. 2020. Web.

The article Misconceptions of Gender: Sex, Masculinity, and the Measurement of Crime by J.W., Cohen, and J. Harvey analysis the problem of misconceptions related to crime and disobedience. The authors claim that previous studies lack a theoretical bass paying attention to statistical numbers only. By submitting the process of procreation and rearing to a strict division of labor, nature has equipped the female with all the possibilities of enclosing, sheltering, and feeding the growing embryo. Gender has in ways been misunderstand in criminal science. The research states that gender should be analyzed and assessed in terms of social relations rather than simple statistical data of crimes. During this period only defensive traits of the mother can protect the frailties of the embryo and the young. This organically rooted protective attitude includes predatory and aggressive tendencies that spring to light as soon as the offspring is threatened. Because she is the bearer of the delicate nascent life, females are fitted for a sedentary existence where their surplus of vitality can be used for the building of the new generation. The female deviates less from the norm than the male; she shows a higher recuperative and regenerative ability. She lives longer. Despite the strain of passing through a long series of bodily crises, her insanity and suicide rates are lower. When nature equipped the male with a powerful muscular apparatus she presented the female with a more resistant nervous system and greater inviolability. Being exploited organically by the generative process and the growing child, the female, in turn, exploits the concupiscence and the muscular acquisitive strength of the male.

The work Migration and social mobility describes social problems faced by minority people in Britain their exclusion from social mobility available for native citizens. The research states that it is obvious that the forces of chance operate in both directions, producing the accidental law-abiding and the accidental lawbreaking individual. The contradiction is sometimes striking, so disturbing that mankind since the oldest times has tried to reconcile the suffering of the just and the escape of the wicked, expressed in prosperity and success, with the idea of justice. The author underlines that changing occupational structure and job design help many minority employees to improve their social and economic conditions, it is not the best way to include the minority in social relations. Class transitions and social mobility are weak to support minority employees and allow them to enter society. The individual, whom we fancy as something fixed and immutable even though he is undergoing continual processes of evolution and involution, can never be totally self-centered, unattached, or individual as long as he lives in an organized society. He has always some sort of sociological significance; he is an asset, a burden, or a danger, actual or potential. The research proposes a detailed and well-thought analysis of the trends and issues in social mobility and class transitions within ethnic groups. The author establishes a useful fiction when isolates the biological sphere from group relations and the group phenomena from individual attributes. By poisoning a testator and thereby altering succession, the path to a sociological change is opened. There is an intimate interrelation between the biological incident and social implication. Many minority people have been deprived of a chance to receive a well-paid job and give good education for their children excluded from social relations and assess to social benefits available for native citizens.

Bibliography

Cohen, J.W., HarveyP. J. 2006, Misconceptions of Gender: Sex, Masculinity, and the Measurement of Crime. The Journal of Mens Studies, 14 (1), 223.

Platt. WL Migration and social mobility. 2005.

As an individual whose family had immigrated to North America from Africa, my identity has been closely associated with trying to fit in. Being a woman of color, particular challenges come into play, shaping not only personal experiences and interactions with the world but also my self-perception and self-identity. For African women, racial and ethnic identities are potentially viewed as their sources of discrimination, which have had a detrimental influence on how I approach the world and the social interactions embedded into them. The identity of a Black woman from an immigrant family has encouraged me to navigate through the context of oppression that has followed me since childhood. Even as a child, I encountered many difficulties with finding an identity and fitting in with the world around me. Attending mainly white schools and living in white neighborhoods, it was clear that I was different. Even when there were no overt attempts of discriminatory targeting against me, I felt different. Categories associated with race historically have been used as a method of enabling oppressive figures or groups to discriminate against other groups that have characteristics that differ from that of an oppressor.

My identity as a woman of color in a predominantly white society contributed to significant marginalization. Such a social identity has stripped me of some opportunities and experiences while also enabling me to witness the privilege that others are awarded. Growing up in Canada, I was often asked the question of where I was from as if the color of my skin automatically meant that I was foreign. When I replied that I was from Canada, my response was immediately countered by the question of where I was really from. The assumption that I did not belong and that I could not have possibly grown up in Canada paints the canvas for the environment of marginalization and the lack of understanding of the experiences that individuals of color encounter in a white-dominated context (Razack 10). The degrading experiences, such as being called the N-word or being compared to an animal, signify the systematic marginalization that limits not only life experiences but also the opportunities that I could not have.

The opportunities presented to the Nigerian immigrants children all stemmed from the high expectations of attaining proper education that should have given a solid framework for becoming successful in life. With my mother an educator and my father a businessman, education came at the forefront as they have always stressed the importance of having to work twice as hard to achieve the same things that my white counterparts would have. From the very beginning, the difference in experience was associated with my supposed inferiority in the eyes of society. To have the same opportunities as others, I would have to show that I earned them while the others did not have to do anything. My worldview has been directly associated with such a predicament  there was nothing that was given to me because of the marginalized position in society, instead, I would have to give something to ensure that my life experiences would be valuable and rewarding.

Like many other women of color, I had to embrace the dominant culture and make myself available to others while also acknowledging my inferior position in society. Ironically, acknowledging this provides me with a sense of superiority as an individual because I am aware of the limitations imposed by my environment, having no illusions regarding what I can and cannot accomplish. My white counterparts, however, are used to being handed opportunities and experiences, and failure becomes a shock to them. As a Black woman in a predominantly white society, I do not expect to be handed opportunities, especially in a male-dominated educational and professional context that favors white men in leadership positions. My oppression shaped the understanding of social issues by helping me recognize that both racism and sexism are the interconnected systems of oppression that are at work around the clock, and their overlap to create a setting within which marginalized people struggle with not only fitting it but also being acknowledged as important societal contributors.

Despite being a woman of color, I am complicit in upholding the systematic barriers linked to race, class, gender, sexuality, and others because I have mainly focused on the issues that I experience, looking over the problems that others have, which creates a conflict. As a Black woman, I need to understand that I am also indirectly involved in the experiences of other women who are in a similar position as me. I have been ineffective in contributing to change in the system of systemic marginalization, nor did I address the hierarchal relationships that limit our opportunities as a group (Razack and Fellows 337). In many ways, I have been complicit with the oppressive barriers, and it is essential to recognize this problem to participate in the transformation of an unjust system of domination. For instance, the attitude toward Islam has been overall negative in Canada for the past decades, with marginalization turning into fear and prejudice against the religion. Those people who do not discriminate against Muslims but fail to raise alarms of the problem are complicit in the oppression. The religious privilege of Christianity, for example, inevitably ends in Islamophobia or Antisemitism.

To further the discussion about the impact of privilege on the perceptions of Islam as a religion, I am in no place of authority to suggest that any religion is superior to others. However, as I pointed out earlier, it is the complacency with the general lack of acceptance that makes the problem more severe. Similar to Christianity or Judaism, Islam is a monotheistic religion that includes the teachings about a deity and its messenger; however, the radicalization of some of the ideas has caused an overtly negative effect in public perception (Mamdani 18). The events of 9/11 were detrimental in shaping the Anti-Islamic sentiment in Western society, as evidenced by the West and the Rest binary, with the lack of the understanding of how Islam differs from Islamic extremism causes the discrimination and fear of individuals who identify with the religion (Hall 57). My identity as a woman of color allows me to see the problem more clearly. The lack of understanding and knowledge of the history and the background of the marginalized group lead to the generalization of public thought. In the same way, in which the majority of Black women are depicted as angry and sassy in the modern media, the majority of Muslims are depicted as radical and threatening to the security of the Western world.

Works Cited

Hall, Stuart. The West and the Rest: Discourse and Power. Race and Racialization: Essential Readings, edited by Tania Das Gupta et al. Canadian Scholars Press Inc., 2007, pp. 56-60.

Mamdani, Mahmood. (2004). Good Muslim, Bad Muslim: America, the Cold War and the Roots of Terror. Pantheon Books, 2004.

Razack, Sherene H. Looking White People in the Eye: Gender, Race and Culture in Courtrooms and Classrooms. University of Toronto Press, 1998.

Razack, Sherene, and Mary Louise Fellows. The Race to Innocence: Confronting Hierarchical Relations Among Women. Journal of Gender, Race and Justice, vol. 1, no. 2, 1998, pp. 335-352.

Introduction

Social roles are often enforced through the cultural upbringing of children, religious beliefs, and legal laws. In the 19th century, a group of feminists decided to oppose the derogative gender expectations that were designed to domesticate and suppress women (Allen 207). Different avenues, including the media, Constitution, and street protests, were used to create awareness and deter oppression against the female sex. The objective of this paper is to critically analyze the writing pieces of Fuller and Fern on the norm which categorizes women as bound and confined in homes and men as free to move around.

Defining Feminism in the 19th Century

The wave which started in the 19^th century was primarily spearheaded by white women of middle income. Within this context, feminism was defined as the movement which was pushing for equal rights with men, especially on the property and the rights to vote (Allen 207). Another significant event which occurred was the abolitionist protest intended to end the slave trade in the United States. The issue of gender and race suppression was, thus, a characteristic of the era.

Summary of Fullers Concept on Women Confinement

In her essay, Fuller compares women to enslaved African Americans. The author claims that there exists, in the world of men, a tone of feeling towards women as towards slaves (par. 32). This statement implies that women are not free but subject to the regulations put by men. They are not in a position to make a substantial decision because they are limited in reasoning capabilities. Fuller contradicts this long-held assumption by arguing, if the woman be a soul, apparelled in flesh, to one master only are they accountable (par. 34). Here, the writer indicates that a woman should not be bound by a male human but by God.

Thus, she positions both human sexes at an equal state without demanding subordination and confinement based on gender. Fuller continues saying that if all the females are weaker, then she should have legal protection, not confinement (par. 31). The barbarian oppression obstructed the rights of women by forming unjust laws. This text is more comprehensive as it shows the root cause for the inequality and addresses it from a theological perspective, which has been an anchor in male superiority.

Summary of Ferns Concept of Women Confinement

In her article, Fern uses the image of the female dress code to create a metaphor for domestication. She opens her writing piece by explaining how Emma Wilson was arrested for wearing mans apparel. The attire of ladies was long gowns which made it difficult for them to move. During the rainy season, Fern shows how the women have to hold up their skirts, carry the umbrella, walk around gutters while skipping the peddles (par. 2). Rather than endure all the hurdles, the ladies opt to stay at home. Fern decides that the solution was to defy the rules by putting on her husbands suit (par. 3). Afterward, the spouse tells her, you must not take my arm; you are a fellow (par. 5). The lady gladly agrees and adds that she does not even need help over the puddles. It is apparent that the females never needed the help or conferment, but the norms on their dress code partly contributed to their enslavement to men.

Comparison and Verdict on the Most Effective Text

The aim of the feminists in the 19th century was to attain equality of gender; hence, the most effective text should achieve this objective. Both Fuller and Fern have mentioned areas of oppression when it concerns the enslavement through the confinement of women. The former author provides an utterly profound analysis by giving the metaphor of slaves and comparing them to the females. The text shows that just as enslaved Americans had to obtain permission to go beyond their boundary, similar restrictions were placed on ladies. Fullers text indicates how flawed understanding of religious doctrines has brought oppression upon women. The essay also unveils that women are under both physical and intellectual confinement. However, when humans recognize that males and females have equal souls, only submissive to God, the enslavement will cease.

Fern has also tried expositing female domestication through dress codes which make it cumbersome to walk. She as well recognizes that equality can be achieved when laws are not suppressive. For example, women should not be arrested for wearing trousers because they also want to walk around. However, the text appears to be only limited to policies about dresses and does not assume other aspects that kept women confined. This limitation fails to address the holistic definition of feminism concerning freedom, as Fullers text does.

Conclusion

Oppressive gender roles have existed for centuries, with women always being the victims. The 19th-century feminist movement aimed at obstructing the belief system and laws that suppressed ladies intending to achieve equality. One stereotypical norm was that women are to be confined while men are free to go everywhere. Thus, Fuller takes a theological stance and argues for freedom of women basing on equality of soul. However, Fern focuses on one area of confinement, which is the dress code, and shows that the laws had to be defied. Both authors, therefore, address the issue, but Fullers text is more effective since it provides a more comprehensive review.

Works Cited

Allen, Katherine R. Feminist Theory in Family Studies: History, Reflection, and Critique. Journal of Family Theory & Review, vol 8, no. 2, 2016, pp. 207224. Web.

Fern, Fanny. A Law More Nice than Just. Ruth Hall and Other Writings, edited by Joyce W. Warren, Rutgers University Press, 1986, pp. 299302.

Fuller, Margaret. The Great Lawsuit. Man, Versus Men. Woman Versus Women. The Dial, vol. 4, no. 1, 1843, pp. 147.

Introduction

Sexual agency is the ability to make decisions freely in situations that involve a sexual context. In particular, it is the choice of whether one wants to engage in sexual activity, how they want to do it, and whether or when they want to stop it or avoid it altogether. A person exercises their agency when they have the technical ability to do so and use it to make choices. As such, while there may be no legal barriers to the practice of sexual agency, it is typically regulated through social norms, which are often biased.

The recent development of hook-up culture demonstrates the differences that gender norms have instituted for males and females agency. Men are expected to seek sex over relationships, and the accumulation of a large number of partners is a mark of success for them. Meanwhile, women have to be concerned about safe sex and protect their reputation, leading to a low number of partners. If a member of either gender does not adhere to these standards, they will be shunned and possibly ostracized. However, a sexually inactive male will not meet as much negativity as a sexually active female.

This perception is the result of an enduring narrative that emphasizes masculinity at the expense of women. Men are free to pursue pleasure through sex or other means, and an experienced male is seen as more desirable. Meanwhile, inexperience is promoted among women, which enables men to take the lead and exercise their agency while women allow them to do as they want. These conflicting narratives of sexuality lead to the creation of a disparity between genders that suppresses the sexual agency of women.

The Gender Politics of Campus Sex

Kalishs claim that the gender politics of campus sex have not changed much is motivated by the lack of change in the overall dynamics. While sexual attitudes, in general, have become less restricted, with women entering the hook-up culture on their terms, the prevailing narrative still expects women to handle most of the responsibility. Many still feel that they have to accommodate men who hold no such obligation towards them. Men expect women to be on birth control if they are willing to hook up, and men decide whether repeated encounters constitute a relationship.

Women are still the ones who search to establish a lasting partnership, as opposed to men, who have to be convinced to commit and otherwise seek sex with no consequences. Kalish describes women who would engage in actively unpleasant acts out of the belief that they would make their partners like them more. Many women consider sexuality to be for men and derive pleasure from their satisfaction. As such, while the number of sexual encounters has grown, their fundamental contents have not. Women are still at a disadvantage for many of the same reasons as before.

With that said, there are some rare instances where members of both sexes seek to challenge the established status quo. Kalish mentions two categories of men, one of which prefers to abstain from attempting sexual encounters until they are confident that their female partner wants them. The other does not engage in sex at all to advance the intimacy of the relationship. Moreover, some women are negotiating mechanisms that put them on a level playing field through various means. Overall, the sexual agency landscape is changing in ways that challenge the established narrative, though the process is slow.