Paul Richards once said, “The purpose of appropriation is to see the past with fresh eyes” as films today are changing the ethical and political concerns through the adaptation of McCarthyism, voyeurism and gender roles. However, does the reinterpretation and political concerns take away the fundamental themes of the past? To please the modern audience and adding new techniques to stretch out a feature-length film? Welcome, today I am here to present the overall adaptation of Cornell.W. short text ‘It Had To Be Murder’ and reinterpreted into ’Rear Window’ directed by Alfred Hitchcock. He through fresh eyes contradicting political views and ethical concerns in that era. Alfred expressed his political opinions through McCarthyism meaning-making accusations of subversion without proper evidence which pulls the audience into further themes of voyeurism as their persuasive eyes examine the lives of the neighbourhood through Jeff’s eyes. The portrayal of women in the 50s was reinterpreted in Alfred’s view on gender roles and post-war anxiety. Lisa Fremont was the leading breakthrough of women in society due to the power of wealth and beauty, Jeff weak and walking within her shadows. The political concerns of the 50s have been shown within the film of ‘Rear Window’ as you watch a classic reinterpretation of ‘It had to be murder’ with a fresh view of political concerns and a distinct growing society.
‘Rear window’ is an exposition on political values which provokes the audiences to observe their neighbours just as Jeff did. By doing this, he solves a murder case which spondees the viewer to look at their neighbours and the rise suspicion which alludes to the idea of post-war anxiety. Just as Alfred’s characters invite pervasive eyes to scrutinise their lives, society now is guilty of the corresponding dullness of McCarthyism which makes accusations of subversion without proper evidence. The first-person viewpoint in the opening scene merges the audiences to fall into the theme of voyeurism as they are pleasured from watching others with the use of judgement, guilt and the questioning of their innocence. The diegetic sounds in the background while the camera angles go from left to right swiftly the music changes as each view of the apartment. Rear window had a colossal effect as it was released in the post-war period where communists and soviet espionage were on the rise as McCarthyism of accusations without evidence was an issue in this era, and Alfred Hitchcock used his political concerns through the rise of suspicion and to see a classic film with a new interpretation with political views put in the film. Rear window created a significant influence on society as it brought post-war anxiety through Jeff’s exaggerated interpretations of his neighbours’ actions leading him to an irrational sense of suspicion which induced stress to people as Communism was so broad throughout this period.
The post-war period was where the portrayal of women was changed during the war as they were more self-dependent and in the era of change and liberated from the household duties and into the workforce field. Alfred Hitchcock used his political beliefs on men and women and utilized his gender roles through ‘Rear Window’. In the ‘Rear Window’, the role of women rose within their actions and their risks reversing their primary role of being just a housewife. Meeting Lisa Fremont was a crucial scene as it was a sneak peek of the future and rise of women because of Alfred’s dynamic shot of her entrance through the lighting as the shadows of Lisa is where Jeff stands. The apartment was dark right until Lisa walked through the door as the shadows moved over him, and the primary camera followed as she made her way to him. Alfred Hitchcock utilized costumes as a way to identify archetypal character traits, for example, Lisa’s first dress costs over eleven thousand dollars and she is known never to wear a dress twice, this portrays the assertion of her femininity and power. When Lisa pronounces her last name, Freemont, and turns on the third and brightest light, her head is aligned with a framed picture on the wall. Alfred Hitchcock altered the gender roles and created a fresh perspective of women and men in the 50s.
To conclude Alfred’s appropriation of ‘It Had to Be Murder’ was a substantial change as sophisticated women are included into the plot, and a romance falls, and the addition of post-war anxiety the film had brought to the audience of following the fundamental law of McCarthyism. The ‘Rear Window’ has emerged the inner voyeurism of the audience through Jeff’s eyes the rise of political concerns was due to the use of McCarthyism within the film as Jeff accused Mr Thorvald of murder as the rise of communists was a danger to the U.S government. The inclusion of women and the rise of voyeurism was the running theme in the rear window, this created the audience to question their innocence, and their guilty mind of what they put their focus on the appropriation of women within the original text was a good contrast as there were no powered women rather weak and lonely women Alfred has reinterpreted the original text into a fresh new perspective of political issues and concerns.
In the Renaissance period, gender roles were one where men and women were assigned specific roles to which society portrays their standards and requirements. The value, social expectations, and personal status differed greatly between the genders. Men were the ruling voice over everyone else. Women had no control over their role in society, and their public reputation was dishonorable and a disgrace.
At times, Shakespeare reflects and supports the Renaissance stereotypes of women and men and their roles in society. But he also questions, challenges, and tries to slightly change the representations of them, as we can see in the play, Macbeth.
Two of the main characters in Macbeth were, Macbeth himself and his wife, Lady Macbeth. In this play, the male characters like Macbeth were given feminine characteristics, whereas the women in the play like Lady Macbeth were given more masculine characteristics. Macbeth is portrayed as a weaker character compared to Lady Macbeth. At the beginning of the play, we are given the impression that Macbeth is a brave, worthy, and capable warrior. As we later see, Macbeth may have ambition and bravery, but he also has self-doubt. Shakespeare uses Macbeth to show the effects that ambition and guilt can have on a man who lacks the strength of character.
After Macbeth is easily manipulated by his wife and kills an innocent man, we see guilt taken over. Macbeth is haunted by his actions and tends to go insane. As we see here, Macbeth tends to show a lot of emotion throughout the play, he is brave in the beginning when he kills many men, but then he goes into the ambition of becoming king, which leads to his manipulation and guilt. Showing a lot of emotion wouldn’t be something a man in the renaissance period would do. This shows Shakespeare trying to change the stereotypical roles between males and females.
Females are represented as strong and powerful. This representation is shown through many characters such as Lady Macbeth and the three witches. “unsex me here and fill me from the crown to the toe topfull of direst cruelty.” This quote is from Act 1, scene 5 spoken by Lady Macbeth. She explains she no longer wants to possess the qualities and traits of a woman. Lady Macbeth says she will be more powerful, stronger, and less feminine.
In Act 1, Scene 7 it is shown that Lady Macbeth has power over Macbeth and his ability to make decisions. This shows her strength, power, and potential to manipulate people. Lady Macbeth sets out the plan for Duncan’s murder and has control over how the plan plays out. After the plan is finished, Lady Macbeth has to be the one to take the dagger and plant it on the guards. This shows her true colours and her control of the plan.
The three witches also show power in the play because they can manipulate Macbeth’s way of thinking. They are also able to create an image in his mind and make him think of what they want. The three witches in Macbeth show how much more power females have over men in the play.
The female role shows more “natural” power than the male role in Macbeth.
Macbeth wasn’t the only character given feminine characteristics; another prime example would be King Duncan. Men in the renaissance period were supposed to be strong and intelligent. They were supposed to be able to protect themselves and their families, but Duncan was given the opposite characteristics. Duncan was a very oblivious man, in act 1, scene 6 Duncan says, “This castle hath a pleasant seat; the air nimbly and sweetly recommends itself unto our gentle senses.” This is ironic because Duncan is saying how pleasant the castle is, meanwhile, his murder will be done inside.
Even though Duncan was oblivious he also could not protect himself or his family, which also shows how Shakespeare went against the stereotypes given in the renaissance period.
This proves that Shakespeare tried to change and question the gender and power of the roles of men and women; from the stereotypes of the renaissance period.
As we see with Shakespeare’s writing of the play Macbeth, he tried switching the reputation of the power and roles that men and women were given. Even if people in the renaissance period did not catch on or even continue the change. In today’s society male and female equality is a huge focus, and the perspective on the roles of each has been drastically changed compared to the renaissance period.
Throughout the course of our respected world history, there have been characterizations, depictions, and stereotypes of the two commonly accepted genders, male and female. These clichés have ultimately been mirrored in plays and other forms of artwork, often coinciding with specific eras of time. This lends today’s viewers or readers insight about gender roles and social rankings in past societies. Aeschylus, the great ancient Greek tragedian who wrote The Oresteia in 5th century BC, successfully constructs a realistic view of Greek culture by clearly defining perceived male and female attributes within their designated social statuses. He does so by centering his play around a misogynistic society that cultivates submissive, overlooked females in contrast to controlling, aggressive males. Aeschylus displays a threatening idea throughout this trilogy: the questioning of masculine power in society, the house, and even above in the heavens. The Oresteia allows him to play with the idea of a powerful, masculine woman who uses violence as a means of justice (Clytemnestra) in contrast to the docile nature of other women in the play. Aeschylus creates distinct gender roles and relates them to what was expected in society at the time, while also underlining man’s fear of an authoritative, independent woman. The trilogy is composed of Agamemnon, the Libation Bearers, and the Eumenides.
It tells the legend of the curse of the House of Atreus, a never-ending series of brutal and bloody murders within the family, and its ultimate demise that led to the formation of a judicial system and democracy in Athens. The Oresteia portrays characters in two main categories: male and female, representing the main grouping of members of Greek society during 5th century BC. Gender ultimately determined their role in the polis, a city-state and its government, and in the oikos, a household defined by three different relationships: master and slave, husband and wife, and father and child. Aeschylus emphasizes the lack of importance of women in the oikos with Apollo’s speech defending Orestes’s matricide in the Eumenides, stating “The person called the mother’s not the parent./She only nourishes the embryo/planted by mounting her, and for a stranger she keeps the shoot alive—if no god blights her.” Although the woman physically gives birth, Apollo argues the man is superior and has a greater claim over their child. This belief mimics that of Greek culture, a woman’s sole purpose was to provide children and raise them; however, if the husband and wife disagreed over how to handle their children, the wife would ultimately be dismissed. Women were unable to vote, own land, or inherit property from their families leaving each facet of their life controlled and taken up by men. Beyond the biological differences separating women and men, Aeschylus further segregated his characters according to status: members of a royal family, servants, and religious deities. Royal men dominated women, their children, and people of lesser socioeconomic status; even within these separate social statuses, men were still at the top of the food chain. A few exceptions displayed by Aeschylus in The Oresteia include Clytemnestra and the Erinyes (or Furies), which by the end of the trilogy are overpowered by man.
He begins the play with a Watchman on the roof of the palace, awaiting a gesture indicating the fall of Troy, and a choral ode detailing the brutal sacrifice of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra’s daughter, Iphigenia, by the king himself in order to successfully sail to their enemy’s land. Iphigenia was characterized as worthless and barely human, stating “her pleading, her shrieking for her father/the girl’s short life—these were worth nothing.” Agamemnon ignored her pitiful cries for him to save her, counteracting them by telling his soldiers to “keep her facing the ground, to guard her exquisite mouth.” Aeschylus creates a vivid image of Iphigenia’s violated innocence, going as far as to describe her as a “goat” for them to throw over the altar. This is further emphasized by the scene taking place on the lower level of the tiered stage, illustrating the lack of significance of the act to Agamemnon. Her father, and any ancient Greek male, considered military prowess and notoriety more important than their own child. Aeschylus then introduces an unusually masculine woman, Clytemnestra, spreading the news of a fiery beacon signifying the end of the ten-year Trojan War. She is doubted by the Chorus, composed of respected, male elders that serve as her advisors, and also the Watchman. Despite being the ruler of Argos in Agamemnon’s absence, she is still undermined by the men of the palace, illustrating the instability of a female ruler at the very beginning of the play.
The prior choral ode also serves to get the viewer to sympathize with Clytemnestra through the gory death of her only daughter, Iphigenia, and sets up her motive for the murder of her husband upon his return from war. Agamemnon’s return should mark the end of her reign as ruler, but even after his arrival she asserts herself as supreme by physically deciding who will enter their home. Their reunion is marked by her pressuring him to walk across the purple tapestry — the color historically being a symbol of royalty — to gain entry into their home. While the tapestry represents their vast wealth and power, it also is a symbol of blood. The blood shed on the battlefield, the sacrifice to Artemis of Iphigenia, and the blood that is about to be lost in the murders of Agamemnon and Cassandra. Through a series of stichomythia, Clytemnestra convinces Agamemnon to obey her command which ultimately seals his fate: his murder at the hands of his wife. Clytemnestra using such violent means as a way to seek revenge can be seen as a cathartic response, a release of anger in regard to the death of her beloved daughter and to the strict limitations and injustice placed upon her as a woman. She is infuriated by the lack of respect that she garners from Greek citizens and from Agamemnon, with him publicly parading the Trojan princess Cassandra as his mistress from war. Cassandra is accepted, even welcomed and envied, by the men of Argos; she is seen as a battle prize left over from the Trojan War. While it is honorable for Agamemnon to take a mistress, it is unacceptable for Clytemnestra to be in a romantic relationship with Aegisthus.
This highlights the differences between male and female expectations; however, it is unique for society to allow Clytemnestra to partake in an affair as usually women would be immediately divorced or in extreme instances murdered. Aeschylus adds to Clytemnestra’s masculine nature by making her guilty of adultery which contrasts his depiction of Cassandra as an archetypal Greek woman. He portrays her as passive and feminine, going as far as to have her desired by the god Apollo. Cassandra was gifted prophetic powers by Apollo in his attempts to seduce her, but after her rejection of his sexual advances, he angrily declares that no one will believe her visions. Her rejection of a man presents a common fear for women, in that her reputation was tarnished and she lost her credibility within the community. Cassandra knew she was destined to die in the House of Atreus, along with Agamemnon, yet she yieldingly decided to accept her fate. In a time where women had no power in their lives, Cassandra ended up owning her power by embracing death and deciding when and where she would spend her final moments. Aeschylus’s description of the innocent Cassandra serves to paint Clytemnestra in the worst light possible foreshadowing the court decision in the Eumenides, clearing Orestes of matricide and leaving her without the justice she was seeking. There is a gradual decline in the power of women as the trilogy progresses, with Clytemnestra being the murderous vixen that ends up ruling Argos in the Agamemnon, to the slightly manipulative Chorus and servant members in the Libation Bearers, and finally the chthonic, female Erinyes losing their power in favor of the newer Greek gods in the Eumenides. The Libation Bearers introduces the first of the main servant characters, including the all-female Chorus and Clissa, Orestes’s childhood nurse.
These characters, along with Agamemnon and Clytemnestra’s other daughter Electra, help Orestes to fulfill his mission of murdering his mother. This play opens with Clytemnestra ordering Electra and the members of the Chorus, composed of slave women from the palace, to go to Agamemnon’s grave to commemorate him in an attempt for her to evade her nightmares. Her night terrors foresee her death, with the rage of Agamemnon tormenting her. Aeschylus further characterizes Clytemnestra as a masculine woman, emphasizing her strict seven-year rule and unpopularity within Argos, causing the audience to pity her less. He also does this by pinning her own children and the servants of her castle against her, with them ultimately teaming up to murder her and gain justice for their king. While the women participate, their roles in the murder are minor compared to Clytemnestra’s gruesome slayings in the first segment; the killing is completed by Orestes, illustrating the transition of power from a woman to a man. The independence and unique masculinity experienced by Clytemnestra in Agamemnon dies with her, reinforcing that this scenario is unlikely to happen again in The Oresteia or in Greek society. Orestes commits matricide with this action of defending the death of Agamemnon, highlighting his undying loyalty to his father.
Aeschylus describes Orestes as the ideal Greek man: pious, upstanding, respectful, intelligent, and a warrior. He displays these traits throughout the play with confidence, never doubting the moral decisions that he made or his devotion to Apollo and the gods. Orestes is shown to designate small roles to each woman in the Libation Bearers, keeping the most physically demanding task for himself. This compliments the idea at the time that women were weak, unfit to complete manual labor. Electra is depicted as unmarried and still living at home, maintaining a close bond with the servants and staff of the palace that compose the Chorus. She is contemptuous of Clytemnestra for killing her father, despite his actions towards Iphigenia, and encourages Orestes in his revenge plot. The servants, the Chorus and Clissa, are unique in this series in that they are at the lowest social status; despite being at the bottom of society’s rankings (a woman and working class), they still decide to favor a man over a woman. Clissa is utilized by Aeschylus to further turn the audience away from Clytemnestra by accentuating her lack of maternal action. The Erinyes, female deities of vengeance, are first introduced in the Libation Bearers after being summoned and pushed into a frenzy by Clytemnestra to exact retribution for her death. They are mentioned, but not physically present until the Eumenides in which they serve as the Chorus. The Erinyes are described as “like gorgons, black-robed, with teeming, twining snakes instead of hair.”
Aeschylus paints them as repulsive, terrifying creatures when in reality they were divine servants of the people, aggressively going to whatever means necessary to gain justice for Orestes’s murder. This idea of women with authority, specifically that overpowered that of men, was considered such a threat in Greek culture that any woman who dared to break out of their expected gender role was considered a pariah. Aeschylus successfully portrays this by utilizing words with negative connotation in regard to them, further emphasizing the dichotomy between them and the Olympic gods. There is an apparent reason behind the tension between the Olympic gods and the chthonic gods, the punishment of Orestes for his crimes, but an unsaid grievance, too. The newer Olympic gods, dominated by men with the exception to the unsexed Athena, are intimidated by the historical power of the female Erinyes. The end of the Eumenides essentially marks the end of the Erinyes, and thus the end of women with power and the ability to give demands. Aeschylus characterizes the final part of the Oresteia as ending on a triumphant note, with the miasma (pollution) and curse of the House of Atreus resolved, and Orestes being acquitted of all charges within a newly formed judicial system. This judicial system, mimicking the democracy founded in Athens around this period, was formed as a result of the Erinyes and Olympic gods disagreeing over whether Orestes deserves to be tormented or exonerated. The Erinyes represent women of society, while the Olympic gods are rallying for the men. Athena, born from Zeus alone, is the judge of the case but is not unbiased; she states, “There is no mother anywhere who gave me birth/And, but for marriage, I am always for the male/With all my heart, and strongly on the father’s side” which depicts her as voting in Orestes’s favor, regardless of whether or not he is guilty.
This court case marks the end of the chthonic deities, with them gratefully accepting the role of patron goddesses of Athena. With them no longer needing to exact revenge for crimes in response to the formation of a jury and trial, their new job in society is to provide the city with peace and prosperity. The Erinyes’ willingness to accept this new position illustrates the expectations of women to adapt to a misogynistic culture in which women are forced into domestic roles, rejecting independence and the possibility of a life on their own. While this democratic feature of society is depicted to be fair and just, it is not inclusive of the women of the earth or the heavens as they did not have the right to vote further limiting their actions. A trial ran by men silences their voices all the while encouraging them to obey cultural laws. Why would a group of men ever vote in favor of a woman exacting justice with her only means, as seen by Clytemnestra? Aeschylus successfully appealed to his audience of Greek men by characterizing women as weak and subordinate as compared to the dominant, right-minded male, all the while keeping them intrigued with the legend of the formation of the first democracy. He achieves this by cautioning women of disobeying their stereotypical roles and behaviors, as seen by Clytemnestra who loses her reputation and her life. He also acts as a champion to men, illustrating that the gods are on their side, even in the case of committing a crime as serious as matricide. Aeschylus manipulates the expected gender roles of ancient Greek society in order to explain what is and is not acceptable.
This is further demonstrated by his characterization of citizens of lower social status, who really must follow the rules of society, as they do not have the recognition or funds to remain safe. Aeschylus constructs a story revolving around the demise of women that transitions from a protagonist, female ruler in Agamemnon to the antagonistic, dreadful Erinyes in the Eumenides in order to mirror the events occurring in Greek culture and to remind the viewer of the weakness and powerlessness of women, specifically those of servant status.
The purpose of this paper is to analyze the writing of Alison Rowlands as she attempts to answer some questions regarding feminism and witchcraft in early modern Europe. These questions include, “Why were the overall majority of those prosecuted for witchcraft in early modern Europe female? What sorts of women were accused and why, and did other factors—age or marital and socio-economic status—influence their vulnerability to the accusation? And why did witch-hunting claim a significant proportion of male victims, and why did the gendering of witchcraft prosecutions vary geographically?” To answer these questions Rowlands relies on the works of other scholars, and she critiques their work and adds her insight to the issues.
Addressing the first question, Rowlands focuses on feminism and why the majority of those accused of witchcraft were women. Rowlands in her research uses authors Marianne Hester and Anne Llewellyn Barstow. Both authors have been known for having radical feminist views when it comes to the research presented. Barstow and Hester believe that it is a man and his sexual violence towards women that gives the main explanation as to why women were prosecuted more often than men. Rowlands dismisses this argument by stating “Academic historians, however, are dismissive of such interpretations, criticizing radical feminists for their assumption that witch-hunting was `woman-hunting” (Pg..451). Rowlands then mentions that Barstow and Hester rely too much on the Mallus and that the authors have an unwillingness to interact with the records of the witch trials. Rowlands then refutes the argument by mentioning how midwives and female practitioners were even accused of witchcraft. The ordinary people saw midwives and practitioners to be healers and were beneficial to society. It could not possibly be due to sexism that these women were targeted too considering how they were important to society.
After feminism, Rowlands then moves on to how belief might play a role in answering these questions. Rowlands begins with author Sigrid Brauner as this author attempts to connect the Malleus Maleficarum as the “demonology that cemented the idea that witches were women” (Pg.454). Rowlands is appreciative of Brauner as her approach and writing were firmer. Rather than Barstow and Hester who merely scrounged through the text taking samples that linked women to witchcraft. Brauner argues that the Mallus and the idea that women were weaker and more susceptible to witchcraft were influential in shaping these ideas. After Brauner, Rowlands uses author Stuart Clark and his argument that demonologists focused on women because they were weak and more susceptible. Stuart is different because he doesn’t use the Mallus but just focuses on old ideas that women are weak and carnal. Rowlands says that “Demonologists were not arch-misogynists, then, but simply thought and wrote within a system of dual classification, within which they automatically associated women with the negative (evildevilwitch) and men with the positive (goodGodnot-witch) side of any pair of binary opposites” (Pg. 454). As well, Rowlands makes note of authors Lara Apps and Andrew Gow who test the theory of Stuart. They conclude that demonologists have a flexible idea where women were more likely to become witches but men could become witches too.
The next area that Rowlands focuses on is accusation and what sort of women were vulnerable to the accusations. To begin she uses researchers Alan Macfarlane and Keith Thomas who created a model for the accusations in England. They believed that many of the wealthy thought that the economic problems that they suffered were due to their poorer neighbors using witchcraft to make their lives harder. They wanted to believe this because it was easier to explain rather than believing that they had bad crops or bad luck. Macfarlane and Thomas believe that older women, 50 and up, were the most likely to experience accusations since they were poorer and depended on more neighborly assistance. Author Lyndal Roper argues for the model claiming that “old women were disproportionately represented among the victims…because postmenopausal women were feared and reviled in an age that revered fertility.” (Pg.460). Rowlands agrees with Roper’s ideas as they were psychologically instrumental to the fears that led to the accusations. Author Robin Briggs takes it a step further. Rather than focusing on just the age aspect, she uses the idea that women in their older ages were at the pinnacle of their “magical power”. Witchcraft was understood that at this point in a woman’s life, ages 50 – 70, they were to be feared since they reached peak power.
Continuing with the idea of accusations, Rowlands goes on to focus on the psychoanalytic theories that motivated people to make these accusations. Historian John Demos began this approach by “suggesting that accusations by adolescent girls against middle-aged women in the Salem witch trials of 1692 `masked deep problems stemming ultimately from the relationship of mother and daughter” (Pg.462). As well, psychoanalyst Evelyn Heinemann believed that early Europeans had a split perception of their mothers due to “oppressive childbearing practices”. This oppressiveness leads to two ideologies, that mothers were saint-like and great providers. The other ideology is that the mothers were angry and hateful. While Rowlands agrees and sees the importance of these theories, she ultimately believes that there is one ultimate flaw among all of them. This flaw is that “they ignore or downplay the fact that men could be accused of witchcraft and thus fail to incorporate men adequately into their explanatory frameworks”. This makes sense, men were just as likely to fall for the tricks of dark magic, and it is important not to get focused on just the ideas of sexism during these times.
In Rowlands’s conclusion, she agrees that women and gender have shaped much of what we know about witchcraft. Rowlands urges that we as historians need to “bear this in mind and think about gender in more nuanced ways: statistics on the numbers of men and women tried should be the starting point, not the conclusion, of analysis.” (Pg.466). I agree with this statement. It is important that as historians we look to see the whole picture and not go into a subject with tunnel vision. I believe that Rowlands did an excellent job on this topic and was able to see the whole picture whereas a lot of these authors were focused on just the sexist nature of men.
The Han Dynasty of ancient China (206 BCE – 220 CE) is often regarded as a period of cultural and political prosperity. Within this context, it is essential to examine the gender roles and expectations prevalent during this time. This essay aims to provide an informative analysis of Han Dynasty gender roles, shedding light on the social, economic, and cultural factors that shaped the lives of men and women in this era.
Body:
Social Expectations:
Male Roles: In the Han Dynasty, men held the dominant position in society. They were expected to be the primary providers for their families, engage in administrative and military positions, and uphold filial piety. Confucian ideals of loyalty, duty, and moral conduct heavily influenced male social expectations.
Female Roles: Women in the Han Dynasty were primarily confined to domestic roles. Their main responsibilities revolved around managing the household, raising children, and maintaining social harmony within the family. Confucian principles emphasized the virtues of modesty, obedience, and loyalty to their husbands and families.
Education and Intellectual Opportunities:
Male Education: Education was highly valued for men in the Han Dynasty. They had access to formal education and opportunities to pursue careers in government and academia. The mastery of Confucian classics was essential for social mobility and success.
Female Education: In contrast, education for women was limited and focused primarily on household skills, moral values, and etiquette. Women were rarely granted access to formal education and were expected to learn from female family members or private tutors.
Marital and Family Life:
Marriage: Marriage in the Han Dynasty was often arranged and seen as a means to solidify alliances or enhance social status. Filial piety and the continuation of the family lineage were paramount considerations in marital unions.
Family Dynamics: The family unit held significant importance in Han society. Patrilineal descent was emphasized, and ancestral worship was a central aspect of family life. Women were expected to be obedient daughters, supportive wives, and nurturing mothers.
Economic Roles:
Male Economic Roles: Men were primarily responsible for agricultural work, trade, and craft production. They played a crucial role in sustaining the economy and contributing to the wealth and stability of their families.
Female Economic Roles: While women were primarily responsible for household management, they also engaged in activities such as weaving, embroidery, and small-scale farming. Some women from wealthier families had access to property ownership and played a role in managing family finances.
Influence of Daoism and Buddhism:
Daoism: Daoism introduced alternative perspectives on gender roles, emphasizing harmony and balance between yin and yang energies. However, these ideas had limited impact on societal norms during the Han Dynasty.
Buddhism: The introduction of Buddhism during the later Han Dynasty provided some opportunities for women to participate in religious activities and gain personal liberation. Buddhist nuns had a degree of autonomy and influence within their communities.
Conclusion:
The gender roles in the Han Dynasty were deeply influenced by Confucian ideals, emphasizing the hierarchical nature of society and the importance of filial piety and social order. Men held dominant positions in politics, education, and economic activities, while women were confined to domestic roles. Despite these rigid expectations, women found agency within their roles as daughters, wives, and mothers, and some had limited opportunities for economic and religious participation. Understanding the gender dynamics of the Han Dynasty helps us comprehend the complexity of ancient Chinese society and the diverse experiences of men and women during this historical period.
Cartoons are one of the ways through which children learn. They play a very important role in shaping up a child’s mind on what kind of a person he would like to become when he or she would grow up. Cartoon characters shape the psychological difference between the thinking of a male and a female. However, different types of cartoons impact differently.
There is a massive difference shown between the thinking of genders in cartoons. In a popular cartoon series named Dexter’s laboratory, there is a blend of male and female characters. In this particular series, females are shown as softhearted individuals unless angry and it is shown that they shake everyone with rage in angry mood.
Dexter, one of the main male characters, loves to elude himself from the world and spend time making inventions which are highly advanced. Dexter has a secret lab where he spends time inventing, and no matter what measures he takes to protect his lab from intruders, his sister Dee Dee always manages to easily enter the lab one way or the other. Once inside, Dee Dee plays with Dexter’s inventions until she breaks them.
Boys are shown to prefer logical arguments whereas girls are portrayed for being witty and react upon opportunities when given with the chance. Though the males are portrayed to be logical, but it is shown that the females are more successful because of simple blunders or miscalculations which males fail to understand, females are able to beat males at their own area of expertise.
One other point analyzed is that males hesitate very much in accepting their own mistakes whereas females are not much hesitant in accepting their mistakes compared to males.
In one of the episodes, Dexter and Dee Dee are trying to earn money. Dexter tries to print money but his rate of production was very slow and it is portrayed that females are better salespersons compared to their male counterparts.
As far as their status between friends and family is concerned, Dee Dee is more loved by dad and Dexter is more favored by mom. However, dad sometimes support Dexter when gender argument arises and so is portrayed that people always back their own genders arguing it to be the only best one rather than accepting that both are good in different ways.
It is usually seen that mothers support their sons while fathers on the other hand prove supporters of their daughters. Males in this series are mostly portrayed as serious characters having fun only at the right time, whereas females though cheerful most of the time, do not know when to take control of the situation.
The pattern can be found in the personalities of almost all the characters of this cartoon. This cartoon portrays that females show lament more than their male counterparts and would rather forgive or forget by hearing an apology in a fight. Males when fighting would always be planning on for taking revenge. It is shown that males would choose to take something secretly from another person’s room rather than asking, whereas females would ask the person concerned very loveably and insist on it.
The producer portrays that girls at a young age are more energetic and more involved in sports than boys. I would rather disagree with the idea as boys are more involved in outside activities and games of different kinds.
To conclude, I would like to identify the role of fiction. Although many aspects are real as far as daily life is concerned, but it should not be fully adopted by people as the ultimate way of thinking and should rather be taken as an entertainment. Besides cartoons, children should be taught by verbal advices and different exercises to ensure their mental development.
Croquet has been described as cool game where the etiquette of playing the game with grace and good manners took precedence over winning, sociable play, or an overridden and unprincipled competition. It was a game that was ideal for children, old people and mixed groupings. Unselfishness, honesty and grace were requisite for a player to be allowed in the game. The author’s main thesis is, “Yet was this, in fact, how the game was played on the croquet lawns of the nineteenth century?”
Whereas authors of croquet manuals and magazines emphasize so much on the noncompetition and social aspect of the game, visual evidence proves beyond doubt that the spirit of competition existed in any croquet match. Women especially, were known to use dishonest moves to win the game. One of the evidence provided here is the fact that wagering on the outcome of a particular game became so often.
This implied that the game that was initially meant for socialization became a gambler’s game and this intensified the spirit of competition. Women were domineered in the game; for instance, in a hearing in an international herald tribune, a woman testified that when playing the game because she had asked him whether his ball had gone through the hoop. Her husband became so annoyed that they never spoke to each other for a long time.
A game where good manners and grace was observed turned out to be unethical. This is illustrated by the notion that women had in mind when playing the game. For a woman, the tight croquet stroke could be interpreted as an act of symbolic castration of a man. Because of the way the game was played, cheating became a possibility.
For example, before taking a shot at the ball, a woman would lift her skirt suggestively, place her pretty leg on her own ball and hammer the opponent’s ball. This act tantalized and enticed male players. Women players replaced the long dresses with short tight skirts that they wore during the game. When positioning the ball, they would bend downwards in a provocative manner; this would elicit men’s’ sexual crave.
Commentators complained about the tendency of women cheating during the game. Women had various tricks among them double tapping, which acquired the slang term “spooning,” this linked croquet to sexual implication of ardent fondling.
For instance, the English champion Lily Gower, who was widely known for playing and defeating top men in the game, was found guilty of this cheating offence. However, it was ungentlemanly for men players to protest. As a result, many men opted not to play the game, an act that led to the shortage of male players.
The strength of the thesis is that it depicts the truth about the game that is different from the notion that was earlier held. A game that was believed to be solely for socialization has been proved otherwise by the thesis with the supporting evidence in the article. Although the game was supposed to be played with grace and honesty, it was marred by battles of superiority, dishonesty and gambling tendencies.
This led to many players quitting the game. The other strength of the thesis is that it has given clear breakdown of incidences that prove the game was differently played in lawns of nineteenth century. It gives the true picture of what used to happen during the actual play.
However, the thesis has a weakness in that it only criticizes the unethical part of the game. Croquet, like many other sports, has moral and ethical values, which are evidenced by the fact that it brought people together for a social gathering. People of different races were able to interact and have fun. This served to reduce social class as well as racial discrimination.
The struggle for gender equality is a continuous process. The focus had shifted from industrialized nations to emerging economies because inequality had been linked to poverty and illiteracy. But studies made in the last few decades will show that gender inequality is still evident in the Western world, even in progressive societies like the United States. Thus, it is prudent to reconsider the root cause of gender inequality.
It can be argued that gender inequality is not the byproduct of poverty, ignorance, and non-democratic societies. The United States is a perfect example of a nation where women can become rich on their own effort. They have access to education.
They have the right to participate in a political process. But gender inequality is still existent in American universities, American offices, and American homes. Thus, inequality is not only due to social institutions but deeper social factors.
Wealth is not enough
Poverty is the most common culprit associated with gender inequality. There is a evidence to support this view especially if one will look at poor countries in Asia, Africa and South America. In poor societies women have limited opportunities and therefore they are desperately dependent on men for sustenance and support.
But this framework is defective when used to examine gender inequality in wealthy societies like the UK, Canada, Australia, Japan and the United States. In rich countries women can have access to high-paying jobs and can build their own wealth but still struggle with the impact of gender inequality.
Western societies have resources that can be utilized to change the outlook of people. Nevertheless, a team of researchers discovered that there is “bias favoring men in performance evaluation and candidate selection” (Foschi & Valenzuela 1025). The bias against women is not rooted in an abstract concept. In fact, in most cases it is easy to understand why organizations prefer men over women.
According to one report “women continue to experience barriers and women who seek to combine childcare and paid work face many challenges” (Demaiter & Adams 50). It is therefore more cost-efficient to hire male workers than female workers. Consider the annual cost to the firm if the company is compelled to provide facilities for nursing mothers and to support other maternity needs.
In a heterosexual marriage where the wife earns more than the husband there is still gender inequality. The higher income does not provide her the ability to enjoy gender equality in that particular relationship. The results of a study aimed at heterosexual marriages wherein the wife earned significantly more than the husband provided interesting results.
In this study the researchers found out that “spouses work together to support the institutional-level expectation of men’s dominance in order to preserve marital harmony, and gendered expectations, such as men’s imperative to provide and women’s imperative to care, are re-worked at the interactional and individual levels to allow each spouse to construct a comfortable, conventional identity” (Tichenor 204).
In other words women are supposed to make adjustments to cater to the psychological needs of men. This is a blatant example of bias, but at the same time it reinforces the argument made earlier that those who fight for gender equality must go beyond the usual feminist rhetoric when it comes to the creation of an effective solution to inequality issues.
Education is not enough
The second major reason for inequality is lack of access to public schools and universities (Andres & Adamuti-Trache 94). The logic of this argument is based on the idea that knowledge is power (Kane & Kyyro 710). Once again this argument is flawed when utilized in the analysis of Western societies wherein women are highly educated and yet victimized by men who believe that they have the right to dominate women.
The basic framework of the principle that male dominance is part of social institutions can be seen in the study of university students. In this particular study, researchers examined the sexual behavior of male and female students in a pre-sexual intercourse ritual. In this study researchers discovered that “the interactional dynamic is one in which men directly initiate, while women indirectly cool out unwanted approaches” (Ronen 373).
It is important to point out that these women are highly educated as evidenced by their access to top universities. But in this study it was made clear that they follow the dictates of men. Women enrolled in college campuses are intelligent and yet they cannot seem to break free from an invisible power that forces them to behave in a certain way.
In the study of fraternities in college campuses researchers were able to prove that “brothers treated women as subordinates and kept them at a distance” (Boswell & Spade 341). These women were enrolled in an institution for higher education and yet they are powerless when placed in an environment where men are leaders and they are followers.
These women are not only educated they also have access to pertinent literature with regards to gender inequality. Nevertheless, they are powerless to challenge the oppressive atmosphere found in fraternities and other social settings.
Democracy is not enough
It has been argued in the past that a democratic society provides the atmosphere needed for women to break from the stranglehold of inequality. But it has been shown that even in democratic societies like the United States, Great Britain and Canada, inequality still persists. In these countries women are free to do what they want. For example they do not need to marry because they can own properties even without a husband.
They can run for the highest office in the land without a marriage license (Paxton, Kunovich & Hughes 204). But a study on never-married women revealed that “running out of time to marry and have children was an overriding issue in their lives” (Sharp & Ganong 841).
Other studies support this claim because when respondents were asked why they value marriage they remarked that the capability to bear children can strengthen a relationship (Green 399). It is interesting to note that although marriage is not needed to produce children, most women wanted to raise children with the help of a husband (Sharp & Ganong 841).
It is a surprise to find battered women in progressive societies where females have equal protection under the law. Broken ribs, split lip and other serious injuries that require hospitalization are not enough reasons for a woman to leave her husband (Anderson & Umberson 358). The struggle must continue and the fight must go on (Pelak 111).
But it is imperative to reconsider the excuses made in the aftermath of the failure to institute gender equality. The usual suspects are wealth distribution, access to education and the absence of basic human rights. This line of reasoning is only acceptable if gender inequality is limited to poor societies. But this is not a true statement.
Conclusion
There are enough evidence to prove that gender inequality is not the by-product of poverty, illiteracy and non-democratic societies. The simple reason is that gender inequality exists in affluent societies wherein women are free to do what they want, have access to education, and have the capacity to create wealth.
Women who have access to top tier education continue to behave in a passive manner even if intellectually they know that men cannot force them to do anything. Battered women are unable to flee and continue to live in a home with an abusive husband. Women who earn more than their husbands had to continually assure his husband that he is the leader of the family.
Therefore, inequality is rooted in social factors that are beyond the scope of economics, politics, and education. It seems that men are biologically equipped to make them think that they are superior to women. The evidence from numerous sociological studies seems to indicate that women prefer men to lead. Even if this is true, men do not have the right to dominate and abuse women. The struggle for gender equality must continue.
But society in general and women in particular must take a deeper look into the issue because even if they have education, freedom and wealth, the ultimate prize will still elude them. There is a need for a more focused information dissemination campaign so women can fully understand why they behave a certain way.
Works Cited
Anderson, Kristin and Debra Umberson. “Gendering Violence: Masculinity and Power in Men’s Account of Domestic Violence.” Gender & Society 15.3 (2001): 358-380. Print.
Andres, Lesley and Maria Adamuti-Trache. “You’ve Come a Long Way, Baby? Persistent Gender Inequality in University Enrolment and Completion in Canada, 1979-2004.” Canadian Public Policy 33.1 (2007): 93-116. Print.
Boswell, Ayres and Joan Spade. “Fraternities and Collegiate Rape Culture: Why are some Fraternities More Dangerous Places for Women?” Gender & Society 10.2 (1996): 133-147. Print.
Demaiter, Erin and Tracey Adams. “I Really Didn’t have any Problems with the Male- Female Thing Until…”: Successful Women’s Experience in IT Organizations.” Canadian Journal of Sociology 34.1 (2009): 31-53. Print.
Foschi, Martha and Jerilee Valenzuela. “Selecting Job Applicants: Effects from Gender, Self-Preservation, and Decision Type.” Social Science Research 37.1 (2007): 1022-1038. Print.
Green, Adam. “Queer Unions: Same-Sex Spouses Marrying Tradition and Innovation.” Canadian Journal of Sociology 35.3 (2010): 399-433. Print.
Kane, Emily and Else Kyyro. “For Whom Does Education Enlighten? Race, Gender, Education, and Beliefs about Social Inequality.” Gender & Society 15.5 (2001): 710-733. Print.
Paxton, Pamela, Sheri Kunovich and Melanie Hughes. “Gender in Politics.” The Annual Review of Sociology. 33.1 (2007): 263: 284. Print.
Pelak, Cynthia. “Women’s Collective Identity in Sports: A Case Study from Women’s Ice Hockey.” Gender & Society 16.1 (2002): 93-114. Print.
Ronen, Shelly. “Grinding on the Dance Floor: Gender Scripts and Sexualized Dancing at College Parties.” Gender & Society 24.3 (2010): 355-377. Print.
Sharp, Elizabeth and Lawrence Ganong. “Living in the Gray: Women’s Experiences of Missing the Marital Transition.” Journal of Marriage and Family 69 (2007): 831-844. Print.
Tichenor, Veronica. “Maintaining Men’s Dominance: Negotiating Identity and Power when She Earns More.” Sex Roles 53.4 (2005): 191:204. Print.
Gender roles refer to the behavior and attitude that a given society expects from its’ male or female members. Gender roles are quite distinctive in nature, and this draws a boundary between males and females of a given society (Connell 10). Gender roles are based on a collection of social and behavioral norms that are defined within a particular culture or society that are viewed to be appropriate concerning a particular gender group.
Gender roles vary according to cultural orientations, religious principles and values, and the overall set up of a society. Different cultures inflict diverse expectations towards men and women in that cultural background of a given society. An individual’s gender role is primarily determined by the use of elements such as clothing, the preference of work one engages in and personal factors (Duggan et al 53).
These elements are dynamic and are subject to change in relation to time and the ideologies of individuals towards gender roles, for instance, the women’s trousers. On the traditional setting, gender roles were primarily based on feminine and masculine approach. However, as time goes by, new acceptable male and female roles have come into sight. An individual can affiliate to a specific subculture or a social group, which ultimately results to him/her processing different gender role (Connell 13).
The United States has undergone gender role transformation over the last century. These shifts in the gender roles significantly affected the American households, the schools, the work environment and the general American population. Such gender roles transformation can be attributed to the fusion of the traditional distinctive male and female roles into an integrated set of universally acceptable norms within some ethnic background and nationalities.
Gender roles in the United States have experienced a significant transformation over the time of its history. Ever since America came into being up to the mid 20th century, the idea of men having more dominance with respect to women was viewed as an ideology that could not be challenged.
The gender role transformations in the United States were fuelled by certain historical occurrences such as the great depression, which put a strain on the many American families. This created a gender identity to some level. Feminism was an ideology of the 20th century and the earlier years in the United States history.
The onset of World War II presented an opportunity for gender roles transformation with respect towards feminism (Connell 56). It presented the need for female labor as majority of the males had gone to war; the realm of feminine and masculine divisions came to the open. The solution to the lack of masculine labor force compelled the government to outsource the restricted female labor due to distinctive gender roles.
This absorption of the women into the working class represented the new generation women partaking men’s duties and obligations (Duggan et al 85). The men’s perception towards this idea was negative, and this consequently resulted to a conflict with the men claiming that the roles of the women were in the kitchen. Women had no option but to go back to their traditional household roles.
However, their experience of revealing their potential was the benchmark that ultimately resulted to the largest transformation in the gender roles in history. This was greatly contributed by the feminist movement in the United States during the 20th century. During the great depression, a majority of men lost their jobs while women employment increased.
This resulted to crisis of masculinity, whereby, men were unable to provide for their families and resulted to being dependent on the women. The men of those times viewed it that the working women were stealing their jobs because their role was in the household capacity. Throughout the 20th century, the feminist movement continued to champion for what is presently referred to as gender equity, a situation whereby, both women and men have equal rights and are subject to the same roles as one.
In those times, the working woman was perceived as a devil while the ideal woman was one whose roles were limited to taking care of households and the kitchen (Wood 2009). The gender role transformation in this way resulted to reduced feminism since women were able and capacitated to assume the working roles of men.
With the feminist revolution, came the perception of women at the working environment. The traditional gender roles categorized some jobs specifically to be done by the males, while others required the involvement of the women only. In the early 20th century, women participation in the workforce was strictly forbidden as the gender roles confined them to the household tasks.
This was due to the cultural practices, religious restrictions and educational traditions that seemed to favor the males in the United States. The onset of the 20th century was accompanied by increased professionalization of occupations such as law, medicine, engineering and many more.
These factors substantially limited women’s workforce to low paying occupations for a significant time in the 20th century. These perceptions towards the female involvement in well paying occupations were transformed during the civil war. During the beginning of the 20th century, women were viewed as being finer than men, and therefore, it was not their duty to work or make money. At the turn of civil war, the United States saw the need to educate the women due to insufficient labor to meet their production needs.
The result was women found themselves working outside their homes and getting paid. By 1920, women were gearing up to join the work force. The onset of World War II was an opportunity for women to fully enter into the workforce. The women’s participation in the workforce in the United States has undergone significant phases during the 20th century to develop to the present day professional working women (Kiger 15).
This gradual transformation made women join colleges and universities in large numbers so as to pursue highly professional courses like medicine and law. Present statistics indicate a majority of women today are joining universities and colleges and anticipate getting employed by the age of 35. The current legal framework offers no room for discrimination against to the woman workforce.
The gender equity ensures that both men and women have equal chances of getting employed provided they are qualified for that job position. Although the feminist movements managed to administer transformation of perception of women towards work, the present day working woman still works under some cultural and gender constraints because their gender roles of maintaining the household is still at hand.
They have to balance between their careers and ensuring that household obligations are met (Kiger 22). Despite the various changes in the workplace, the household setup is still the same for the woman; a scenario characterized by women doing most of the work while the men get most of the pay.
With a continual focus on their professional careers, women had to find a way to postpone family duties through the possible postponement of pregnancy. This was done by the use of the birth control pill.
The usage of the pill was enormous during the 1970s although it was in existence from 1960s, access to it was restricted. This phase of women transformation marked a new dimension in the gender roles in the United States. After the Vietnam War, which reduced America’s majority age from 21 to 18, women were allowed to make personal decisions that affected them medically.
This saw the increased use of the birth control pill to postpone or avoid pregnancy. Presently, it is socially acceptable in the United States to use birth control pills, married women have the chance to concentrate on other things such as education and work without putting much focus on household chores. The use of birth control pills by the women resulted to a shift in gender roles since women were able to concentrate on other issues that affected them directly such as education, career and work.
The 1960’s marked the significant societal change in the United States. It was during this time that America underwent sexual revolution, which was pioneered by the young and educated Americans. Sexual revolution involved the changes towards the sexual attitude; many changes in sexual behaviors of the 1960’s became the mainstream (Sorokin 23).
The sexual revolution of the 1960’s resulted to a shift in the social norms involving matters that were about sexual activities. There was a spectacular shift in conventional principles and values related to sex and sexuality of individuals. Sexual revolution portrayed sex as more acceptable outside the heterosexual marriage. Studies indicated that there was an increase in the number of women who had premarital sex during the years between 1965 and 1975.
During this time, the conventional social values and principles were flouted and challenged by the young. It was through the sexual revolution activism that the birth control pill was legalized and made socially acceptable. The birth control pill affected the women’s lifestyles in a number of ways: they avoided unnecessary pregnancies, which influenced a woman’s time to cut off the job market when impregnated and resume the job market after a certain period of time (Sorokin 35).
During the times, the cost of getting out of pregnancy was high and it was accompanied by health risks. The birth control pill came in handy for women to have control of their future, therefore, making them pursue higher education and career without having to worry about getting pregnant. The sexual revolutions of the 1960s formed the groundwork for the sexual attitudes that are being experienced today (Sorokin 40).
During the early 20th century, women living in the United States were denied the right to vote; either way, women were not supposed to contest for any political seat. The women had limited say on determining the political trends. It was until 1920 that women had the right to vote and contest for political positions in the country.
During this year, the United States passed a legislation that stated that the rights of the American citizens to vote shall not be infringed by the state or on the basis of one’s sex/gender. This gender revolution enabled women to cling to positions of power in the later durations of the century. This provided a gender balance that helped to include women in the decision-making processes at the national level.
The shifts in gender roles have a significant effect in the daily operations of the household. For instance, the traditional perception that women are supposed to manage households and take care of the family no longer exists due to the gender diversity towards women. One particular area that is affected by changes in the gender roles is child bearing (Connell 29).
The present family setup in America involves equal participation of both parents towards the child bearing in contrary to the traditional set up whereby child bearing is solely the duty of the women. The perspective towards child bearing in the present United States involves the hiring of child bearing agencies for instance the day care facilities so that the woman may undertake his daily activities that involve working and concentrating on other areas (Connell 23).
Works Cited
Connell, Robert William. Gender and Power. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1987.
Duggan, Lisa; Hunter, Nan D. Sex wars: sexual dissent and political culture. New York: Routledge. 1995.
Kiger, Kiger; Riley, Pamela. Gender differences in perceptions of household labor. The Journal of Psychology. Retrieved from https://www.encyclopedia.com/.
Sorokin, Pitirim. The American Sex Revolution. Boston: Porter Sargent Publishers.1956.
Wood, Aubron. Gender Roles in the 20th Century: A century of change [Internet]. Version 10. Knol. 2009 Mar 15. Web.
Gender roles change from one generation to another as society gradually realizes the essence of the roles that men and women play in various aspects of life. While men access unlimited privileges in society, women grapple with limited privileges, which have defined their roles in the society.
The disparity in the roles of men and women has its basis on norms, traditions, cultures, and social constructs that have continuously shaped human behavior across all ages.
Since the media are powerful in communicating norms, traditions, and social constructs, how they depict women play a central role in defining gender roles.
Collins (2011) argues that, “while increasing the representation of women in the media may be valuable, the manner in which they are portrayed should be simultaneously considered to avoid increasing negative or stereotypical depictions that may be particularly harmful to viewers” (p. 290).
Hence, depiction of women by the media determines how society perceives women and their roles. In this view, the essay critically analyses points of agreement and points of disagreement in the article that assesses gender roles in the media.
One of the points of agreement presented by the article is the sexualization of women. Comparatively, the media portray women in a sexualized manner, unlike their male counterparts.
Analysis of videos and images shows that women appear sexy in the manner they dress and display their nudity (Collins, 2011). In modern society, sexualization of women has become a tradition, which has shaped social constructs of dressing and beauty among women.
Beauty pageants critically depict women as models of beauty by use of dress codes that are sexy, and thus sexualization of women. Another point of agreement is that the media subordinate and relegate women to perform traditional roles of gender.
The media portray women as lesser beings than men in terms of roles that they perform.
According to Collins (2011), analysis of videos and images in the media show that, “women were overwhelmingly more likely to play the role of housekeeper and men were overwhelmingly portrayed as professionals and even office workers” (p. 295).
Hence, the media depict women in relegated and subordinated roles or positions in the society.
In the critical analysis of the article, the point of disagreement is that of under-representation of women in the media.
Collins (2011) asserts that, “women are under-represented in the media, and that when women are present they are typically scantily dressed and relegated to stereotyped roles” (p. 291). Hence, it is not true that the media under-represent women yet they are dominant in the media.
In the modern society, women have dominated the media because of their beauty, appeal, and eloquence.
Women are dominant in the media as anchors of news, commentators, advertisers, and actors of major programs. In this view, analysis of the article disagrees with the assertion of under-representation of women.
In conclusion, gender roles vary from one generation to another. In the media, just like other aspects of society, gender roles have undergone through great changes in response to norms, traditions, and social constructs.
In the analysis of the article, the points of agreement are sexualization women and relegation of their roles in the media.
The media depict women as sexual objects while relegating their roles in the society to housekeeping.
In contrast, the point of disagreement is that the media do not under-represent women as stated in the article. Actually, there is even more representation of women than men in the media because of their beauty, appeal, and eloquence.
The following as discussion questions:
Why do the media sexualize women?
How do the media subordinate and relegate roles of women in society?
Is it true that the media under-represent women in modern society?
Do the media have significant influence in shaping and constructing gender roles?
Reference
Collins, R. (2011). Content Analysis of Gender Roles in Media: Where Are We Now and Where Should We Go? Sex Roles, 64(1), 290-298.