Category: Gender Roles

As one of the oldest civilizations in Asia, Japan has a rich culture full of ancient rituals, social customs, traditions, and powerfully held beliefs all with a strong connection to religion and nature. It is the influence of the country’s religions, and the people’s respect of nature, that has initiated the evolution of the Japanese culture over hundreds of years, marrying ancient practices with more modern discoveries turning the Japanese culture into a variable mixture of the old and the new, the past and the present. It is this diversity and the richness of the Japanese culture, as well as strict adherence by the Japanese people, that gives endurance to strongly held beliefs about life and death, diet, healthcare, social interactions, the roles of men and women, blood donation, as well as controversial topics like abortion and organ donation, to name a few.

Considered a proud people whose culture is most notably influenced by Buddhism and Shinto, many Japanese consider themselves polytheistic, describing themselves in most cases as both Buddhist and Shinto. Shinto is the native religion of Japan and ties all of its rituals and beliefs to nature, including the worshiping of ancestors and nature spirits including Sun Goddess Amaterasu who is the guardian of the people and Mother of all creation. Buddhism arrived many years later and is now interwoven with Shinto. This closely knitted relationship between these two religions can be seen in many of the cultural rituals such as weddings that are typically performed under the auspices of the Shinto religion, while funerals tend to lend themselves to the Buddhist teachings. The religious teachings also lend themselves to superstitions and the belief in deities with supernatural powers. Superstitions such as “your parents will die young if you don’t hide your thumbs.” It is the merging of the value systems of these two religions that can be seen throughout the Japanese culture.

View on life and grieve death

The Japanese formalized the rituals surrounding death during the Edo Period (1603-1867) creating the customs of family grave sites, the worshiping of ancestral spaces in Buddhist Temples, along with elaborate publicly held funeral rituals and a wake, all closely tied to Buddhism. Today, cremation is on the rise, along with more intimate family funeral proceedings. Family and friends send baskets and cards to relay their condolences, household shrines are covered with white paper, and white paper lanterns are displayed outside the homes. If a burial takes place, the body is washed, knives are buried on the chest of the dead for protection, along with a beloved item, six coins for the crossing of the Sanzu River, and women are buried in kimonos and men in fine suits. The Japanese use the rituals surrounding grief, both public and private, to prepare the dead for their resting place and to help the mourners heal. As for reincarnation, the Buddhist believe in rebirth and Shinto believe in kami, not reincarnation. Both believe that a person’s consciousness is gone at the time of death and recycled or as the Buddhist call it, skandhas. As for life, the Japanese culture believes in living a good life, respecting elders, worshiping ancestors, preparing for your death by meditating in order to have influence over your rebirth, releasing bad habits, and working toward ending suffering by ceasing to chase after things that don’t make you happy or will not last forever.

Healthcare practices

The Japanese culture marries the more traditional practice of Kampo, along with healing at religious shrines, with more modern western medical doctrines. Patients can receive prescriptions for herbal treatments or be prescribed medications. They can visit a healer or see a physician. When it comes to physicians, Japan is predominately male, and doctors have a higher social status than nurses and therefore handle most of the patient treatmen. Even though acupuncture originated in China the Japanese have their own version of this treatment. They use thinner needles and a more shallow needle placement, as well as the use of heat. Since most of Japan’s views on health center around maintaining balance in ones life and body, healers are utilized to help maintain this balance. There is no cultural prohibition to surgery, in fact the most popular surgery in Japan is a cosmetic eyelid surgery. Blood transfusions are accepted since the products come from living people, abortion is also widely accepted, but there is a more negative attitude toward organ donation due to the religious interpretations surrounding brain death since it’s seen as an impure death; however despite this negativity, transplant surgeries are still performed.

Child birth, emotions and illness

The Japanese have one of the lowest infant and maternal mortality rates in the world; however, the Japanese physicians restrict the weight gain of the mother during pregnancy. If born with a physical disability there is great care to ensure the child has every resource necessary for a normal life as dictated in the Law of Welfare for People with Physical Disabilities, the Public Assistance Law, and the Child Welfare Law. On the flip side, there is a stigma toward mental illness, which limits the access to proper mental health care. As for genetic disorders, Kabuki-Syndrome is rare while Moyamoya is the most prevalent. Despite the Japanese culture promoting a healthy balance in the body, high risk behaviors such as smoking, alcoholism, and inactivity are widespread especially among the younger population.

The roles of men and women in society

Japan is a culture with clearly defined gender roles. These roles align themselves with the societal obligations publicly and privately, where women are in charge of the household, family decisions and the budget, while men work outside the home. After World War II (WWII) these roles were challenged and women started to find employment outside of the home, but they were still governed by men’s expectations. The feudal system was eliminated after WWII occupation and women now pursue careers and stray further away from marriage and having children. Still today women are trapped between traditional values and modern values and men are struggling with the idea of being stay-at-home fathers. As for social interactions, the Japanese culture expects punctuality at all times for any occasion, direct eye contact is considered rude, they use body language to determine how someone is feeling, and when it comes to personal space, they prefer to stand at arms lengths with almost no touching between men and women.

Diet and special foods

The Japanese diet consists of more fish than red meat and is balanced with vegetables, fruit and some rice or tofu. They have smaller portion sizes and eat slowly. For special occasions such as holidays and other festivals, red, considered a lucky color, dominates, even when it comes to food choices like red beans and sweet rice wine. You serve lobster at a birthday celebration and for New Year celebrations you have a whole fish broiled with salt. When Japanese women are pregnant they can drink tea and on birthdays they have cake. When Japanese are sick they eat green onion and ginger. The Japanese have the lowest obesity rate in the world and their life expectancy is also number one in the world due to their diet.

The Japanese culture is a balance of religious teachings from Buddhism and Shinto, along with a need for balance in body and life through the many rituals and other observances that are tied to nature with influences from the around the world. All of these combined give us the Japanese culture of today a mix of old and new, past and present.

A male dominated world has only recently introduced and probably recognised women. I will briefly focus on school experiences and its impact in science and then whether feminism has changed science. School may have influences on young women’s perceptions of science, hence, their choice not to continue in science fields like physics. The proportion of women entering scientific fields is changing, but sexism can still linger within science even after the number of women and men is equal.

School is usually the main influence in children’s choices to do science. Girls at elementary school generally prefer reading to science whereas boys have perceptions of higher competency in science than reading (Andre et al., 1999). Parents have certain views of the importance of science and expected better performances from boys compared to girls (Andre et al., 1999), which probably stems from deep rooted stereotypes about girls and boys. In two studies of mathematics and physics, girls seemed to do better in less traditional teaching settings where they could engage the problems and develop a deeper understanding (Boaler et al., 2011). So, girls are influenced by the method of teaching and their school experience (Murphy and Whitelegg, 2006), also, by self-perceived notions of science (Andre et al., 1999) which probably creates a negative outlook of fields such as the physical sciences. This likely discourages girls from continuing in science and why a disproportionate number of men do science compared to women. However, social and cultural influences should also be considered (Boaler et al., 2011).

Women participation in science is expanding (Ramirez and Wotipka, 2001). However, very little change in science is still possible. Often too much emphasis is put on women participation (Schiebinger, 2000). Women’s contributions in science can be underrepresented compared to men’s contributions although they do similar work in the field (Dung et al., 2019). Rosalind Franklin is a great example of this, where her contribution to the discovery of the structure of DNA was not recognised when the two men who constructed the shape of DNA, based on her work, received a Nobel Prize (Schiebinger, 2000). Knowledge from a female perspective is often essential especially in fields such as medicine (Schiebinger, 2000). Lesser amounts of funding received by women in science is also observed despite both men and women applying at the same level (Oliveira et al., 2019). However, this is not always the case as some women receive relatively larger grants (Oliveira et al., 2019). So, even if women were equal in number to men in science, there is the possibility of being their work underrepresented, receiving less funding and scientific knowledge will continue to be male dominated.

In conclusion, young women’s perception of science was possibly subject to the biases of the past and their learning experiences at school. This has led to a disproportion of men to women in science. The number of women in science is changing faster than scientific knowledge based on decades of male input. But, some women still experience sexism in the form of underrepresented work or less funding for scientific research. Other factors including society and culture also influence sexism in science which was not fully considered. So, I do believe sexism is still present in science especially in scientific knowledge.

References

1. Andre, T. et al. (1999) ‘Competency Beliefs, Positive Affect, and Gender Stereotypes of Elementary Students and Their Parents about Science versus Other School Subjects’, Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 36(6), pp. 719–747.
2. Boaler, J., Altendorff, L. and Kent, G. (2011) ‘Mathematics and science inequalities in the United Kingdom: When elitism, sexism and culture collide’, Oxford Review of Education, 37(4), pp. 457–484. doi: 10.1080/03054985.2011.595551.
3. Dung, S. K. et al. (2019) ‘Illuminating Women’s Hidden Contribution to Historical Theorectical Population Genetics’, Genetics, 211(2), pp. 363–366. doi: 10.1534/genetics.118.301277.
4. Murphy, P. and Whitelegg, E. (2006) ‘Girls and physics: continuing barriers to “belonging”’, The Curriculum Journal, 17(3), pp. 281–305. doi: 10.1080/09585170600909753.
5. Oliveira, D. F. M. et al. (2019) ‘Comparison of National Institutes of Health Grant Amounts to First-Time Male and Female Principal Investigators’, Jama, 321(9), pp. 898–900. doi: 10.1001/JAMA.2018.21944.
6. Ramirez, F. O. and Wotipka, C. M. (2001) ‘Slowly but Surely ? The Global Expansion of Women ’ s Participation in Science and Engineering Fields of Study , 1972-92’, Sociology of Education, 74(3), pp. 231–251. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/2673276.
7. Schiebinger, L. (2000) ‘Has Feminsm Changed Science?’, Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 25(4), pp. 1171–1175.

Before modern education evolved, religious authorities and institutions were responsible for teaching reading and writing, generating and distributing sacred and secular knowledge for many centuries. Religion plays a vital role in the history and development of our society. This essay will tackle the differences and similarities between Christianity and Islam, the traditional social roles of women based on the sacred texts of both religions and aims to veil the direct connections and impact of these teachings on the current stand of women in society.

There are numerous similarities in Islam and Christian doctrines as well as differences. These differences and similarities were not limited to the teachings mentioned. To present instances of similarities on both teachings, Islam and Christianity command worshipping one God. The first and most important commandment in the Bible was that Christians must not worship any God other than God Almighty. The Qur’an also says: And make not another an object of worship with Allah. [Qur’an 51:51]. Both religions also value equality. All living things are equal, according to the Qur’an, and none must be privileged or discriminated against on the grounds of faith, race, color, sex, lineage, or culture. Similarly, the New Testament also mentioned that all are equal in the eyes of Christ, regardless of gender: “neither Jew nor Greek, neither male nor female, nor slave or free. All are one in Christ Jesus” (Galatians 3:28). Teachings about upholding family and responsibilities are also mentioned. In contrast to Christian teaching that states that Christ died for our sin, the Qur’an stresses in many instances that every human being is responsible for his or her actions; nobody can take the responsibility for another person’s mistake or sin. The institution of the family is the foundation of all social life, as stated in the Qur’an and Hadith, and it is therefore preserved, upheld and honoured. Husbands and wives are a source of shared solitude, love, and blessing. .Children should be treated equally. Children are unable to defy parents. At the foot of the mother is Paradise (heaven). Every person should have the right to protect himself or herself to defend his or her family and property from harm because of the significance put on the family. The relationship between parents and children is explicitly mentioned in one of the Ten Commandments given to Moses in the Old Testament: ‘Honor thy father and thy mother, that thy days may be long upon the land which the Lord thy God hath given thee’ (Exodus 20:12). Lastly, the view of sin differs in both religions. The Bible claims that we all are born guilty and that we are sinners by nature. Psalm 51:5 states that we all come into the world as sinners: “ Behold, I was brought forth in iniquity, and in sin, my mother conceived me.” This is because of the inherited sin from Adam and Eve’s disobedience to God, through baptism this original sin will be cleansed. Contrarily, there is no concept of original sin in Islam. A child is free from sin until puberty. There are quite several similarities and differences between the doctrines, however, one thing is certain: religions aim to keep us from doing evil and spread hate to others.

Christianity has been a fortress of male domination virtually since its founding, despite the fact that women have served as fundamental servants from a historical and doctrinal point of view and, in many cases, as theological leaders who have been instrumental in promoting the laws of God and the Gospel. In early Israel, a number of women served as prophetesses and spokeswoman for God, and later as faithful followers and followers of Jesus during and after His earthly ministry. By their words, but often with non-judgmental acts, Jesus advocated the empowerment of women, lifting their status to the same level as males. It was stated in the New Testament that, “neither Jew nor Greek, neither male nor female, nor slave or free. All are one in Christ Jesus” (Galatians 3:28). Unfortunately, this progressive idea for its time had no projection in effect or significant influence.

The positions of women in the church were troubled during the first century, when Christianity spread across Asia Minor. Evidence suggests the widespread existence during the period 4000-3000 B.C. of pagan religions in the Middle East. This included the devotion with different female goddesses. However, these worships were permitted when this issue was addressed by the First Commandment. As a result, these laws reduced the position in society of many women. Additionally, despite Paul’s statements in Galatians 3:28 that specified the equality of women and men in Christ, many churches adopted the edicts of the apostle Paul concerning the behavior of women in the church (1 Cor 14:35-37. 1 Tim. 2:12).

On the other hand, not only is Islam a system of belief, but it is also a religion and cultural identity that encompasses all social backgrounds. Islam has developed a stable, faith-based organizational culture from the revealed Word of God that governs all aspects of life to the smallest detail, providing a firm interplay of the structure where aspects such as political, social, or spiritual are relevant.

The Qur’an took pride in teaching gender equity. The Qur’an states that men and women were created as equals in the eye of Allah, therefore, have the same rights and receive the same reward (Qur’an 3:195 and 9:71 and 72). “On another occasion, Mohammad said: remember that I have commanded you to treat women kindly. Said also: The husband should not have an aversion to his wife. If she hates something, there must be many good things in it that are pleasing to him” (Bashirud-Din Mahmud Ahmad 1989:7). This teaching had been widely misinterpreted for centuries. However, there are still some of the teachings about part of Islam that is discovered that I am wary of. This is due to the patriarchal interpretations done to these passages. As patriarchy took-over on the interpretation of the Qur’an, women were put in a disadvantageous position. One must say that this is a result of the fact that in Islam, all references to women were written and introduced by a man and in a very different context, when, from a socio-historical point of view, a woman was considered to be nothing more than a property, such as land or livestock. The Qur’an caters to the male superiority principle of the later time putting men in advantage when it comes to inheritance, privilege in terms of polygamy, adultery, and divorce. Polygamy (Qur’an 4:5), while governed under some conditions (Qur’an 4:130) and even tends to limit it (Qur’an 4:4), is often a male privilege developed to answer to man’s needs while avoiding women’s.

Throughout history, women have displayed immense effort, innovation, and initiative in influencing societies, despite numerous physical demands put against them by the patriarchal society. Women received greater status and respect following Muhammad’s doctrines as well as in The Bible’s teachings. In conclusion, religion had always played a part in women’s societal standing. Both religions were beautiful and founded upon love and vision of equity between genders but as words passed by and time developed, these teachings took a different path from its original aim influencing directly or indirectly women’s role in today’s time.

In the traditional communities, the perceptions of the associated members on certain groups ranged from one region to the other. For instance, women in the ancient community held different positions. On the same note, diverse communities held different perceptions against women based on their traditions and values. While traditions play a crucial role in shaping the life and lifestyle of the community, the benefits help in defining the roles played by each party. This paper explores the role and position of women and gender in general in the community based on the evaluation of the class dynamics of the second wave.

The eruption, which occurred in AD 79, buried the Roman city of the second wave. The eruption helped preserve the history of the city and community of Pompeii. This article will analyze a set of images, namely domestic shrine, scenes in Pompeii tavern, Terentius Neo and his wife and but not limited to the cult of Dionysus. These images play a crucial role in defining the ultimate dynamics and composition of the community as far as the ancient Pompeii and Roman city is concerned.

For example, the Terentius Neo as well as his wife`s image shows the classification of the ancient community based on the roles played by each gender in the long run. This could represent the image displaying the wife holding a stylus. While the husband is holding a scroll simultaneously. In this image, the ultimate perception which is sent to the general audiences is that the ancient community upheld the elements of education as far as the women and men are concerned. The ability to read and write is reflected on the woman holding a stylus and the man holding a scroll. Furthermore, this image shows that the two came from a wealthy family. Additionally, this image shows that the woman acted as the ultimate partner to the man. For instance, the painting portrays the woman in the foreground as compared to the husband d. this positioning shows that the community upheld the equity of women and their existence in various areas. This image contradicts many of the modern and traditional societies which undermined the women and made men superior.

In the other image from a Pompeii Tavern, the main ideas which are presented revolve around the concepts of the lifestyle of the ancient Romans. The old Roman community contained a lot of bars which gave the members both men and women a chance to enjoy liquor, among other things. The first part of the image provides a prostitute who kisses a man while the second there is a female waiter attending to consumers. The third section shows men who plays with dice. The general outlook of the image shows women as objects as seen in the case of the second image. The same image is sent to the audience revolves around the overall classification of the community. Therefore, the behavior of the community as far as the perceptions of men towards women is reflected in the images where the latter are considered as objects.

From another dimension, the community observed certain religious cults. The household shrine in Pompeii reflects on the religious culture of the community. This image shows that the community observed various forms of religion which offered the ultimate framework for the behavior of the people, both men and women. Consequently, the image in this context shows that the community was driven by certain cults and religious belief, which in the long run governed the behavior of the members.

At last, one of the general conclusions which was found in the community above is that each gender played a given role according to the set traditions. In this context, women in the middle class were respected and probably gained education. On the same note, women from the lower levels used to work in areas such as taverns. Men used to perceive such women as objects as seen in the image of taverns.

The characterization of the ancient Pompeii is preserved in art and graffiti presented above. Some of these images portray the ancient Roman city and community as a group which respected women, especially the wealthy families. This information helps to understand the ancient Roman city and community based on historical information given through the images.

Bibliography

1. Strayer, Robert W., and Eric W. Nelson. Ways of the World with Sources for AP®. Macmillan Higher Education, 2016.

Social constructionism are values that are created within a society to define certain roles. An example of this is gender roles in society, i.e., male and female roles. Motherhood is a period in a woman’s life, usually after childbirth where she looks after her child.

Motherhood is an extension of the socially constructed female gender role. However, motherhood is not a static role and is different in a variety of cultures. McMahon, (1995) explored the nature of motherhood using interaction as an analytical tool, she found that this role could be oppressive for some women in some cultures but could give some women profound meaning to their lives in other cultures. A key component of motherhood is parenting children. Selin (2014) compared parenting in different non-western cultures in her book. She found that different parenting styles were linked to different cultures. This demonstrates that the role of mothers in each of the cultures reviewed would also be diverse as there would be different expectation of mothers. The role of motherhood has also changed with time as previously motherhood was seen as part of the family unit, consisting of a father, mother and 2 children (‘the ideal family’). In recent times, motherhood has changed to encompass the role of mothers in single parent families (Epstein, 1979) and the role of motherhood within same sex parents (Gates, 2012). The traditional role of the mother in these new family units has therefore changed considerably with single mothers taking on some ‘roles’ that were traditionally given to the father, i.e., the breadwinner role, which was not a traditional role given to mothers.

The role of relationships in motherhood can also be seen as a social construct due to the fact that media largely influences peoples’ beliefs about a topic, i.e., motherhood, parenting and relationships. Brown, (2010) argued that media, such as television and the internet, depicts consistent ideas of relationship standards. These media depictions constantly reinforce what the perfect relationship should be, thus influencing what women expect in their relationships. Another study by Chae (2014) also looked at the influence of media on motherhood specifically. A survey of 533 mothers, who were exposed to celebrity mothering stories as well as other information on child upbringing, demonstrated that this information caused mothers to become more competitive and want to achieve an ideal mother standard. This study also relates to Festinger’s (1954) social comparison theory, which is based on the belief that we all have a tendency to compare and this can contribute to us acting like others.

In summary, the arguments and literature discussed above demonstrate how motherhood is a social construct. Further research and studies are required to learn more about this topic area especially as the role of motherhood continues to change within each era.

Gender roles are what society believes are acceptable actions or beliefs for a person to have based on their gender. There are gender roles in every community everywhere in the world. For example, it is socially acceptable for women to wear skirts and dresses but for men it is not. In the music industry, there are clear gender stereotypes for male and female performers. These gender roles or stereotypes separate the work that artists can and cannot do based on their gender and what is socially acceptable. The effect of this gender rift creates a very gender discriminatory industry. The clothing artists wear, what lyrics they can sing, and how they are viewed by their audiences are all affected by these gender roles.

Most artists have a specific way that they dress and most times their gender is the driving factor in how they dress for performances. For example, in Tamara Winfrey Harris’ essay “All Hail the Queen?” she writes about the double standards imposed on the superstar Beyonce. Harris points out some backlash against the superstar, “In a January 2013 Guardian article titled ‘Beyonce: Being Photographed in Your Underwear Doesn’t Help Feminism,’ writer Hadley Freeman blasts the singer for posing […] ‘nearly naked in seven photos[…].’ Of course, in that very same issue of GQ, Beyonce makes several statements about gender inequality — the sort not often showcased in men’s magazines” (Harris 264). Feminism is the belief that men and women should be equal. Beyonce has been a role-model for many feminists around the world. During many of her shows, she wears outfits that are considered revealing and more aimed towards receiving male attention. When Beyonce goes on stage in a revealing outfit, critics call her a hypocrite because a feminist believes in a woman’s right of equality and there she is performing for a male audience. Except what they do not realize is, Beyonce is not dressing that way to impress men. She is confident in who she is and wants to inspire other women to be confident too. When a male performer goes on stage and he sags his pants and wears baggy clothes, then no one bats an eye. Just because of her outfits some critics do not consider her being as devoted to the cause of liberating other women from the pressures of the patriarchy. Even though how she dresses is how women are expected to dress as a female performer in the music industry. In contrast to Beyonce receiving negativity based on showing too much skin, singer Billie Eilish has received backlash because she refuses to show her body at all. Reporter Lara Walsh tells us in her article, “The Reason Billie Eilish Wears Baggy Clothes Is Actually Really Upsetting,” about why Billie Eilish does not wear revealing clothing when she performs, “Known for her quirky style and aesthetic, the singer has previously opened up about why she tends to go for clothing with a looser fit, saying that she’s done so to avoid people from sexualizing her body” (Walsh). Billie Eilish has received all kinds of commentary on her outfits since she became famous. Most of them remarking of the “weirdness” of how she prefers baggy clothes rather than more form-fitting outfits. Most of her fans are supportive of her, but some people give her a hard time for it. The singer has let none of the negative comments hurt her. It is sad though that a young girl who is trying to make music is being pressured to conform to society’s view on how she should dress based on her gender.

An artists gender affects not only how they dress but also the songs they can produce. In the same essay by Harris she says, “Petersen says the singer’s lyrical feminism swings between fantasy (‘Run the World [Girls]’) and ‘bemoaning and satirizing men’s inability to commit to monogamous relationships’ (‘Single Ladies’)”(Harris 263). Beyonce is known for creating songs that are more aimed to empower women. She is a feminist and makes songs that reflect her beliefs. Unfortunately, when she makes songs that talk about how the patriarchy is the root cause of most problems women face while being dressed in revealing clothing, she is labeled as a hypocrite by some critics. When a man writes a song about his “crazy ex-girlfriend” most critics do not care, but if a woman writes a song about how men molest women, then it is a problem. Again, another artist who faces a similar problem is Billie Eilish. In Marta Djordjevic’s article, “The real reason why Billie Eilish’s music is so controversial,” she tells us that, “Although she’s spoken out about her macabre material being fictional, that still hasn’t stopped naysayers from deeming Eilish as someone who glorifies suicide. From her dark lyrics to her cover on The Fader, which saw the musician with a plastic bag over her head in 2019, concerned critics have continued to speak out” (Djordjevic). Billie Eilish has many songs that are considered unnerving and dark. This is a big difference from most pop songs that talk about love and relationships. Eilish’s songs have a dark connotation and are for a more “angsty” audience. Billie Eilish is a female artist singing songs about serious issues she faces in her everyday life. She goes against the grain and does not let gender stereotypes affect her or her music. This causes a lot of backlash and negative comments. Billie Eilish differs because in her songs she talks about mental illness, sexuality, and her own personal experiences in her music. Some critics dislike her music because it’s different from the music that comes from other main-stream female artists.

Besides clothing and lyrics, how the performers are viewed in the eyes of the public is influenced by gender. Also in the essay “All Hail the Queen?” by Tamara Winfrey Harris, she talks about how critics disapprove of Beyonce’s outfits on stage during a time where it’s a common belief that women should own their own bodies and asks, “Why, then, are cultural critics […] convinced that when Beyonce pops a leather-clad pelvis on stage, it is solely for the benefit of men? Why do others think her acknowledgement of how patriarchy influences our understanding of what’s sexy is mere ‘lip service’?” (Harris 265). Some people see Beyonce as a superstar and an activist. Other people see her as a hypocrite. They base many opinions of the singer on her gender. Most women find Beyonce to be an inspiration because of her activism, whereas most men only find her attractive because of her body. Critics call her a hypocrite because she performs shows that they believe are more aimed towards gaining male attention while claiming to be a feminist. That they discredit her for being comfortable for expressing her sexuality is the reason that feminism exists today. Women can not go around exposing too much skin or she is trying to get attention from a man, which is often not the case. Women are thought to be light and delicate, and men are supposed to be dominant and tough. So anytime an artist goes against this stereotype they are often criticized harshly. Beyonce is a strong and independent woman. She is a role model for young girls in these changing times, but some people dislike that.

In the music industry, artists and performers are all held to gender stereotypes that often push them to act certain ways. Gender stereotypes affect how an artist dresses, what music they make, and how they are seen by the public. Gender roles condemn people to acting a certain way based on their gender. Many people may not realize their talent in a field that is predominantly male or female because of their gender. Hopefully one day, society will not expect artists to act a certain way because they are male or female. Maybe one day no one in the world will have to be forced into anything because of their gender identity.

Hispanic are known to be family oriented. In the Hispanic culture, family is important and any concerns an individual have is important to address it. It is important for individuals to have a sense of self-esteem and know their identity because it strongly affects his /her relationship with any family member. Also, each member of the family plays a specific role; however, when altering the roles shows how it can affect the Hispanic community, in their traditional values. The father occupies a position of respect and authority. According to Linda Skogrand, who is an extension family life specialist at the University of UTAH, in the Hispanic community manhood is strongly influenced by “machismo.” Machismo is defined as a man who is believed to be strong, brave, and decent, and should always guard and give to their family. According to the College of Education at the University of South Florida (USF), “Machismo” means that men are superior to women, giving men the right to be authoritative with women and denying them any freedom. Many in the Hispanic culture here in the United States no longer practice the views of machismo. Instead, they are equally viewing and share equally power as they get married. Mothers in Hispanic culture are defined as caregivers, are highly valued, and are expected to care for children as well as their elderly family members. Marianismo is the female version of machismo, in the book Families as they are really are, the author states that women should be religious, giving all their attention to their household. Though for Hispanic women, it is important to keep their traditional roles, even if they have to work outside their homes. For the Hispanic community, it says, that the role of the mother is to care while the father is to be the one who disciplines their children. According to Skogrand, one of the Hispanic traditions is the role of the father over the role of wife and husband, children are the most important people to the Hispanic family. According to the College of Education at USF, in the Hispanic community children are raised with certain expectations. Also, one of the main things is that parents, expect their children to be responsible. Therefore, teaching their children to be respectful to authority figures and to restraint from any disrespectfulness. Many of families assume that children should learn to value interpersonal relationships with their family members. Since children are an important piece many parents do not attend any events where their children are not included, for the safety of their children’s happiness. The one thing that is important in the Hispanic community is the relationship with the family because it helps their adolescent’s son/daughter from any negative influence that can happen. According to the National Institutes for Health, the idea of family is important in the Hispanic community and spreads outside the nuclear family which is: grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins; friends and neighbors; or anyone who is important to their community. Moreover, families have three main aspects, according to the National Institutes of Health which are: family obligations, care and emotional understanding, and family as a reference, or living up to what their family expects them to do. Grandparents are so important in the Hispanic culture and mostly those who live with their family still do visitations amount their own family members. It is the perfect occasion for a family member to gather and celebrate any life events.

In the book Families, each chapter was well organized about what families have to go through in regard to their ethnic background. There are so many topics that I can relate to. However, two main ones are working parents and how parenting can affect the relationship among children. First and most, when we talk about mothers, in the Hispanic community it is stated that their number one job is as a housewife and being there for their children. However, in the 21st century, many things have changed. Also coming to a country not having financial stability, both parents must work to help their family get the stability they need.

When we came To America without any family here, both my parents had to work double jobs. I was in 2nd grade going to school not knowing anything about the language or culture. My parents had to take turns on the hours they worked. It was very hard for my parents to help me with homework or attend any after-school programs because either they were tired because of work or they were working. Sometimes I would stay in the afterschool program, so I would get extra help on my homework. Even when I used to get awards from school for good academic grades my parents wouldn’t be able to attend because of work. I knew my parents didn’t mean it and they really wanted to be part of everything that I was doing, but working for the American dream something had to be sacrificed. My parents wanted a better life for me and give me as much as they could. For many immigrants parents who come to America the most important thing is to give their children a better life, the life that they were not able to give them back home. Further, as I grew, I got used to the fact that my parents were not able to help with schoolwork or attend any events related to school. I never reproach my parents for not being there, instead, I always thank them because they were sacrificing the love of their family to work to give them a better life. My parents until this day always tell me or apologize for not being there for me on the most crucial part of my life. Since most parents who work double jobs are too busy to see what their children are doing. Sometimes some of these children do whatever they want since they do not have adult supervision, but others have a purpose to advance in life.

Furthermore, parenting style has a big impact on how children develop into adults and is for their future success. There are four main parenting styles and their suggestions for education to have successful children and leaders. Some parenting styles can differ significantly from one family to another. However, there are different approaches regarding parenting, some are parent-child interactions, which are based on their level of need and awareness. Today, parents try to see what their children are needs of their children through a “bi-directional approach”. Through a bi-directional approach, the child’s age, interests, temperament, and developmental needs are placed into consideration when parenting. Through this approach, parents have to learn to be more flexible because a “one-size-fits-all” approach does not work. Furthermore, a more verbal give can be taken between adults and children. Parents are not perfect and are learning and practicing how to maintain these structures and nurture them. One of the things parents do is listen and negotiate with their children, but they also tell their children when to make a compromise or not. Many researchers stated that the authoritative parenting style is found to be outstanding in the academic, social, and emotional outcomes for children.

I have found that this approach has the best academic, social, and emotional outcomes for children. Since my parents were not with me most of the time because they had to work. However, my parent’s style to raise me never change. No matter how much time I didn’t spend with them I respected them. At home with my parents, I had rules that I needed to follow. As a parent, the approach to your child must be unique. Parents can’t just wake up one day and be a different person because they read a book or watched a mother on the playground who is perfect. Being a parent, you learn new skills as time goes on, parenting isn’t only a gathering of skills, rules, or tricks on how to be the perfect parent. A parent is what he is as a parent, what their family culture is, and how it transmits the most personal aspects of values to their child. For over 50 years of research, it was said that some styles of parenting show a better effect on their children than others. There are four main parenting styles that are well known which are: permissive, authoritarian, authoritative, and hands-off. Many child development experts have found that the most successful in raising children is the authoritative parenting style where both are academically strong and emotionally stable. However, not all parents fall accessibly into this or any other single type; instead, they are the combination of several parenting styles. An excellent piece of advice that child development experts suggest is that parents should be flexible enough so that parents can get used to their basic type of parenting style, this can help them adopt the best practices from other styles. Believe it or not, parenting style can have an influence on everything from how much a child may feel about themselves. Therefore, it is important to certify that parenting style is supportive of healthy growth and development because the way people interact with their child and how they discipline he/her will influence them for the rest of her/his life. Diana Baumrind, a clinical and developmental psychologist who was the pioneer of the parenting styles approach, gives four types of parenting styles which are the following:

• Authoritarian parenting style- “Are high demandingness and low responsiveness.” These parents are strict and often used punishment to control children’s behavior. Authoritarian parents are impassive to their children’s needs and generally do not show any affection to their children. Some of the effects that children have are low self-esteem, perform poorly academically, less independence, and are stay to have mental issues.
• Authoritative parenting style- Authoritative parenting is a parenting style that is considered “high responsiveness and high demands.” Authoritative parents are a little different in their response to their child’s emotional needs. They set limits and are very consistent and they set boundaries. Some of the effects that children have are: Children tend to be happy and content, are independent and self-reliant, “develop good social skills, express warmth and cooperate with peers, achieve higher academic success and are engage more in school activities.” On the positive side, these children are less depressive, less anxious, less suicidal, less delinquent, and do not use alcohol or drug use.
• Permissive- “low demandingness and high responsiveness.” Permissive parenting is a type of parenting style that shows low demands with high responsiveness. Permissive parents tend to be very affectionate. but sets up fewer guidelines and rules. These parents are more like a friend than the parental figure they do not expect perfect behavior from their children. They have a few rules or standards of behavior. If they do have rules, they are often not followed consistently.
• Uninvolved- Uninvolved parenting, sometimes referred to as neglectful parenting, are often not affectionate parents, they do not show any affection to their children. Uninvolved parents make few to no demands of their children and they are often unresponsive, indifferent, and even careless. They are emotionally supportive and are distant from their children and are offered little or no supervision. These parents do not show any warmth, love, or affection toward their children. They expect no expectations or are demanded of their children.

Moreover, Baumrind was able to observe preschoolers in their own setting like their, preschool and the children were of an age that was unlikely to change their honest, natural reactions. According to Baumrind, these three parenting styles continue to be an effective background for parents to have a more knowledgeable approach to what works best and why. Baumrind stated through her study that in the US the most used parenting style was the one of authoritarian parenting; and concluded that those children were from lower socio-economic backgrounds. Somewhat, this might help parents understand why some are part of these parenting styles and how children tend to react to different situations, which are found in minority neighborhoods an example would be crime or violence.

Moreover, now that I have a more understanding of the different parenting styles, I think my parents had a little bit of both authoritarian and permissive ways of parenting. Indeed, my parents work a lot when I was young because they wanted to give me a better future. Even though they did not spend time with me as they should they were always there to guide me. I also disagree with psychotherapist Baumrind, regarding parents who are authoritative, and their children are less depressive, or who do not suffer from mental illness. I believe that it is always the case because I have seen cases where even being the best parent and always being there for them it does not always mean they cannot have any mental issues. Nowadays, having the best parental styles do not always mean that your child will follow everything that you have taught him. Children act differently in school, and at home. There are so many people out there who can influence children without any harm through their own actions, such as having a conversation with other adults. Children are very prone to copy the actions of those around them, especially adults. Parents may not know it, but day-to-day behavior, from the way you drive to the tone of your voice, is shaping the way your child will act for the rest of their life. Parenting styles can differ significantly from one family to another. There’s a saying that, kids are the reflection of their own parents. Therefore, it is very important to note that even though you might not think about your parenting style on a day-to-day basis, your parenting style has an enormous effect on your child.

I believe that parenting style is as important not only to the parents but also to the child as it plays a great tool as they grow. As a first-time parent, it can be difficult to have a specific parenting style. Therefore, a lot of first-time parents tend to be all over the place when being authoritative parents, setting rules for their kids. A parent is like a book with many different chapters that are written as they learned the different ways of parenthood. Indeed, parents are not perfect, and together the child and the parent grow and learn together. However, each case is different in regards to the style of how to teach your children to be better. Parents always want their kids to excel more than them. On the other hand, single mothers can have a difficult time when parenting their kids because as mentioned earlier; the father is the person who is the one who sets the rules and the mother is the one who shows that affection to the child. When being a single mother is hard because sometimes kids can misinterpret the rules. There is really no specific way to learn how to be a parent, no one really sits down and explains the different parenting styles. No one says, “Hey parent congratulations, now choose a parenting style.”

When I became a mother for the first time, I had mixed emotions. My husband and I were young, and we did not know if we were going to be the best parents. No one brought us a book about the different stages of being a parent. Even though our son was just little at the time, we did not know anything about being a parent. Indeed, our parents were there as a support system, they always told us that they can give us advice, but that there is no perfect way in learning to be a parent if you do not experience it yourself. As our son got to the stage of being a toddler, him having the so call “terrible two’s” we felt overwhelmed at first because we did not know how to handle the situation or how to discipline our son. Both of us working full-time jobs and our son being in daycare it was quite difficult because my son was given rules at daycare to follow. By the time we used to get home, it was time to sleep and continue again the next day. Now that I had done research on parenting styles, I understand the different options on how to handle different situations. Our son is still a kid and not quite a teenager, therefore, we are still in the process of learning each day how to be the “best parents.”

Finally, in Hispanic cultures parenting styles, and dividing the work of parents are very important. In any Hispanic culture, the mother is always the one who shows emotional support, and the father is the “macho figure” the one with a strong character and disciplines the child. However, now in days, a lot has changed their cases where the mother is currently the working mother and the father is the stay home father. Indeed, parenting styles can be a challenge for anyone. Clinical and developmental psychologist Baumrind gives us options on the different styles that she has seen with her research, but I believe there is always room to implement and make these styles out own.

Work Cited

1. What Is Authoritative Parenting? (Examples). (2018, January 28). Retrieved from https://www.parentingforbrain.com/authoritative-parenting/
2. Diana Baumrind’s (1966) Prototypical Descriptions of 3 Parenting Styles. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.devpsy.org/teaching/parent/baumrind_styles.html
3. Risman, B. J., & Rutter, V. (2015). Families as they really are. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.

Using this week’s materials and other resources you find online and media channels, write a two to three page paper on current issues, controversies and opportunities for women in sports. How has women in sports evolved? Provide a summary of what women in sports was like in the past and what it looks like today. What steps can we take as a society to capitalize on these opportunities?

Women today have a very important role in sports, women today have shown that they are capable of doing things that were believed that only man could do and even do better than men. Nowadays women have achieved many successes in the sports branch after being long excluded from these. Sports is one of the areas in which women are more vetoed, not because they cannot practice it normally, but because for a woman to be able to dedicate herself professionally to sports, she would need good financing , both from private and public organizations and, today, they are virtually non-existent, as well as family support. The situation of women in sport is currently changing progressively, although the same importance is still not given to a success achieved by a women’s team than by a men’s one. In addition, the world of sport uses the woman’s body as an excuse to increase the show. Women had to get multiple victories and medals to begin to be known both by the media and by society in general.

With the passage of time we have been able to appreciate that the discrimination of women in sport is being reduced, but still we continue to find cases and, what is worse, situations of gender violence and sexual abuse. By gender violence, we not only refer to physical abuse, but also to psychological abuse and many women and girls have to take their bodies in training to inhuman levels. From childhood, a woman who wants to dedicate herself to professional sport with the naked eye has the same possibilities as a man, but it is not so. A woman has to accept the criticisms of the society in which she lives for practicing a sport that is fundamentally practiced by men, this does not mean that it does not happen with men but that with women these cases are more numerous, they are more marked and they are given more importance. Although discrimination is reduced, we find cases of physical abuse and psychological abuse, which are usually given by a male figure, which can be your coach or even a partner.

Wage discrimination against women in sport is not a new issue, but there is a growing media noise about it. As we know, in sport the effort is not paid fairly. In this world, the physical wear and tear of each discipline does not correspond to its economic retribution and that is why in golf you can earn much more than in cycling. This idea raises questions about the struggle for disrespect or cultural relevance that we give to each sport, and also, logically, what we give to those who practice it according to their gender.

At least a couple of things seem obvious: as our soccer players or basketball players make clear, discrimination against women in sport goes beyond simple discrimination between different games. And if the American women’s soccer players have generated more income than the men’s teams, the least that can be done is to match their salaries to that of the men in this sport. They generate more than they do. They just ask to charge the same.

Traditionally, women have been excluded from sports because it did not fit their gender role, since it was considered that they did not meet the necessary conditions to practice a activity that men do. This is because since childhood they make us see that football is a boy’s thing and gymnastics a girl’s thing, when we can be effective both sexes in both sports. When it comes to sports, football is the king sport, but only male soccer players stand out and there are hardly any female teams or any details about the women’s league in any country.

References

1. McLeod, S. (2007). Social Psychology. Retrieved from Simply Psychology : https://www.simplypsychology.org/social-psychology.html
2. National Assessment Of Educational Progress. (2018, December 06). Measuring Status and Change in NAEP Inclusion Rates of Students with Disabilities. Retrieved from National Assessment Of Educational Progress: https://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/studies/inclusion/
3. Sulaiman, S. (2018, Nov 20). LAUSD to Explore Housing and Wraparound Service Provision for its 17,000+ Homeless Students. Retrieved from StreetsBlogLA: https://la.streetsblog.org/2018/11/20/lausd-to-explore-housing-and-wraparound-service-provision-for-its-17000-homeless-students/

Hinduism is the world’s oldest and largest religion after Christianity and Islam which began in Indus Valley (India) in 1500 B.C. Hinduism is not only a religion, but also the way of life. Today, around 750 million people follow Hinduism, and most of them live in India. Indus people believe in supreme God called Brahman and aspects of supreme God: Shiva, Shakti and Ganesh. Women in Hinduism like women in all other religions do not have equal rights with men and have many restrictions. Hindu women are considered characteristics of manifestation of Shakti, a universal mother, as untainted energy. Also, Hindu women have to obey all laws and restrictions in order to be counted as prosperous women called “Lakshmi”. Hindus women rights are written in law books: “Dharma-Sastras” and “Laws of Manu” books. This paper will analyze the positive and negative sides of Hindu women’s way of life starting from their childhood till the widow times and mention differences and similarities between past and present.

Firstly, at the fathers’ home, Hindu girls have duties starting from their childhood, such as learning religious and non-religious poems (Mahabharata- epic poems of ancient India), cooking, washing, and cleaning. They are taught that women should only take care of their parents and siblings, then children and husband, and worship religious rituals. In the past and still in some areas in India, after girls reach 14 years, fathers agree to the marriage of their daughters, and there is a superstition that if daughters are not married after 14 yeas, she will bring grief to their parents. Mostly candidates for husbands are middle aged, which is a disaster to allow daughter to marry to the man who is older for several years. Analyzing this, it is wrong because girls have not reached 18 years to have a legal marriage, and their bodies have not developed yet. Moreover, girls and their husbands have different views on lifestyle which may be a major barrier for happy relationships. In addition, there is a dowry problem (property). In the 18th century, girls faced the gender discrimination about inheriting the property not only in fathers’ house which means depriving property rights from girls while all children should inherit father’s property equally not respectfully if it is boy or girl. But, in ancient India, women did not face such problem, and in Manusmriti, it was mentioned that all women have to be treated equally as men about the property issues (Traditional Status of Women in Hinduism).

Secondly, after getting married, Hindu women play important role in their family rising and bearing children, obeying husband, continuing family traditions, and worshipping religious rituals. Women have to listen their husbands, but it should be a respect rather than obedience, because when there is a respect between partners, their family spirits are on a high level. However sometimes, when Hindu wives disobey their husbands, men start to use a violence towards their wives which is completely wrong and in Hindu Law book also mentioned that there should not be any harassments towards wives. Also, wives should keep families’ traditions and obey them because Hindu people believe that tradition is the main bond which allows family name (as every family has own traditions) to pass through decades. Hindu women rise children and educate them at home giving a basic knowledge about science and religion which is a positive aspect because children become aware of useful and basic spheres from early ages. However, except from all home duties, women should have liberty to develop themselves too, participate in different activities, and be involve in political and economic spheres because by being developed they will be able to educate and up-bring their children in depth (Women’s Role in Hinduism).

Thirdly, Widows’ lives in Hinduism are considered as the hardest period. When husbands die, wives shave their hair and become bald till the end of their lives, then wear a white sari (Indian outfit), and they are not allowed to wear colorful saries. After that women’s lives change and become very hard for them because they have many restrictions, such as being bald, wearing only white saries, participation on weddings and some rituals are prohibited, and main restriction is remarriage. Moreover, public judge widows and do not let them to have a piece; therefore, usually widows stay under surveillance of sons or close relatives. If analyze these restrictions, they are just rules which make women’s lives worse. To have a restriction on remarriage is meaningless because as a tradition many of Hindu women get married at early ages, and when wives lose their husbands their, lives destroy at young age, especially if they have children, while they can remarry, continue raise their children (if any) with support of second husband, engage different celebrations, wearing colorful dresses and jewelry, having long beautiful hair, and have a happy life. Shortly, remarriage is a key for women for escaping from people’s judgements.

However, some traditions have changed in modern and developed parts of India. For example, now girls do not get married immediately as they reached 14 years, and they can choose to whom marry, they are allowed to go to schools and get education, are involved in high positioned job (yet there is a discrimination because men are afraid that women will take their places and dominate over them), widows are allowed to remarry prosperity equally divided between brothers and sisters as Hindu law claims. These changes simplify women’s lives a lot.

In conclusion, Hindu women play an important role in their families at fathers’ and husbands’ houses. There are positive aspects of being a Hindu woman because from childhood they are taught to take care of their family, do housework, and worship religious rituals. The crucial part of sustaining a family is a women’s duties as they bear and educate children, take care of them and husbands, and are responsible for continuation of family traditions. However, there are several negative aspects such as getting married at early age, undergoing gender discrimination in terms of having education, job, and inheriting prosperity. The difficult part of being women is when they get married at so early age and when they become widows. Although nowadays some of these traditions have changed, many people who follow Hinduism still keep these traditions and make women suffer.

Differing conceptual ideas of family life are clear throughout historical and contemporary societies and thus minimal agreement is apparent. However, the family can be seen as ‘the solidarities which exist between those who are taken to be related to one another through ties of blood or marriage’ (Schneider, 1968). Discussed is the idea that traditional nuclear families, formed of married or cohabiting heterosexual couples and their children, base significant importance on gender with regard to parenting and socialisation of the next generation and generally the family itself . However, differing interpretations of what can be considered a ‘family’ provides multiple routes combining differing gender roles and patterns. Whilst the traditional, functionalist-centred view of family as a universal institution fulfilling positive functions for society is important, the focus of this essay will be based upon the social constructionist transition of gender within modern family structures and how differing interpretations form, both across the UK and cross culturally.

As stated previously, family was of significant importance in traditional British society, with values such as cohesion and solidarity associated with family being reinforced through ties of blood or marriage. Marriage therefore was conventionally based upon heterosexual relations, raised to a sacrament, with the expectation of eventually forming a nuclear family consisting of a mother, a father and their children. Functionalist theorists further this concept within family life, highlighting the gendered division of labour between males and females. The male holding the ‘breadwinner’ identity and performing instrumental roles, reinforced the idea that economic prosperity was valued, minimising the risk of requiring support from the state, which has been emphasised through Parsons’ warm bath theory. Comparatively, the female performed expressive roles within the private sphere to prevent the risk of maternal deprivation of offspring. Furthermore, the homemaker role within the nuclear family is significant in regard to ‘primary relationships’, explaining the closest and most enduring ties between people, reflecting the mother’s role as not only the child bearer but also the mechanism in which the traditional values of society are reinforced. Moral order and value consensus are further upheld and passed on through generations via cultural transmission. Likewise, a ‘concerted cultivation’ (Matsuoka, R. 2019:161-178) is expressed via an expected authoritative parenting style, carried out predominately though the female figure allowing for the child to develop high levels of self-esteem and independence. This allows for mothers to ‘produce moral maternal selves, suggesting alongside others that the making of ethical selves is a relational classed process’ (Perrier,2012:655-670). Intersecting gender with class, middle class mothers were found to debate with their children, whose opinions were treated on a similar level, linking the individual themselves to the workings of a functioning society (Walkerdine and Lucey, 1989:1). Therefore, throughout family life, gender roles, especially that of the mother, are intrinsically regarded as essential, with parenting styles and the process of socialisation being reinforced though traditional functionalist-based means of family form. However, this focus on middle class families presents an overly simplistic view of parenting by ignoring possible gender roles associated with other social groups such as those from working classes, limiting the effectiveness of the approach.

A consequence of the functionalist-based gendered roles in family life, with the male as the head of the household, is the violence that stems from those who form primary relationships. Domestic violence, the ‘physical abuse directed by one member of the family against another’, often targets the female figure, with ‘heterosexism and gender role socialization perhaps being the biggest contributing factors’ (Brown, 2008:457-462). Feminists argue that the patriarchal structure of the family allows males to take control and exert their power over the female, essentially constructing a subordinate status. The fact ‘two women per week are killed by their husbands’ (ONS, 2019) portrays the strong emotional ties associated with family life that can break down and lead to erosional standards of morality. The traditional breadwinner identity can transform significantly, reflecting the roles exerted by men and women, depicting marginalisation within the home and thus gender inequality stemming from the family itself.

Most significantly, changing societal acceptance and expectations regarding gender have allowed multiple family forms to develop, a stark contrast to the traditional ideals of the 1950s based upon rigid gender roles for maintaining the ‘collective conscience’. In this sense the family and family life are an arbitrary social construction, with what we understand to be family differing across historical, cultural and social contexts, leading to majorly different social categorisations. Traditionally, the lack of a male father figure was stigmatised throughout media discourse and social policy; however modern statistics state 1.7 million single parent homes exist in the UK (BBC, 2019), increasing the acceptance of the situation itself. Whilst policy protection over this section of society through tax and benefits systems (Duncan and Edwards, 1999:145) reflects shifting ideological outlooks, fundamentally this change has led to the increase in the role of women within the family, with many acting as the ‘breadwinner’, resulting in ‘living patterns being less bound by traditional lines of the ‘nuclear family’’. Increased educational and employment opportunities for women (Allan and Crow, 2001:10) as well as Beck’s idea of individualisation (1992) provide convincing explanations towards changes away from conventional gender roles. Although not upholding the value consensus, the ‘undoing’ of typical gender roles causes political strain with critics such as West and Zimmerman (2009) arguing that gender cannot be undone as ‘gender differences are linked to power and are continually reinforced through accountability processes’. This increase of single parent homes and unconventional gendered roles reflects the differing responsibilities accepted within families and thus the importance of gender in family life.

Families of choice, other than single parent families, increasingly emphasise the changing gender roles within family life, drifting further away from traditional functionalist-based responsibilities explained earlier. As Giddens (2008:347) observes ‘gay partnerships reflect the positive and creative forms of everyday life that homosexual couples are increasingly able to peruse together’. Therefore kinship, in the traditional sense of ties through blood and marriage, may not apply to homosexuals to the extent of heterosexual family relations, however the legalisation of gay marriage in 2014 highlighted the ability of many same sex couples to take on the roles within a socially constructed ‘family’, backed by legal jurisdiction as well. This phenomenological approach sees many same sex families reject ‘communal expectations’ and focus more upon pure relationships based upon intimacy, combining gendered desires. This concept of same sex families therefore suggests that the ‘reflexive project of self’ (Giddens 1992) and the ‘undoing’ of gender is extremely significant, in many cases increasing gender equality ‘even in couples that initially hold entrenched, gendered beliefs’ (Giddens, 2008:365).

Cross culturally, gender has a similarly intrinsic role, however displayed significantly different to that of the UK. The Nuyoo, in Southern Africa, bases marriage upon the ‘desire for a woman to carry out the tasks that would complement [her husband’s]’, ensuring the steadiness and lasting nature of the household’ (Monaghan, 2000:89), with gender further incorporated through the transferring of a ‘Brideprice’ and ‘Brideservice’ based upon the transmission of wealth and labour. This idea of transferring the female as an object reinforces the concept of sexual desires within family life and the males’ apparent right to sexual pleasure with the female. Ward Goodenough reinforces this concept, seeing marriage as ‘a transaction and resulting contract in which a person establishes a continuing claim to the right of sexual access to a woman’. However, family mechanisms differ cross-culturally, with lineage, both patrilineal and matrilineal in the Nuer and Minangkabau, portraying that family life and kinship are not necessarily related to blood ties but can be traced through male and female ranks. As Monaghan (2000:100) highlights, ‘western societies tend to form kin-groups on the basis of descent from a common ancestor but trace through blood ties’, which signifies differing understandings cross culturally and thus the social construction of gender itself as bound to culture.

In conclusion, the role of gender in family life across both the UK and cross-culturally is not only socially constructed but also takes on multiple forms. Familial forms therefore are not static with ‘modification and change being not entirely normal but are built into the very nature of family life’ (Allan, Crow and Hawker 2011). This subjective nature in contemporary societies is in stark contrast to that of the traditional functionalist-based consensus with the male as a ‘breadwinner’, which in many mechanistic societies reinforces patriarchal ideologies. Discussed predominantly, non-conventional gender roles such as single mothers and same sex couples imply family life has not only flexibility but also culturally bound characteristics that reinforce constructionist perspectives. Whether it be based upon kinship or lineage, gender plays a significant role in not only the mechanisms of family life, but the overriding culture associated with the family itself. We must nevertheless inquire as to the extent to which in the future the ‘emptying of functions’ in the family (Eriksen, 2004:101-119), where multiple of the conventional tasks are performed by the public sector, will become a dominant force in shaping social norms and familial relations.

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