Category: Gender Inequality

Introduction

Different societies have faced many challenges when addressing various gender-related issues such as gender equality in terms of participation in political processes and the sharing of roles between women and men in their families and society. This problem has plagued even the most developed nations since time immemorial. For instance, women in western nations have had different achievements and losses. Coontz (2010) discusses these issues from the context of the economic status of American women and their limited role in society at the time. In this traditional society, freedom and individualism were reserved for men. Coontz (2010) informs that women were aware of the domineering of men but could not change the normalized perception of gender roles.

Women’s roles in society have been evolving with time. In the late 19^th century, many nations had imbalanced demographics concerning social structures. Men dominated most of the social activities. However, in modern society, such dominance has changed. Women are acquiring strategic roles in society. The question of how gender has evolved attracts large scholarly research, which is often open to criticism.

However, literal ideas such as those postulated by Mary Wollstonecraft, John Stuart Mill, and other writers of the Victorian Era to the Early 20^th century reveal that apart from being conceived, gender can be performed. Such performance is manifested in societies in the form of gender inequality and gender discrimination. In all nations, including India, gender discrimination is an offense. The purpose of this paper is to define and show gender inequality in India. The paper will also present the initiatives that the country has taken to deal with this issue.

Reasons for Gender Inequality in India

Patriarchal Society

Patriarchal society in India contributes to the witnessed discrimination against women or their inequality. Equality refers to a state of affairs in which people in a society or even isolated groups of people possess a status that is to some certain respects (Thorvaldur & Zoega, 2011). Gender inequality implies a situation where people’s access to the same status is curtailed based on their gender. Hence, gender inequality involves discrimination against women based on their sex.

In India, the root of many of discrimination against women may be traced from the patriarchal system. Strayer (2011) defines a patriarchal arrangement as a “system of social structures and practices in which men dominate, oppress, and exploit women” (p.33). The systems find application in different religious settings such as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Muslim practices in India. For example, irrespective of the gender of the people who subscribe to Hinduism, wholesomeness, openness, openhandedness, and compassion shape the moral and ethical norms advocated by the religion.

The influence of Hinduism on ensuring the success of women requires them to depend on men for guidance. Here, men are superior to them. Thus, the female gender is subservient. It acts under the control of the male gender. Hinduism resulted in a large decline in women’s rights from 1600 to 1800BCE (Strayer, 2011). The Sati ritual explains well the dominance of men over women in the Hinduism religion. Sati entailed a funeral practice that was conducted among Indians. In the ritual, a widow would set herself ablaze to death. In this burning process, she used the husband’s burial pyre. Hinduism advocated that once women fulfilled their duty of death after the death of the husband by burning themselves, they would be reborn in a higher caste level.

The act of a woman killing herself upon the death of her husband reflects gender disparities in the Hindu religion. From a religious perspective, the life of a woman was not important in the absence of the man who was supposed to control her. As the ritual became even more sophisticated, women lost their rights to property ownership (Strayer, 2011). In Hinduism, women also married at a tender age. This case prevented them from completing their education so that they could acquire qualifications for performing various ritual sacrifices. Without men’s control, the religion spread the belief that women would become promiscuous.

Discrimination against Girls

The girl child in India has a lower reputation and consideration among conservative families. Educating girls is considered a bad choice and/or poor investment since she will be married off at someday in the future. Poor education leads to low dominance of women in jobs that require high skills and educational qualifications. In workplaces, the girl child faces discrimination. Although inexplicitly expressed and inconsistent with the law, a working girl child in India may face discrimination due to her caregiving roles (a stereotypically feminine role in society). For instance, supervisors may learn that a woman is taking care of a sick person.

Consequently, he or she may develop the perception that in addition to the work she is employed to perform, such a role diverts some of her attention from work so that she underperforms in her organizational job roles and responsibilities. In some conservative Indian families, men are served with food first. This way, they may end up taking all nutritious foods, leaving behind poor quality food for the girl child. This practice implies increasing cases of anemia among women in addition to difficulties while giving birth. Therefore, discrimination against the girl child occurs at the societal and familial level in India.

Dowry

The Indian dowry system considers women a burden on their families. This perception contributes to discrimination against the girl child. Dowry is the sum paid in kind or even cash by the bride’s family to the bridegroom’s folks. This cultural practice is common among geographically disjointed Indian societies, religions, and people from different social classes (Babu, 2011). This practice only provides a limitation of the expansion of the girl child’s bargaining power. The practice also makes parents consider reducing investments in girls. The Indian Penal Policy (304B and 498a) prohibits the practice of dowry payment. However, despite the changing attitudes concerning dowries in India, dowry payment continues to be practiced as a cultural element.

Marriage Laws

In any society that acknowledges the contribution of its entire people on social, political, and economic development, people have equal accessibility to fundamental rights, including marriage rights. Indian law provides both women and men with equal marital rights. However, Muslims have permission to divorce their wives unilaterally (Mattias, 2011). The law also sets 18 years as the minimum age for marriage in the case of women while that of men is 21. However, among Indians who practice Islam, early child marriage is still legal under personal laws set out by Indian Mohammedan. Such practices constitute a major detriment for women empowerment.

Inequality Factors

Eliminating gender inequalities in India requires an understanding of its causes followed by analyzing its contributing factors. Such factors can be changed through political interventions or a change in social cognition among people. This strategy can decrease inequality levels. In the Indian context, inequality factors include health and survival, education, economic, and political factors.

Health and Survival

The first section on the causes of gender inequality in India revealed a high preference for baby boys than baby girls among Indian societies. This observation perhaps explains why India has high levels of sex-selective abortion. In nations in Europe and North America, for every 100 girls born, about 100 and 110 boys are born. Due to the permanence and biological advantages of women when compared to men, more girls survive than boys.

However, in India and other Asian nations, men exceed women (Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, 2013). For example, in 2011, a census conducted by the Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India (2013) indicated that Punjab had a sex proportion of 117 males to 100 females while Jammu and Kashmir had a proportion of 128 males to 100 females (44) in case of children of ages 0 to 1 year. This high boy: girl sex quotient is attributed to the affordability and misusing fetus devices such as ultrasound that help in determining sex. MacPherson (2007) provides estimates that more than 100,000 girls are not born in India due to female infanticide.

In terms of health, Indian girls have a disadvantage compared to boys. For example, in 2005, only 42% of girls accessed vaccination compared to 45% in the case of boys. Female to male suicidal quotient in India is 1:2 (MacPherson, 2007). Although this proportion compares with other parts of the world such as the US, in 2012, some parts of India such as West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, and Maharashtra recorded higher suicidal rates among women compared to men. This increased rate may be attributed to negative perceptions about girl child empowerment. The situation increases the likelihood of mental disarray, hopelessness, and apprehension. These conditions are a risk factor to suicidal thoughts and actual suicide (Vijaykumar, 2007).

Education

Education inequalities may be measured from schooling, reservations, and literacy levels. In terms of schooling, India is progressing towards attaining its millennium development targets for ensuring gender equity in terms of accessibility to education. However, to achieve this goal, the country needs to increase the empowerment rate for the girl child by 300% to attain 0.95 of its GEEI commitment. GEEI refers to gender parity in schooling index.

Indeed, Vijaykumar (2007) asserts that fewer girls than boys attend schools in the rural areas of India. This challenge is attributed to the biased curriculum that targets the girl child, a low number of role models like female teachers, and the insufficient schooling facilities, including sanitary facilities for girls.

Indian women have lower literacy levels compared to men. Mattias (2011) asserts that the 2011 census in India indicated that women had roughly 65 literacy levels compared to approximately 82 among men. Very few girls enroll and complete the education systems in India compared to boys. This situation is detrimental to the empowerment and growth of women since literacy is an important factor that is responsible for higher economic development.

Although literacy levels for Indian women have been increasing as the nation works towards achieving its 2015 millennium development goals, gaps remain in school enrollment for girls. To increase skills and literacy levels for female students, India has established reservations for them. For example, 40 percent of state centers and 10 percent of the UTs centers admit exclusively female students (Vijaykumar, 2007). The NFE centers have also been increasingly admitting more girls through exclusive reservation for the girl child.

Economic

Economic inequalities occur in the form of labor involvement, salaries and wages, credit convenience, property tenure rights, and professional inequalities. According to Lockwood (2009), since the 1990s, in India, the participation of women in the labor force has been growing with roughly 120 female workers participating in the employment sector of about 240 million. Tea plantation employs about 47% female workers, 46% for cotton, and 39% in the horticultural industry.

While this finding shows a significant ratio of the absorption of women in the agricultural sector labor force, inequalities exist in wages. In the 2009 plaguing operations, men were paid a daily wage of roughly 100 rupees while women received roughly 60 rupees (Ministry of Labor and Employment, 2010). This finding represented a wage ratio of 1.87. Weeding operations had a wage gap of 1.18.

The Indian law supports equal access to credit, despite gender differences among its population. However, women do not have adequate collaterals that are necessary for permitting them to participate ardently in credit programs offered by banks. The only available option is to access credit through microfinance programs. These programs have been instrumental in leading growth of self-help groups in India.

Nevertheless, they have come under intense scrutiny due to the coercive practices that lure women to take an excessive number of loans until they become overwhelmed. Vijaykumar (2007) confirms how this situation implies increasing incidents of suicide among women who fail to repay their loans in time. Property rights law recognizes equality in property ownership for both men and women. However, a large proportion of land within rural areas is owned by men. Women are also not given active combat roles in the military.

Political

Political inequality upholds differences between men and women in terms of their participation in political and decision-making processes. Based on this scale, India takes the 20^th position across the globe. Political equality in India is higher than in the United Kingdom, Denmark, or Switzerland. Indian women take many elective posts in all levels of governance. In the 2014 elections, about 70 percent of men turned out to vote while about 66 percent of women turned out to participate in their suffrage rights.

State Initiatives to Reduce Gender Inequality

Programs

The government of India recognizes the need for eroding gender inequalities and discrimination in all Indian territories and states. This awareness has made the central government of India in collaboration with unions in different territories and states initiate various programs to increase equality levels for the girl child. The programs include “Swarna Jayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana, Awareness Generation Projects for Rural and Poor women, Condensed Course of Education for Adult Women, and Kishori Shakti Yojana, Swayamsidha Mahila Mandal Program” (Thorvaldur & Zoega, 2011, p. 571).

A program such as the Integrated Child Development Services aims at increasing school attendance among girls who reside in rural areas. These programs target either creating awareness on the equality of the girl child to the boy child or increasing the results of the girl child in all sectors of the economy and education.

The Constitution of India

The constitution of India provides ventilation for women to ensure they are not discriminated against. It cites goals such as ensuring economic, political social equity, and justice for all Indian citizens. Article 15 prohibits any discrimination based on sex, background, belief, or even race among other diversity differences. For example, religion comprises a set of beliefs, perceptions, and cultural systems that relate to the understanding of society’s existence.

Various signs, consecrated histories, and narratives about the rationale of life, its foundation, and the origin of the universe characterize religion. Religious beliefs shape morality and ethics. They also prescribe a certain lifestyle through a set of codes of acceptable behaviors within the doctrines of a given faith (Strayer, 2011). Based on the belief and lifestyle standards, religions view gender issues differently. The constitution prohibits any religious view that may lead to discrimination of the Indian people based on gender differences.

Section 3 of Article 15 in the Indian constitution permits the state to provide requisite provisions for children and women. However, apart from the constitution, the Indian legislature has developed policies to eliminate gender inequalities and discrimination. For example, the Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961 seeks to eliminate women’s discrimination in terms of dowry payment. The Sati Act of 1987 abolishes and spells punishment for Sati’s inhumane acts.

The parliament of India also introduces various amendments to the constitution to ensure equal participation of women in social, economic, and political processes. For example, Section 304-B of the Constitution expanded the India penal code to ensure that bride burning becomes an offense that attracts harsh punishment, including life imprisonment as the maximum sentence.

The Convention for the Elimination of Gender Inequalities

India is a party to the United Nations (UN). This privilege also makes it a party to organs that are established under the UN umbrella such as the Convention for Elimination of All Forms of Gender Discrimination (CEDAW). The convention describes various rights that apply to women in the preface and 30 clauses. It also establishes an agenda for eliminating discrimination against women. India accepts the convention.

Therefore, it has been committed to putting in place various mechanisms for eliminating inequalities and discrimination of women. Such mechanisms involve eliminating any act of discrimination targeting women from individuals, enterprises, and/or organizations. CEDAW requires nations to set up tribunals and various public institutions for protecting women against any inequality and/or discrimination. This involves eliminating discriminatory legal procedures and laws and adopting new ones that allow the participation of women in the social, economic, cultural, and political arena.

Conclusion

Gender inequality occurs when some people have better accessibility to rewards, capital, and work opportunities than others do due to their gender. It also occurs when gender contributes to determining people’s participation in political processes, accessibility to credit, education, and profiling in terms of their benefits in society. To mitigate the erosion of gender inequalities, women and men must get equal pays for similar job descriptions and roles.

They should have access to equal opportunities for promotion. Dealing with educational inequalities requires equal participation of women and men in schooling, acquiring literacy skills, and reservation in the higher institutions of learning and technical institutions. Even though India suffers from gender inequality in different factors, the state is trying to limit this issue.

Reference List

Babu, B. (2011). Dowry deaths: a neglected public health issue in India. International Health, 3(1), 35-43.

Coontz, S. (2010). Historical Perspectives on Family Studies. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 6(2), 283-297.

Lockwood, N. (2009). Perspectives on women in management in India. New Delhi, India: Society for Human Resource Management.

MacPherson, Y. (2007). Images and Icons: Harnessing the Power of Media to Reduce Sex-Selective Abortion in India. Gender and Development, 15(2), 413–423.

Mattias, L. (2011). Vulnerable Daughters in India: Culture, Development and Changing Contexts. London: Routledge.

Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. (2013). Final Population-2011 Census of India. Mumbai, India: The Government of India.

Ministry of Labor and Employment. (2010). Wage rates in rural India (2008-2009). India: Government of India, Labor Bureau.

Strayer, R. (2011). Ways of the World: A Brief Global History with Sources. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martins.

Thorvaldur, G., & Zoega, J. (2011). Educational. Social Equity and Economic Growth: A View of the Landscape. CESifo Economic Studies, 49(4), 557–579.

Vijaykumar, L. (2007). Suicide and its prevention: The urgent need in India. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 49(3), 81-84.

Introduction

In a globalized society, the barriers between countries and even nations are expected to decrease to reach a similar level of prosperity. However, women still have fewer opportunities for economic participation compared to men, limited access to both basic and higher education, less political representation, as well as greater risks of health and safety. Gender inequality is a persistent problem that captures a range of areas of human life and requires the attention of the global community. The traditional models of the division of opportunities based on gender should be re-evaluated to offer women a greater range of productive tasks.

Despite the substantial international and national efforts targeted at eliminating gender inequality, such problems as violence against women, sexual harassment, the wage gap, women’s health, and work-life balance are persistent. As mentioned by Kamrany and Robinson (2012) for HuffPost, only four out of a hundred and thirty-five countries have reached the desired level of gender equality and include Cuba, Sweden, Norway, and Costa Rica. Thus, regardless of the misconceptions that women have long been equal to men, the problem of gender inequality needs to be addressed for achieving true social justice for all citizens.

Problem

The reasons for gender inequality are rooted in the history of social development. Women have been considered as less important contributors to social affairs, with their roles diminished to bearing children and caring for their families. Gender inequality is a highly debilitating social stigma that for centuries undermined the female psychology of worth and dignity. Today, gender discrimination has a major influence on economic growth because it prevents nations from reaching the maximum potential of productivity (Kamrany & Robinson, 2012). Economic limitations also lead to societal losses such as the low concentration of women in the workforce of governments. In addition, the lack of attention to public health and child care facilities makes it harder for women to participate in all aspects of social life. This issue has been linked to the unequal representation of women in policy-making and institutions.

Considering perspectives from different disciplines, healthcare, economics, and education come into play. According to O’Dowd (2019), few health organizations around the world are making significant progress in addressing longstanding issues of gender inequality. This leads to substantial disparities in access and quality of care, predominantly in developing countries. The wage gap is a persistent gender inequality problem that has been reported in multiple sources. It is defined as “the difference in the median earnings of men and women relative to the median earnings of men” (OECD, 2018, para. 2). As seen from OECD (2018) data, the highest rates of gender wage gap are in Korea (34.6%) while the lowest is in Romania (1.5%). In the US, the rate of the gender wage gap is 18.2% which suggests that the topmost ‘accomplished’ regions worldwide also experience gender inequality in income. In regards to education, there are still significant disparities, especially among developing countries. According to the Global Partnership for Education (2019), an estimated “131 million girls worldwide remain out of school and face multiple barriers to education” (para. 2). Such limitations include long distances to schools, school-related gender-based violence, cultural norms, and practices, as well as early marriage. Therefore, gender inequality is a multi-faceted problem that affects both developed and developing nations worldwide, which points to the need for developing systematic and impactful solutions.

Solutions

Addressing the overarching impact of gender inequality on global society requires a multi-faceted approach, which means that there is no one solution. Designing programs for improving gender equality should be linked to equality programming across a range of sectors such as education, public health, resource management, and finance. To reduce the gender wage gap, it is imperative to initiate governmental interference in the form of legislation, subsidize childcare, offer mentoring programs for organizations, and establish transparency in salary. These solutions are linked to a complete reconsideration of the systematic approach toward wage distribution.

To reduce the adverse influence of gender inequality in education, several steps are recommended. First, it is important to promote gender-responsive learning environments by raising the awareness of all stakeholders to realize that the educational system does not do enough to address gender disparities (UNESCO, 2019). Second, it is necessary to address unequal power relations, social norms, and gender roles. This solution applies to social standards that require women to get married young, bear children, and abandon their educational opportunities. Supporting girls and young women are possible with the help of international organizations’ inspectors visiting schools in developing countries and monitoring whether their environments allow them to get the desired level of education.

Lastly, when addressing gender inequality in health care, policy-specific measures are needed. According to Payne (2015), measures for addressing gender disparities may include “vertical programs which aim to target specific health risks and deliver services to meet women and girl’s needs, and more cross-cutting approaches which aim at “gender” policymaking” (p. 53). Most of such work can be done through the integration of gender mainstreaming principles across a variety of policy arenas.

Evidence

With the integration of policies for establishing equal access to healthcare for women and girls, significant developments have occurred when stakeholders at intergovernmental, national, and international levels have pioneered the rights of women (Payne, 2015). In regards to education, the establishment of policies for addressing unequal power relations leads to the improvement of gender role socialization (Fleischmann & Kristen, 2014). Girls have more opportunities to get the desired level of education when policymakers unite in the effort to improve the overall learning environment for girls across the world. For eliminating the gender wage gap, nationwide legislation shows to increase the hiring and promotion of women in the workplace (Bishu & Alkadry, 2017). Gender representation is achieved when occupational segregation is eliminated, and women’s participation is distributed across a range of disciplines.

Unfortunately, there is a gap in scholarly research in regards to reflecting the success of solutions for addressing gender inequality. Most of the studies focus on proposing solutions instead of finding evidence for their success. Because of this, there is a need for enhancing the reliability of research articles that focus on discussing issues of gender inequality. In addition to this, there is a significant bias of researchers when discussing gender inequality in education, economics, and healthcare. The majority of them are focused on the Western perspective of addressing these issues instead of considering the range of disparities that girls and women experience in developing or third-world countries.

Ethical Outcomes of the Solution

Equal access to opportunities represents the main ethical outcomes of establishing gender equality in healthcare, education, and economics. Fairness is the fundamental ethical principle that applies to this case as it is concerned with the range of processes, actions, and processes that are seen as morally honorable and equitable. On the downside, in the movement to reduce gender inequality, the rights of boys and men can be diminished due to the focus on women’s issues rather than men’s issues.

In regards to the ethical issues associated with the outcomes, there is a problem of integrating a diverse set of experts and collaborators involved in the solutions. This implies the involvement of women-legislators and women-stakeholders in the process of establishing the environment of gender equality in education, healthcare, and wage distribution. Also, finding ways in which equality of genders can be achieved on a global level relates to equality of opportunity, which is an idea that all individuals regardless of gender, race, status, income levels, and ethnicities are treated equally when presented with employment, healthcare, and other services.

Conclusion

The problem of gender inequality remains to be addressed as the efforts of both national and international organizations are not enough for guaranteeing equal opportunities for men and women. It has been identified that gender inequality exists in multiple areas of social and political life, pointing to the need for developing a cohesive set of solutions to address them. The actions of policymakers worldwide are necessary for ensuring the societies are regulated with the help of laws that prevent any discrimination based on gender. Nevertheless, much more remains to be done to reach the desired level of equality since women around the world are denied opportunities that could help them in leading successful and fulfilling lives.

References

Bishu, S., & Alkadry, M. (2017). A systematic review of the gender pay gap and factors that predict it. Administration & Society, 49(1), 65-104.

Fleischmann, F., & Kristen, C. (2014). Gender inequalities in the education of the second generation in Western countries. Sociology of Education, 87(3), 143-170.

Global Partnership for Education. (2019). Girls’ education and gender equality. Web.

Kamrany, N., & Robinson, C. (2012). The global problem of gender inequality. HuffPost. Web.

O’Dowd, A. (2019). Health organizations are slow to tackle gender inequality in workforce, report finds. BMJ, 364, 1084.

OECD. (2018). Gender wage gap. Web.

Payne, S. (2015). The health of women and girls: How can we address gender equality and gender equity? Seminars of Reproductive Medicine, 33(1), 53-60.

UNESCO. (2019). Building teachers’ capacity to promote gender equality in education.Web.

Problem Definition, Evidence, and Alternative

The recovery from the conflict in South Sudan is associated with considerable issues in many sectors, including education. The major challenges related to the development of the educational system are the ongoing violent attacks and natural disasters (Ministry of General Education and Instruction [MoGEI], 2017). Girls remain the most vulnerable group due to the cultural peculiarities of the country that is characterized by patriarchal traditions and practices. Girls tend to be forced to marry at an early age since this is often a way for families to receive profit (Japan International Cooperation Agency [JICA], 2017).

It has been estimated that 76% of girls in the country fail to gain education because of the food crisis and the lasting military conflict (“Education Cluster assessment,” 2018). The lack of schools and inappropriate staffing, difficulty with accessing educational facilities, as well as financial issues families have to address prevent girls from attending schools and higher educational establishments.

The MoGEI developed a plan to address the challenges the educational system faces. The General Education Strategic Plan, 2017-2022 (hereafter also referred to as GESP) is the government’s response to the most burning issues in the sector. The government, in collaboration with international institutions and non-profit organizations, has achieved certain progress. For instance, the functionality of the existing schools increased since 2017 and reached slightly over 80% (“Education Cluster assessment,” 2018).

However, it is also reported that approximately 6,000 schools should be built to ensure an appropriate educational level of the children of South Sudan. At the same time, only 4% of the budget was allocated to the sector, which makes the implementation of the educational plan problematic. This report includes an assessment of The General Education Strategic Plan, 2017-2022 in terms of gender equity.

Criteria

When evaluating policies, it is necessary to start with the identification of criteria to consider. The aspects to analyze the policy under analysis will include efficiency, equality, fairness, justice, equity, freedom, and legality. The strategy in question is a general plan that covers all people with a focus on children. The government stipulates that primary education should be free and mandatory for all children of the corresponding age (“Education Cluster assessment,” 2018). Moreover, some of the major priorities mentioned in the GESP are the provision of more opportunities to females to obtain education at different levels.

An increased interest to such vulnerable groups as girls does not undermine the government’s effort to ensure equality, justice, and freedom. The established priorities are justified by the challenges related to gender (JICA, 2017). Girls do not attend school due to financial issues (families may have no sufficient funds to ensure their children’s transportation to schools) and safety problems (parents are afraid to let their daughters go to school). The legality of the policy is appropriate as the strategy is based on major international standards and the legislation existing in the country.

As far as the efficiency of the GESP is concerned, the plan has numerous drawbacks. One of the major issues related to the strategy is the allocation of funds that seems ineffective. Although the country has to address various challenges, education is one of the priorities, but 4% of the budget can hardly suffice for achieving the established goals. The implementation of any policy depends on the availability of resources and proper allocation of funds (Unsicker, 2013).

The government heavily relies on international financial aid, which is essential under the current circumstances (MoGEI, 2017). Nevertheless, this support should not be the basis of the planned measures. The policy in question needs considerable funding and substantial public support that cannot be achieved without more focus on collaboration with communities and individuals. These two aspects are not properly addressed in the plan, which undermines the efficiency of the policy in question.

Projected Outcomes

The MoGEI set ambitious goals and developed a plan that covered the vast majority of the identified challenges (see Figure 1). By 2021, the government intends to increase female student enrollment to 79% at the primary level (MoGEI, 2017). It is projected to reach an 8% increase in female student enrollment at the secondary level. The government highlights specific steps to achieve these objects by building new schools and liberating existing ones from military groups. The plan also includes initiatives that imply the provision of some commodities (such as food, sanitary products) or financial support to female students.

The construction of diverse types of educational facilities funded by the government and various donors is regarded as an important facilitator of the development of the system. The lack of female teachers is seen as one of the factors contributing to the existing gender inequality, so the government’s attempts to ensure that 40% of primary teachers and 25% of secondary educators will be females by 2021 (MoGEI, 2017). Additional benefits and financial aid are the primary instruments chosen to reach the set goals.

Figure 1. Outcome matrix.

Importantly, the strategy is also characterized by a considerable level of collaboration with different stakeholders, including the public, religious institutions and leaders, and organizations. The primary focus is on discussions, radio broadcasts, and the dissemination of information through official channels. The government also intends to transform education into the platform of peacebuilding in the country.

It is planned to ensure the implementation of campaigns promoting schools and creating an image of the school as a peacebuilding space (MoGEI, 2017). Students, their families, and communities will be involved in the process of rebuilding schools, which will be one of the measures to create the ground for uniting people. The use of media is mentioned as an important component of promotional and informational campaigns.

The policy under discussion is associated with several unintended consequences. For instance, it has been acknowledged that female secondary-school students drop out mainly due to the change of their marital status (“Education Cluster assessment,” 2018). It is also reported that once girls enter primary education, the drop-out rate at the secondary level is comparatively low. Therefore, if the campaigns aimed at raising people’s awareness of the benefits of education and the disadvantages of early marriages are successful, the shortage of secondary schools may be substantial. The target increase in the number of secondary schools will not meet the potential needs of the population. In addition, it can be difficult to forecast the rate of returning people, so the problem of the shortage of schools is likely to be the major problem.

Regarding the emergent features of the strategy in question, it is possible to note that the strategy is characterized by a considerable degree of collaboration and involvement of diverse groups. The government plans to involve international donors, international and local non-profit organizations, communities, individuals, specific groups (such as the faculty, students, parents, educators, researchers, among others) (MoGEI, 2017). This feature can have a positive influence on the outcomes of the plan if it is implemented properly.

Tradeoffs

The evaluation of a policy should include an analysis of tradeoffs that highlight the efficiency of the strategy (Unsicker, 2013). The policy under consideration requires the investment of millions of U.S. dollars. The construction of educational facilities, training of personnel, and development of materials, as well as the implementation of promotional and educational campaigns, need substantial funding. Nevertheless, this investment will pay off in a comparatively short period of time since the country will train people who will contribute to the development of its economy.

The country has significant agricultural potential, but the techniques employed in this sector due to the low qualifications of those employed in agriculture are inefficient. Therefore, increased access to education for females (who constitute a significant part of those working in the sector) will boost the development of agriculture.

The mentioned social benefit (strong economy) will come at a certain private cost related to cultural beliefs and norms. People will have to change their attitude towards early marriages and gender roles. Marriage should not remain an important source of income for families as daughters can contribute more to the development of the community and the entire country if they are properly educated. Domestic violence and violence against women should also be stigmatized and tabooed in South Sudan, which will ensure proper enforcement of the existing laws that presuppose adequate punishment for such crimes but are not enforced effectively.

Decision and Telling the Story

The policy is rather inefficient and unlikely to achieve the established goals since it implies limited funding and does not include sufficient details regarding its implementation. Although the GESP includes quite a detailed description of the major priorities and measures to be undertaken, it lacks attention regarding the allocation of funds, initiatives aimed at promoting certain ideas, and collaborating with other stakeholders (see Figure 2). The implementation of the plan can be hindered by environmental issues and factors related to the military conflict.

In a nutshell, the policy in question highlights important problems to address and many steps that can potentially lead to positive outcomes. However, a written plan, even if it seems effective, does not mean that all the problems will be solved within the set timeline. The GESP only outlines that a certain sum will be spent on grants for girls, but further distribution remains unclear, while the initiatives for female teachers are not highlighted in the cost section at all. Although the strategy includes information concerning the people and institutions regarding the implementation of the incentives, the responsibility of these stakeholders is not properly highlighted. In simple terms, no one can guarantee that the funds will reach the target population, and the programs will be implemented properly (see Figure 2).

Policy Implementation as the Major Issue

As mentioned above, the policy in question can hardly be implemented properly due to certain operational and cultural gaps. The responsibilities of the stakeholders, especially when it comes to supervision and control, are not described in detail. The measures to ensure people’s adherence to the plan are not highlighted. The policy is not supported by laws and regulations that would make the implementation of the strategy possible.

The preparation of female teachers completely lacks any operational details (budget, responsibilities, laws, and norms). The educational sector is considerably damaged, and the allocated costs will not suffice to achieve the major goals. The government will have to address donors, which is associated with substantial risks since the amount of provided help is difficult to predict. Moreover, the social tension is still substantial, which may result in a new wave of violence. Finally, existing cultural norms are unlikely to be changed in a short-term perspective with the help of promotional campaigns since laws and their appropriate enforcement could facilitate the process.

Policy Evaluation

Although the program is developed for a period of five years (from 2017 to 2022), some results and outcomes can be evaluated, and operational aspects should be analyzed. The public still sees the gender gap in education as an almost unaddressed issue (Munene & Wambiya, 2019). The economic situation in the country and cultural norms are regarded as the central challenges to solving the issue. People admit that some steps are being made by the government and other stakeholders, but these measures are still insufficient. Girls are forced into early marriages, they have to rear children and focus on households rather than obtain an education, their families do not have resources to access schools (due to food, transportation, and safety issues).

The policy had an impact on the educational system and people’s views on the matter. Female student enrolment is steadily increasing, and such initiatives as food and financial aid to female students and their families have proved to be effective (“Education Cluster assessment,” 2018; Karani, 2019). If the GESP had not been implemented, the rate of females in schools would have been lower. However, some challenges mentioned as emergent issues have occurred as people are witnessing an increased interest in education and the educational system’s inability to cater for the demand (Karani, 2019). Schools cannot provide high-quality services to all students who want to receive these services. Moreover, the program is not implemented in strict accordance with the design, which leads to a lack of resources.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is necessary to state that The General Education Strategic Plan, 2017-2022 only partially achieved the established goals in terms of the effort aimed at decreasing the gender gap. Although some improvements are obvious, the allocated funds could have been managed more effectively. The lack of attention to its implementation and supervision over outcomes has led to the policy’s results. The lack of laws and their enforcement is one of the most serious issue s to be addressed. These laws should support the changes in the educational structure, and should also lead to the shifts in cultural norms related to gender roles (see Figure 3).

References

Education Cluster assessment: South Sudan. (2018). Web.

Japan International Cooperation Agency. (2017). Country gender profile: Republic of South Sudan: Final report. Web.

Karani, Z. (2019). Education keeps girls in school and out of early marriage in South Sudan. World Vision. Web.

Ministry of General Education and Instruction. (2017). The general education strategic plan, 2017-2022. Web.

Munene, I. I., & Wambiya, P. (2019). Bridging the gender gap through gender difference: Aiding patriarchy in South Sudan education reconstruction. Africa Education Review, 16(5), 86-101. Web.

Unsicker, J. (2013). Confronting power: The practice of policy advocacy. Sterling, VA: Kumarian Press.

Abstract

In this post, I consider a particular aspect of gender inequality: the issue of the unbalanced distribution of paid and unpaid work. I examine the idea of work-and-life balance that is proposed as a solution to the problem of having a family and career at the same time and point out the fact that it is typically discussed concerning women. This issue is supported by the statistics, which proves that women are loaded with unpaid work to a greater extent.

I conclude by suggesting that the tipped balance affects the career opportunities of women and also consider the impact that this typical discriminatory practice has on the process of promoting equality in the modern world. I provide examples and references for the facts that are cited in the post.

Women in the Workforce

Nowadays, diversity and tolerance courses are exceptionally popular and even required at schools and universities, but they do not appear to produce the expected effect. Education should form attitudes of generations, and inequality is not supposed to have survived by now, but it persists. An example is the issue of gender inequality; in particular, that related to women in the workforce. Inequality is a very complex issue, and I cannot explain its persistence exhaustively, but here, I will attempt to take a look at some of its reasons by examining the concept of work-and-life balance.

In effect, a lot is being made to close the nearly 20-percent wage gap¹ between women and men in Canada (Zamon, 2015), and one of such activities is described in the article by Alonso-Almeida (2014). This activity can be called the maintenance of the work-and-life balance, and this idea keeps receiving praise from researchers.² However, I believe that this method was planted on the soil of discriminatory, sexist society, and its positive effects are limited.

The balance is most often used concerning women. Consider the words of Jennifer Reynolds, chief executive officer of Women in Capital Markets of Canada: “work-life balance is not specifically a women’s issue, but it is one that needs to be talked about more openly because it does hold women back” (Freeman, 2015, para. 12). There is a very clear explanation for the fact that the family holds women back: family and home-making are still the “prerogatives” of women.

Most of us like children, clean houses, and homemade meals. However, according to statistics, a particular group of particular sex typically exploits the opposite one to attain these goods. Nowadays, there exists a distinction between the paid (profession-related) and unpaid (clean house, fed children) work. The work-and-life balance is the practice that is meant to deal with paid work (Kimura, 2016). To ridicule, no employer will create a schedule of house chores for you; they are a part of the “life” side of the balance. At the same time, according to official statistics, women in Canada spend 1.5 times³ more hours on this unpaid work (Milan, Keown, & Urquijo, 2015, para. 51).

In other words, the work-and-life balance is tipped differently for women: they are loaded with the unpaid work to a greater extent than men, and this issue is connected to the fact that less than 60%⁴ of the working-age women were employed in 2009 (Ferrao, 2015, para. 1). It is difficult to find a balance when there are some extra weights on the scale, and it is not surprising that many women simply do not try, settling for low-wage jobs or none at all.

I am not implying that everyone must be pursuing career opportunities, but this issue of unbalanced scales does exist. Given this tendency that remains typical in modern society, it is not surprising that diversity courses produce dissatisfactory results, and inequality persists: it simply begins at home.

References

Alonso-Almeida, M. (2014). Women (and mothers) in the workforce: Worldwide factors. Women’s Studies International Forum, 44, 164-171. Web.

Ferrao, V. (2015). Paid Work. Web.

Freeman, S. (2015). For Working Women, A More Attainable Goal (If Their Families Will Allow It). Huffington Post. Web.

Kimura, D. (2016). Work and Life Balance “If We Are Not Happy Both in Work and out of Work, We Cannot Provide Happiness to Others”. Frontiers In Pediatrics, 4, 1-2. Web.

Milan, A., Keown, L.-A., & Urquijo, C. R. (2015). Families, Living Arrangements and Unpaid Work. Web.

Zamon, R. (2015). The Gender Pay Gap In Canada Is Twice The Global Average. Huffington Post. Web.

1. Based on the data from Catalyst Canada statistics (Zamon, 2015).
2. See Alonso-Almeida (2014) and Kimura (2016) for more information.
3. Based on official data from Statistics Canada (Milan et al., 2015).
4. Based on the official data from Statistics Canada (Ferrao, 2015).

Literature Review

One of the problems that every woman faces in a family business is that of succession. There are various approaches to succession in the family business. Ward (2016) believes that it depends on the model of the family and singles out eight models. In the model of Royal Families, the right to lead the business belongs to the oldest son. As a rule, he is the first child to enter the business. Besides, in such families, daughters are often excluded from the business and have to make a career elsewhere. This model contradicts the modern tendency for equal opportunities for women. In the model of Anarchical Families, there are no clear rules of succession. All children have equal rights and voices in the business. Moreover, the children are not obliged to join a family business; this model gives freedom for women to decide their destiny. Laissez-Faire Families are similar to anarchical family, but they usually plan to sell the family company because they believe that their children should start a business of their own. In this model children of both sexes will get equal shares. In Social Democratic Families parents provide equal opportunities for all their children. If children enter the business, they share equal titles and are equal partners.

If they choose not to join the business, they get equivalent assets. Democratic Capitalist Families consider that everyone gets what one deserves. Thus, the benefits from the business are shared according to the contribution. Representative Democracy Families prefer appointing a trustee to run the business instead of the family. The equity among the family members is provided through equal shares. In Pure Capitalist or Entrepreneurial Families, the founder of the company believes that no one can follow him. Thus, the owner does not choose a successor and usually sells the business. The Utopian Families consider a business a great resource for building an empire and a strong family. This system benefits all family members. Every family member can enter the business, but it needs hard work.

The report of the Family Business Center of Excellence (2015) suggests then study of female representation in the biggest world family businesses. The report states that 55% of the 525 examined companies have a minimum of one woman on their board (Family Business Center of Excellence, 2015). Besides, 70% of the family businesses are thinking of a woman as a possible next CEO candidate. Moreover, it is reported that the interest of women in joining family businesses increased during the last three years. The figures prove that the involvement of female family members to the leading roles in companies has some economic sense. The examples here are that “companies with more women in leadership increase focus on corporate governance, corporate responsibility, talent dynamics, and market acuity” (Family Business Center of Excellence, 2015, p. 3) and the fact that a gender-balanced board is usually identified with better corporate social performance. Nevertheless, despite some progress in this issue, female participation in a family business is still a challenge all over the world.

Koffi, Guihur, Morris, and Fillion (2014) investigate the peculiarities of bringing the credibility of successors in the family business by male and female predecessors. The research revealed both similarities and differences in this issue. There is only one common behavior observed in how men and women increase the credibility of their successor. It is the accreditation. It is stated that women select the successor basing on “confidence, organized to inspire them, putting an accent on teamwork” (Koffi et al., 2014, p. 73), in other words, it can be called maternal leadership. Male predecessors tend to control the successors, make them prove their worth, and demonstrate “the didactic type of work” (Koffi et al., 2014, p. 73). Considering the information above, male predecessors prefer men as their successors, while women do not demonstrate a distinct preference. This fact can become one more challenge for women who want to enter a family business.

Theoretical Framework

Since the study combines two big issues, those of family business and gender inequality, the theories that will help to examine the problems that women face in the family business have to cover both subjects. The theoretical framework of the study includes a family business theory, theory of justice, and theory of social and gender roles. A family business theory presupposes that the leading positions in the company should be occupied by the family members. It means that there are family representatives both in the Board of Directors and the top management. Thus the issue of succession is important, particularly when there are two and more children in the family. The theory of justice presupposes that every individual is supposed to have equal rights. Concerning a family business, it means that any child, if he or she desires, should have the right to enter a family company. The theory of social and gender roles applies to the family business when a woman wants to join it. Sometimes male family members create barriers appealing to the fact that historically women’s role is to be a wife and a mother while men should make a living. Fortunately, these prejudices become less popular. However, there are still many problems that women face in a family business.

References

Family Business Center of Excellence. (2015). Women in leadership: The family business advantage. Web.

Koffi, V., Guihur, I., Morris, T., & Fillion, G. (2014). Family businesses succession: How men and women predecessors can bring credibility to their successors? Entrepreneurial Executive, 19, 67-85.

Ward, J.L. (2016). Keeping the family business healthy: How to plan for continuing growth, profitability, and family leadership. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.

Introduction

The struggle for female rights has come a long way from the past century. It may be hard to believe now, but before 1919, it was considered a crime for women to wear trousers. Women had no voting rights, little to no property rights, and no protection from physical abuse in their own household. Through those struggles for equality and against abuse, modern women can now enjoy the rights they deserve. However, the struggle is not over yet. Gender inequality still exists in many different shapes and forms, ranging from blatant disregard for basic human rights in some areas of the world to traditionalist enforcement of gender roles and stereotyping and sexualization of females. While progress is being made, we are still a long way away from true equality that many women around the world are struggling for. This paper is dedicated to analyzing modern female disparities in different areas of the world.

Gender Inequality in Europe and the USA

Most countries of the First World, such as European states and the USA, are leading the world’s march towards equality between men and women. The laws of these countries generally do not discriminate between genders, meaning that, on the paper at least, men and women are equal (Fernandez 40). However, problems still exist. Traditionalist views on gender roles still exist and are reinforced by religious beliefs to some degree. The Catholic Church, which is prominent in the USA and has influence in many European countries, has largely formed modern western sexual morality and gender roles. The Church itself remains a domain largely dominated by males, with the head of the Catholic Church, the Pope, always being male (Fernandez 67). Other disparities that females have to face is the alleged wage gap, which remains a controversial subject for many researchers. Some researchers on gender studies affirm the existence of a wage gap between men and women standing at about 20%, while other researchers find that the discrepancy can have numerous economic explanations other than prejudice and gender inequality (Fernandez 43). In western societies, women tend to be underrepresented in such key areas as the police, military, and the government – these areas tend to be male-dominated, despite the fact that the laws technically allow for equal opportunity for both genders to apply for these roles (Fernandez 50).

Gender Inequality in Asia (China, Japan, India)

Many countries in Asia are currently in their economic development stages. They are quickly adopting many western practices, technologies, and laws, which include progressive laws that promote equality between men and women. However, there are many obstacles that stand in the way. Many leading Asian countries, such as China, India, and Japan, have deep-seated and ancient traditions rooted in their culture (Kaufman 586). These traditions reserve the females a role of a housekeeper and place severe restrictions on what a woman should do or aspire to. While these restrictions are not obligatory for every female to follow, the rest of society views independence and personal ambitions negatively. In Japan, for example, it is very hard for unmarried women to find work, and single working women have trouble marrying (Kaufman 590). In addition to that, some countries still promote inequality despite the laws clearly being against it. Proof of that can be found in India, where half of the judges think it is acceptable for a husband to beat up his wife, despite it clearly being against the law. On the other hand, violence against men is treated as assault and battery (Kaufman 601). Females are rarely present in any government structures and occupy the less-paid segments of the labor market.

Gender Inequality in Africa and the Middle East

In Africa and the Middle East, the situation with gender inequality is, perhaps, the worst, and showcases the worst traits of patriarchy that gender equality movements are fighting against. The laws and customs of the countries located in Africa and the Middle East are shaped by many factors. These factors are:

• Religion. The dominant religion of the region is Islam. It is a very strict religion with numerous rules and customs that diminish women and rob them of their rights. Women are forced to wear hijabs and can be condemned to being stoned to death for adultery (Tomescu and Trofin 76).
• Traditions. Many countries in the Middle East uphold ancient and outdated traditions that diminish women’s rights and spread inequality between women and men. Some of these traditions include marriage. In Saudi Arabia, for example, women are often married to men they do not even know, due to family traditions of choosing husbands for their daughters. Men, on the other hand, retain the right to choose their own spouses (Tomescu and Trofin 125).
• Laws. Some of the laws in the Middle East are clearly unfair towards women. Even in relatively secular countries of Saudi Arabia and the UAE, women are not allowed to drive a car, are forced into wearing hijabs, and require permission from their husbands in order to attend any invasive medical procedures such as surgeries. Women are not officially present in any government structure. While some of them, such as Princess Ameerah Al-Taweel, have a modicum of influence due to their position and are actively advocating for equality and women’s rights, the majority of women do not have such possibilities. Until 2015, women in Saudi Arabia were not allowed to vote (Tomescu and Trofin 149).
• War. During a war, the laws are silent. Numerous countries in Africa and the Middle East are currently in turmoil, as various dictatorships were toppled as the result of Arab Spring revolts. During a military conflict, inequality and injustices against women are always on the rise, as women are often unable to defend themselves from violence (Tomescu and Trofin 97).

In Africa, the situation is slightly different. The influence of Islam on local traditions and attitudes towards women is obvious, but at the same time, most African states do not have the same amount of resources as countries in the Middle East. Without economic prosperity, many of them degenerated into anarchy and lawlessness, as it could be seen in Somalia, Nigeria, and other African states. Without a stable government to enforce the laws and promote equality, society reverted to patriarchal clan-like structures, where women retain very little in terms of equality and freedom (Tomescu and Trofin 285). In rural parts of the continent, various indigenous people live in tribes, their level of societal development being very low. Talks of women’s rights and gender equality in these tribes are nonexistent.

Conclusions

While the presence and scope of inequality in First World countries are up for debate, the majority of the world still allows for discrepancy towards females to continue. The situation in Asia and the Middle East remains unjust and disadvantageous for more than 1 billion women, who are denied work, marriage, dignity, and even basic human rights. This situation demands greater action towards equality between men and women everywhere. While the first fighters for equality and women’s rights made a great difference in the past century, there is plenty of work cut out for modern equality movements around the world.

Works Cited

Fernandez, Raquel. “Women’s Rights and Development.” Journal of Economic

Growth, vol. 19, no. 1, 2014, pp. 37-80.

Kaufman, Joan. “The Global Women’s Movement and Chinese Women’s Rights.”

Journal of Contemporary China, vol. 21, no. 76, 2012, pp. 585-602.

Tomescu, Madalina and Liliana Trofin. Women’s Rights in the Middle East. Addleton

Academic Publishers, 2010.

Introduction

Sexual category or gender is an ingredient of the wider socio-cultural framework that encompasses the societal attributes and opportunities connected with individual male and female and the conduit between women and men and girls and boys, comparable with the dealings linking women and those between men. These qualities, opportunities and affairs are developed in a social milieu and also acquired through socialization course of action. They are circumstance events that can be altered. Femininity establishes what is expected, allowed and valued in a women or a man in a given context. Inequality disparities do exist between women and men in terms of responsibilities allocated, activities undertaken, admittance to and enclosed power over possessions, on top of managerial opportunities (Hartmann. Heidi, 1990).

Background

Hypothetical definitions gyrating around inequalities focus around the initiative of an identical allocation of possessions that are described as socially feasible and are centered on deviations from this theory in the form of collective inequalities (Reskin, B. F., 2006).

Women’s undoing in comparison to men’s in this respect, belong to the most implacable structural facial appearance of traditional but also of contemporary societies. To construct a dissimilarity that involve mere differences flanked by women and men and inequality, it is indispensable to present a definition of (gender-based) inequalities which is not controlled by hypothetical assumptions (Reskin, B. F., 2006).

Social disparities consist of socially generated, unwavering precincts for social groups to the access of sought-after goods and the probabilities of life, which are acknowledged, in the general public. To be able to comprehend gender inequalities, a specific aspect of this designation must be accentuated, these probabilities incorporate the abilities to define and realise goals and life projects in a sovereign way irrespective of their wide-ranging social approval (Reskin, B. F., 2006). This endorsement is the basis for the sociological investigation of societal inequality, and also for the feminist theory and research. It also makes clear to focus the theories of inequality not only in the light of distribution of resources and goods, commonly considered precious; thus education, a good job, upward social mobility, leisure etc. It is imperative to consider the attitudes, wishes and life plans, which can be realized by men and women although may diverge essentially between them (Lazreg, M, 1994).

Gender roles

Gender roles are learned behavior in a given society, community or social group in which people are conditioned to perceive activities, tasks and responsibilities as male or female. These perceptions are affected by age, class, race, ethnicity, culture, religion, or other ideologies and by the geographical, economical and political environment (Hartmann. Heidi, 1990). Changes in gender roles often occur in response to changing economic, natural or political circumstances, including development efforts; structural adjustment or other nationally or internationally based forces. The gender roles of men and women within a given social context may be flexible or rigid, similar or different, and complementary or conflicting (Hartmann. Heidi, 1990). Both women and men play multiple roles- productive, reproductive and community management – in society. Usually perceived as breadwinners, men are able to devote more time to a single productive role, and play their multiple roles one at a time. In contrast to men women are often seen as secondary wage earners. They must play their roles simultaneously and balance competing claims on their limited time. Women’s work time and flexibility are therefore much more constrained than has been the case for men. Since men and women have historically played different roles in society, they often face very different cultural, institutional, physical and economic constraints, many of which are rooted in systematic biases and discrimination (Hartmann. Heidi, 1990).

Modern feminist investigation has haggard on both power and moral types of enlightenment in order to investigate offensive distinctions approximately, unanimously made and flanked by men’s and women’s social labor and social arrangement, and constructing of the dissection labor by femininity has taken in industrialized societies.

Power variations are apparent in the way the structure of industrial construction for many years existed together with, and debatably dependent upon the domestication of women and their voluntary household labour. Consistent inequalities of remuneration and categorization of labour markets into areas of men’s and women’s work are vanishing away with time (Wright, E.O, 1990). It is evident that women have been explicitly segregated from the policy legislative frameworks and the political diaspora, despite the contemporary advancement in our very existence (Wright, E.O, 1990). Philosophical mores of superiority have been propagated even at places of work, under the speculations of ideologies of family, myths of romantic love, motherhood responsibilities and the innate disparities flanked by the two sexes that have relentlessly been touted by the boys and girls. In essence this has hampered the political certainty in terms of undermining the plight of women (Wright, E.O, 1990).

Exploitation of Women labour

Women in most cases have been vulnerable to cheap labour; employees have been particularly interested in cheap working force (Wright, E.O et.al, 1995). They have gone an extra mile to enhance the hierarchical delineation in enhancing a recruiting muscle for cheap labor. A representative example for this assemblage in a gender-specific background is the state of affair of women workers, especially in areas with a lack or shortage of work places. Public mores are centered in maintaining of traditional boundaries between the genders by state regulations, which reduce the life chances of women (Lazreg, M, 1994). Distinguished examples are the rejection of a charter at the inauguration of the century and the defiance of access to universities (Wright, E.O et.al, 1995). Customary abortion laws, off-putting family law and other policies fashioned by predictable philosophy as well as plummeting life likelihood and independence of women consecrate some of the examples that indicate male biasness against women. Private orthodoxy is consequences of conventional orientations, which have not been institutionalized in public precinct, although, the impeccable norms and dispositions are legally binding in the frame of action with inauspicious consequences for women (Wright, E.O et.al, 1995).

Socialization and educational careers of girls has been influenced greatly, substantial efforts have been geared towards more balanced society, although girls are still confronted in many respects with gender stereotypes. Asymmetric swap over characterize inequitable criteria and measures bias the exchange system (Wright, E.O, 1990). Division of work within a home is the most imperative evidence of this mechanism. Initially the discipline was dominated by traditionalism, although in our contemporary family set-up the unparalleled division is not legitimized by tradition but by evaluation of the different contributions of men and women. The wage earner mock-up is taken as a good reason for the abstaining of men in domestic maintenance; this allows them to enhance their privileged position in the labor market (Wright, E.O, 1990).

Depression in communications has been a mode of communication that has been used in most constellations and also on interaction processes confirms, a stratagem enhanced by men as an end in itself by propagating pre-eminence and authority over women. This collection is separate from precise institutions disciplines and can be of consequence also in situations of understanding, in employment and in unspecified contexts (Reskin, B. F., 2006).

Labor Market

To comprehend the labor market and employment, it could be noted that fragmentation is widely inherent in most groups, which harbors particular interest; from their frame of reference (Wright, E.O1990). It is evident that working class women have dealt with precarious work conditions and minimal pay; middle-class women’s disadvantage emanates from the denial of advancement. This combination of interest makes it intricate for women to put up a combined distinctiveness tilted towards perfection and correspondence. Lazreg, M (1994).

The most important requisite for joint proceedings are deficient, whereas the interests of the discriminators are glowingly dined and structured. Company administration is engrossed in low-priced labor force and they exploit social differences to achieve this.

Patronization of considered positions or supremacy over certified disciplines is a male welfare, hence the prohibiting of women. Trade unions often supported these male workers. There are not only prejudiced groups but also other groups that benefit from the situation (Wright, E.O, 1990). The weaknesses of women’s verbalization in this field and the potency of counter interests are also the cause of the half-heartedness and vagueness of state conventions (Wright, E.O, 1990).

The distanced scenario of women in their families and the increasingly individualized situation of life make attempts towards collective organization very intricate.

Domestic affairs and honouring family duties, reconciling employment and family under unfavorable backgrounds are complex and time consuming. In retrospect women have adopted conservative norms and attitudes as a reaction toward the persistent culture, thus enhancing the consignment of gender stereotypes (Reskin, B. F., 2006).

Gender inequalities: empirical facts and tendencies

Disparities flanked by genders represent a detached element of inequality and all-encompassing theory for allotment of life probability, which is not attributable to a single cause. The employment structure and the family set-up are the most outstanding disciplines, which reflect a biased discriminatory move of gender inequalities (Hartmann. Heidi, 1990). Discrimination against women has been well advocated in the labor force, the domineering egoistic male has categorically targeted women as vulnerable entities. The labor market has structured stratums for women in lower portfolios (vertical segregation) and in diverse areas of employment (horizontal separation); the supranational axioms have both constituted to a vicious cycle of perfected inequalities. Moreover, these tendencies have culminated into well-documented concurrencies in terms of women and the political amalgam (Hartmann. Heidi, 1990). This diversified paradigm of gender inequality is not only in terms of distributing women in different places of work. They have also been disadvantaged in the education curriculums and employment positions as men. They have been coupled by gender specific anomalies such as promotion precincts, in regard to position allotment that is not reflected in their area of academic specialization (Lazreg, M, 1994).

The aspect of household and family life also concerns the issue of inequality that links between genders (Acker. J, 1990). Separate from their employment positions, women are much more answerable for family and housework than men. The obligation of mothers in taking care of their children is a philosophical connotation that is widely practiced (Acker. J, 1990).

Child-care is not the only aspect of prejudiced relations or roles in private life (Lazreg, M, 1994). Daily housework and accountability for members of a domestic setup, when combined with contribution in paid work, leads to a whole quantity of operational time which cannot be compared with the time budget of men. These unfavorable conditions in employment and in the discriminatory family scenario revolves around a underprivileged circumstances in supplementary life spheres, above all the access of leisure activities and involvement in public life (Hartmann. Heidi, 1990).

In the educational domain, gender-related inequalities have been reduced in a remarkable way. The educational heights of the contemporary society indicate that women have realized substantial magnitudes that have leveled men’s achievements (Hartmann. Heidi, 1990). The incorporation of state policies have helped to achieve this figures, however, gender inequalities have still been enhanced through segregation in educational systems and the under representation of women in technical studies followed by well known negative consequences in the labour market (Lazreg, M, 1994).

Besides, many challenges conflict in diverse areas, where institutionalization of equal prospective laws and the prominence of policies and programmes touting gender inequalities are perfected in myriad dimensions, consequently, gender separation in the employment market, income differences and also the division of labor is stage managed in this frame of reference. Hartmann. Heidi (1990). This scenario is very analogous in European countries. For that reason, the social development of women is determined through unfounded tendencies; a predisposition en route for equalization in many areas of life finds its precincts in structures of conventional dissection of work in families and households, pooled with the resolution of conventional stereotypes (Lazreg, M, 1994).

References

1. Lazreg, M (1994). The Eloquence of Silence: Algerian Women in Question. New York: Rutledge.
2. Acker. J (1990) Class, Gender and Relations of Distribution: vol 10, 24-45
3. Hartmann. Heidi (1990) Capitalism, patriarchy, and Job segregation by Sex. Women and workplace; Chicago; 50-62
4. Reskin, B. F. (2006). Including Mechanisms in our Models of Ascriptive
5. Inequality: American Sociological Review, vol. 60, 11-31.
6. Walby. S (1990). Theorizing Patriarchy. Oxford, Cambridge/Mass.
7. Wright, E.O et.al (1995). The Gender Gap in the Work Place Supremacy: American sociological review: vol 30, 46-56
8. Wright, E.O (1990). Women in the Class Structure. Politics and Society; vol 17,35-66

Oppression against women has many faces; the phenomenon has found numerous representations in modern culture. When considering the origin of the issue, many people point to religion as the source of inequality.

The many facets of the subject matter, however, beg the question of whether it is rooted in religion or tradition. Seeing that the effects of the two factors are reciprocal, it can be assumed that, though both have had a tangible impact on the contemporary representation of women in the society, traditions have a significantly higher negative effect. While religious beliefs may have sparked the concept of gender superiority, traditions reinforce it, thus, contributing to the increase in gender biases.

A closer look at the way in which tradition affects the perception of gender and gender roles will show that it prevents reconceptualizing the role of women in modern society. Furthermore, the idea of gender roles flexibility seems alien to the traditionally patriarchal society. Therefore, it can be assumed that societal standards and traditions reinforce the concepts that may have been suggested by the misinterpretation of certain religious postulates (Agadjanian & Yabiku, 2015).

For instance, traditions have had an impressive impact on the development of women’s societal status in Zimbabwe: “These are related to the Human Capital Theory that gives insight into the value placed on both female and male children hence perpetuating the discriminatory practices of whom best to send to school” (Mushibwe, 2014, p. 76). The identified phenomenon indicates quite clearly that traditions define the role of women in the target society, restricting their education opportunities and, therefore, preventing them from playing any other roles apart from childrearing and housekeeping.

As a result, women are deprived of an opportunity to not only endeavor at excelling in other areas but also building a different image of a woman in the identified society. Consequently, the persistent image of a female personality as that one of a mother and a wife remains the only available opportunity. It would be wrong to claim that the said roles should be looked down at or dismissed as diminishing for women – quite on the contrary, the said options also allow women to fulfill themselves. That being said, women must be provided with a chance to choose between the specified options; otherwise, the issue of gender equality will remain unresolved.

Religion, in turn, only provides the premises for the development of the said behaviors and attitudes. One must admit that there are certain patriarchal tendencies in some of the religious philosophies; the said principles do not imply the superiority of one gender over another. For instance, Agadjanian and Yabiku (2015) explain that “women’s religious devotion is fully compatible with empowerment” (Agadjanian & Yabiku, 2015, p. 462).

In other words, religion does not enable one group to oppress another based on specific merits and characteristics; quite on the contrary, essential religious postulates typically revolve around reconciliation and conflict resolution as opposed to following militant actions foisted onto people by the rigid traditions that have been formed over centuries. Therefore, religion should not be viewed as the source of gender oppression and inequality; instead, problematic socio-cultural traditions should be examined as the likely source of gender biases that persist in contemporary society.

It should be borne in mind, though, that religion implies that the roles of men and women should be delineated very carefully and precisely, thus, providing very little space for any possible deviations. As a result, the prerequisites for the development of the societal standards and traditions that restrict women’s independence are built. That being said, religion does not suggest that certain members of the population should be discriminated against, belittled, or abused in any other way based on their specific characteristics. Quite on the opposite, religion often promotes fair treatment of all people; therefore, reinforcing the ideas of compromise, compassion, and cooperation in the community (Nyhagen & Halsaa, 2016).

Therefore, claiming that either religion or tradition should be blamed for the promotion of gender inequality in modern society would be wrong. Instead, the two concepts need to be considered in tandem. Seeing that both factors have had a tangible impact on the development of the current attitudes toward women all over the world, it would be reasonable to consider both religion and tradition as the source of the current issues in the relationships between the representatives of the two genders.

Furthermore, the fact that traditions have a significant impact on the development of men’s and women’s roles in society indicates that there is a need to reconsider the current approach toward traditions as something that defines a nation or any other group of people. Instead of being viewed as the factors that restrict the further evolution in the communication between the two genders, one should consider religion and traditions as the tools for introducing the principles of diversity and tolerance into the contemporary society, therefore, improving the communication process, reducing the number of conflicts, and promoting equality.

References

Agadjanian, V., & Yabiku, S. T. (2015). Religious belonging, religious agency, and women’s autonomy in Mozambique. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 54(3), 461-476. Web.

Mushibwe, C. P. (2014). What are the effects of cultural traditions on the education of women? The study of the Tumbuka people of Zambia. Hamburg: Anchor Academic Publishing.

Nyhagen, L., & Halsaa, B. (2016). Religion, gender and citizenship: Women of faith, gender equality and feminism. New York, NY: Springer.

Gender Equity Issues

Gender inequality especially among women is the major problem, in this case, considering Jane’s allegations towards most of the activities conducted within the institution. To establish the accuracy of the allegations raised as a group, the factors to ensuring the retrieval of the correct information about the issue in question are the involvement of all members of the administration and integrating all their views in the findings. This is an important step. Therefore, the discussion topic will be as discrete as possible to ensure that there is no further debate after the meeting. Information collection is a progressive process; therefore, it has to start from gathering obvious issues relating to the problem in question.

From my point of view, the major problem could be the perception women have about men being considered superior to them, which might not be the case. In my opinion, it is not true that men are superior to women, but to some extent, the women are to blame since they do not fight for opportunities that arise as some have ‘traditional mindsets’ that some jobs are for men. They should as well rise and give men a challenge in fighting for any available position that comes their way. I believe that Jane made the right decision by telling Derry her concerns. This voluntary approach is an important principle to addressing gender equity issues as it creates attention for issues not considered crucial. Even with these allegations, it is significant to establish the truth about the matter. In this case, the initial step is to conduct some preliminary investigations into the allegations to establish some ideas before approaching any member of the team as well as the director.

Information retrieved from another person, a third party, in this case, may not be accurate enough to establish a foundation for any matter. Gathering information is the best way to go, and the initial step will be surveying the administration of the institution to determine the ratio of men to women. Given that the entire process requires time and a lot of confidentiality, asking the human resource directorate such records might not be easier. Since it is a confidential investigation, making any follow up with Gerry or approaching the director might not be appropriate. Also, involving members at this initial stage might not be right, as it might create some conflict between Jane and Gerry over a feeling of betrayal. Information gathering is crucial as it gives the details on how these issues were raised by Jane started within the institution. Moreover, it offers clues on how to answer any question posted by either the directors or the leadership team should such arise (Ruben & Jurow, 2012).

During the meetings, it is important to note the frequency at which women air their views to validate Jane’s claims. Another issue to consider during the meeting is whether the members take the views into concern. Notably, sharing the information with others before conducting preliminary investigations might create a heated debate within the institution. This might also risk the integrity of information collection, especially when there was the involvement of bureaucracy while giving opportunities to some people. As a result, the department responsible for choosing employees and locating duties may distort the evidence required to establish the background of the problem. Besides, Jane would feel directly responsible for the discussion caused by the debate. Another risk of sharing information is that it may cause many problems especially when the men given managerial duties are more than the women within the institution (Ruben & Jurow, 2012). At this point, women might begin fighting for equal slots.

After assessing the situation and establishing some information, I will ensure I follow four steps before tabling the issue for discussion. The initial stage is reviewing why this investigation is important. It is essential to review everything that Gerry said before branding one of them as a ‘problem ‘within the institution. After review, it is important to conduct some preliminary investigation to assist in understanding this issue of gender equity. Analysis of the findings will follow to ensure the accuracy of the information retrieved. In the last step, the authentication step, I will decide whether it is worth tabling for discussion based on the outcomes of the analysis.

If Jane’s allegations were to be true, then the first step would be to involve the director of the institution, as the scenario touches on the rights of female workers. This will help create strategies that will ensure the promotion of equal opportunities irrespective of gender or administrative responsibility. Mainstreaming gender issues is crucial. As a result, the long-term strategy of creating equal opportunity is to encourage women to fight for these positions equally as men provided they have the qualifications required (Ruben & Jurow, 2012). To achieve this, it is imperative to formulate shared objectives that seek to promote gender equality in the workplace. Markedly, a short-term way of addressing the issue is to form a task force headed by a woman with equal slots. In this approach, women will establish recommendations to resolve the issue. Additionally, the administration has the responsibility and commitment to spearheading gender mainstreaming within the institution. This would assist to draw various talents and ideas from the pool of available human resources, thus reducing the gender gap within the institution. Fighting for gender equality in the institution will show its commitment to fulfilling the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) that seek to address gender issues globally.

Reference

Ruben, B. D., & Jurow, S. (2012). Reginald Murphy College Case Study: Gender Equity Issues. In Leading in Tough Times Workbook (pp. 34-39). Washington, DC: NACUBO.

The values on the Gender Inequality Index of the three GCC countries in the Table 1

The Gender Inequality Index is the term that refers to the measure of gender inequalities, as well as the losses to human development of a particular nation caused by those. The index can take values from zero to one, where zero stands for no disparities between women and men, and one implies the total inequality. Three countries I have chosen for the analysis are the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia.

According to the table, the United Arab Emirates is the 40th country in the GII Ranking 2012 (the first country on this list has the lowers GII value while the last one is associated with the greatest gender inequality in the world). The GII of the UAE is 0.241. In Kuwait, the situation is slightly worse. The GII there is 0.274, and the country goes 47th on the list mentioned above. As for Saudi Arabia, it is one of the several nations located at the bottom of the GII Rank. It goes under the number 145 on the list, where the maximum number is 148. Only three more countries have higher Gender Inequality Indexes. Those are Niger (0.707), Afghanistan (0.712), and Yemen (0.747). Saudi Arabia has not gone far from those, and its GII is 0.682.

The reasons for the differences in the values of the index in the three GCC countries

First of all, differences between GIIs of these three countries are caused by divergences in values that constitute the Gender Inequality Index as such. There are three of them: reproductive health, particularly maternal mortality, empowerment, made up by the percentage of women in the parliament and the percentage of those with secondary education, and, finally, the labor market participation that is determined by the proportion of women in the labor force.

These values for the United Arab Emirates are the following: maternal mortality per a hundred thousand women is 12, the percentage of females in the parliament is 17.5%, 73 women out of a hundred have secondary education, and almost the half (43.5%) of the labor force is constituted by women. As for Kuwait, maternal mortality rate and the percentage of females in the labor force are mainly the same as those of the UAE: 14 women per 100,000 and 47% respectively. However, the ratio of women in the parliament is noticeably lower (7.7%), and that explains why the GII of Kuwait is slightly higher than the one of the UEA.

Finally, parameters that determine the GII of Saudi Arabia differ significantly. Maternal mortality in this country is rather high (24 women per 100,000), and while more than the half of women (60.5%) have secondary education, only 13% of the labor force is taken by females. Consequently, that explains why the Gender Inequality Index is so high in Saudi Arabia.

In broader terms, the differences between GIIs of these countries are caused by their cultures, religions, histories, etc. Religion is hardly an issue here since all three countries are Islamic, and their holy book does not state that females must cover all their bodies, except for the eyes. Still, the majority of the population in Saudi Arabia claim they must. Another potential reason for differences in GIIs is history.

The most significant changes in the lives of women in Kuwait and the UEA happened when these two countries discovered oil in 1950-1960. That is when females got more opportunities outside their homes and families, began to think about their own literacy and health. Nevertheless, Saudi Arabia also has its share of the world’s reserves of oil. Then, why has not it tried to expand the role of women as well? Perhaps, the point is that Saudi Arabia discovered oil twenty years earlier when none of the neighborhood countries had thought of women’s rights. Maybe this nation just needs more time to adjust to the present-day world.