Gender inequality has developed its roots from the ancient traditional practices that considered the girl child inferior in comparison to a male one. Traditional society stories describe a clear depiction and elaboration of girls and womens inability to achieve their goals and dreams. The story Boys and Girls tries to elaborate on how boys are treated with care and respect as compared to girls. The Story of an Hour by Chopin portrays the extent of intimidation and humiliation that girls and women undergo in society. The research paper describes the similarity between The Story of an Hour and Boys and Girls in describing gender inequality. The stories have similar observations towards this phenomenon since the narrator of Boys and Girls explains how girls and women are reduced to performing house duties. The same view is outlined in The Story of an Hour, whereby Louise does not have the opportunity to venture her dreams due to Victorian wedding norms that limit women to be only mothers.
Boys and Girls Story Summary
The author describes a little girls life experience compared to her younger brother, Laird. The story begins when the narrator is expected to perform chores at home. House duties remain the societys expectation of the girl child (Munro 154). The narrator develops a different view when she describes her unwillingness to stay in the dark kitchen, hot during summer. Particularly, she decides to work in the field with her father. Her character opposes a societal view that reduces women to only function as mothers. On the other hand, little Laird is given time to venture and do what is pleasing to him. He is considered delicate until a horse runs away from the yard, and he is invited to chase and bring it back. When Laird is injured, he rushes to the table where his parents are sitting with clothes full of blood, and he only bathes and removes the clothes when he is told to. Therefore, the storys actions describe inequality between male and female genders whereby male children are treated with care and dignity compared to girls.
The Story of an Hour Summary
The Story of an Hour by Chopin portrays girls and womens oppression compared to the opposite gender. Chopin describes how the traditional wedding process restricts womens achievement of freedom (Chopin 569). The story begins with the death of Brently, the husband of Louise. When sad news about Brentlys death in a railway accident breaks out, Louises sister informs her about this event gently due to her heart condition (Chopin 570). The death of Brently is the only way for Louise to achieve freedom and aspiration since she frees the stringent Victorian norms that limited the woman to be only a mother who rears children. Louise respectfully mourns her husband even though his presence could have made her suffer. Sadly, the story ends when Louise dies from a heart attack after Brently arrives home.
Comparison and Analysis of the Two Stories
The two stories describe rampant gender inequality that is manifested in traditional society. The culture of viewing women as inferior and preventing them from following their desires and dreams has been described in the two narratives. The Boys and Girls story tries to express how boys are spared and well cared for compared to girls. It describes how women are regarded only for performing house chores and staying indoors at home (Munro 159). The narrator tries to work against inequality in the distribution of opportunities when she offers to do her fathers work. Apart from identifying womens oppression from society norms that regard them as inferior, she brings out the rationale for better performance of different duties expected to be conducted by the male gender.
The Story of an Hour is similar to the Boys and Girls story because it elaborates more on how women are degraded and oppressed in society. Chopin uses the death of Louise after seeing her husband alive. Louises experience regarding Victorian wedding norms that refer a woman to be just a mother who rears children made her die from a heart attack after seeing her husband (Chopin 570). Therefore, women have no choice other than to persevere against oppression and gender inequality. Both stories describe the manifestation of gender inequality in society. Women and girls are not allowed to venture into their dreams and aspirations because they are limited to being just mothers who are expected to perform house chores.
Conclusion
The two stories describe how gender inequality is manifested in society due to cultural norms and perceptions. Based on Munros view, gender inequality toward women limits them from aspiring to their dreams and ventures. The author describes how society regards women to be mothers. The Story of An Hour is similar to the Boys and Girls story since traditional Victorian practices reduce girls and women to perform house chores and rear children rather than allowing them to follow their dreams and aspirations.
Works Cited
Chopin, Kate. The Story of an Hour. Jimcin Recordings, 1981.
Munro, Alice. Boys and Girls. Atlantis Films, 1983.
Gender inequality is an indispensable ingredient of our daily routine. While women suffer the lack of achievement and empowerment, men perceive themselves as the carriers of the dominant social vision, with which women are bound to comply. However, women and men are physically different does not mean that they are unequal. Most of what is known about gender inequality between men and women are socially constructed and has nothing to do with the physical differences between them.
A few weeks ago I observed a situation, which surprised and confused me. The situation itself and my impressions from it led me to question the premises, on which the whole system of social relations currently rests. I saw a young, beautiful woman on the street. She was speaking on the phone to someone very dear to her.
She had tears in her voice and did not seem to care that she was in the street, surrounded by dozens and hundreds of people. He voice was shaking. She could hardly control her emotions, and it was difficult not to notice her frustration. As far as I could understand, she was discussing her workplace and the barriers which she had encountered to her professional growth.
Most probably, she was refused a promotion, based on her gender. Indeed, the woman could file a lawsuit against her employer but, at that moment, she could not understand why her gender was such a problem at work. She said “Mike won the project, although he never spent a single effort to create anything worthy of attention. The staff did not support him, because he never cooperated with anyone. His project would not be successful, but he won the game. I know why – because he is a man, and I am a woman”.
Undoubtedly, gender has far-reaching implications for social stability. Emotions matter, but sociological theories could shed some light on what it means to be a woman in a gendered society. “The structural-functional approach is a framework for building theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability” (Macionis 14).
Simply-stated, structural-functional theory is essentially about social stability and social behaviors that contribute to it (Macionis 14). Gender inequality in structural functionalism is inevitable and even desirable: it creates conditions for continuous social growth. Men leave home to provide for their families’ basic needs, whereas women stay at home and do their household work.
This is the best way to preserve the stability and order in a gendered society, although the young woman in the street cannot accept this order of things. The structural-functional theory implies that, whenever a woman has a chance to go outside and find a job, her prospects for professional growth and career promotion should be meager. Otherwise, she will compete with men for a better social position and pose a threat to the stability of family and professional bonds.
From the social-conflict perspective, society is a field of inequalities, which drive conflict and change (Macionis 15). It is due to the physical differences between men and women that gender inequality is relevant and justified. Managers and supervisors in firms hold the belief that women are not physiologically fit to cope with their workplace tasks.
This is why women are denied an opportunity for career promotion in the workplace. This is why their projects and exemplary workplace performance rarely lead them to a higher career position. Women’s lives are entirely about fighting for a small place under the sun. They experience disappointment but can do nothing to reduce the conflict between them and their male colleagues.
The social conflict emerges from a belief that women are not suited for career growth and, consequentially, cannot use their creative potential to the fullest. The gender-conflict approach shows the many ways in which men dominate women at home, in the workplace, and even in the mass media (Macionis 16). This approach to sociology raises severe concerns about the future of women in a gendered society but says nothing about possible ways to resolve the ongoing conflict of genders.
The social-functional and social-conflict approaches create a full picture of gender inequality, but it is through symbolic interactionism that the roots and sources of gender discrimination in the workplace can be understood. The development of male attitudes toward women begins early in life. Men and women learn about their gender roles from their parents, peers, teachers, and significant others. At school or in the street, girls are taught to be submissive and are rarely praised for their “career desires.”
They learn how to be good wives but do not always have an opportunity to pursue the goals of education and professional development. In their turn, boys quickly learn to treat girls as “weaker sex.” Boys view discrimination as an effective, nonverbal instrument of attaining power and dominance. As a result, in adult life, men have better chances to obtain a position of strength.
These ongoing experiences create a symbolic meaning of gender inequality, which pervades all spheres of social life. Adult males do not want to recognize that women can be excellent workers and prominent professionals because society teaches them to dominate the social hierarchy. In their turn, women are lost and disappointed at being unable to break the relevance and stability of the gendered symbols.
What has occurred in the street reflects the pervasive nature of gender inequality in society. I am convinced that gender inequality is impossible to eradicate. Affirmative action policies and gender equality strategies in the workplace are only partially effective. When male supervisors deny women promotion and growth opportunities, they send a message of gender inequality and imply that work and women are incompatible.
These discriminative acts and decisions serve a reliable element of the symbolic “male-female” game and re-establish gender inequality as a role model of social relations for thousands of people to follow.
Works Cited
Macionis, John J. Sociology. 13th edition. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 2010. Print.
The ideas presented by Silvia Federici in “Caliban and the Witch: Women, the Body, and Primitive Accumulation” are feminist in nature, but the views of the author are presented in a much more detailed way with the analysis of historical events and changes in philosophy over centuries. Federici shows the fall of female ability for autonomy and the rise of patriarchal societies as a result of an emerging emphasis on global trade and the perceived notion that the wealth of the country is directly tied to its capability to create new members of the workforce. Her main argument lies in the destruction of female ability to produce capital due to the extreme focus of the government on reproduction.
Aside from the removal of women from certain positions in the workforce, the traditional role of the midwife was also replaced by doctors as a way of preventing infanticide. Federici is a feminist in not only her focus on female rights of autonomy but also in her examination of the reasons behind the dramatic difference in gender roles in capitalist societies in comparison to medieval or non-capitalist political systems. Her argument is very convincing due to the detailed references she provides, such as the records of witch trials and how they were used to enforce a patriarchal society.
Gendered Bodies
One of the most interesting elements of Federici’s argument is the effect that the introduction of capitalism had on the female body. Her description of the tactics that governments used to boost population numbers presented a grotesque picture of a woman being used almost as a human farm. Children can then be seen as products and tools that are used for the profit of the country. I was aware of this process, but its origins in the early capitalist policy were unknown to me. The dehumanizing and degrading view of women, which is reflected by such policies, rings true even today. While the strict control of pregnancies and abortions is not practiced by the majority of countries, the increased emphasis on birth rates and family units by modern governments seems to serve a similar purpose.
Primitive Accumulation
The idea of primitive accumulation is central to Federici’s argument. It describes a process of transformation of pre-capitalist modes of production into the capitalist one. While Marx saw it as a brutal but overall progressive change for society, Federici’s argument shows that primitive accumulation is a damaging and regressive process due to the consequences it brought not only to women but also countries that were subject to colonization by capitalist countries. Her main points concern the fact that the role of women regressed under capitalist regimes, natives of colonized countries were exploited and degraded, and overall it is difficult to call this process progressive when it caused a regression for so many people.
Conclusion
Federici’s Caliban is a powerful exploration of the nature of capitalism and the roots of gender inequality in the modern world. The picture of primitive accumulation consequences that she presents is terrifying and should be researched further. The prevalence of inequality in modern society showcases that even in the late stages of capitalism, these issues were not resolved. The large span of time that Caliban covers makes it slightly difficult to read, but the scope of the argument requires such attention to history, as the roots of inequality can only be shown by putting them into the proper historical context. Nevertheless, Federici’s argument is convincing, detailed, and deserves additional attention.
This paper is aimed at presenting the timeline that can throw light on the history of gender discrimination in America. In particular, it is important to focus on such issues as occupational segregation, gender pay gap, education, and political representation because they determine the status of a person in the society. To a great extent, these examples can demonstrate how this problem evolved with time passing.
Timeline
1619
The proposal to provide men and women with equal portions of land is not supported the Virginia House of Burgesses (Miller, 1966). They were allowed to have only 50 acres of land (Miller, 1966, p. 201). This event is not closely discussed by historians; however, it could have profound implications for the status of males and females in the United States.
The main problem is that this decision contributed to the economic inequalities between men and women, and the legacies were noticeable for a long time. Overall, the restriction prevented many women from acquiring the positions of great authority in the new settlements.
1692
This year is marked by the beginning of the Salem witch trials. They resulted in the execution of many people who were mostly women. This event highlighted the extent to which women were vulnerable to the prejudices of the society. Admittedly, this catastrophe cannot be explained only by gender discrimination because it also takes origins in the religious beliefs of people who instigated these trials.
However, one should keep in mind that the accusations of witchcraft could stem from the deep prejudice against women, especially those ones who were not married. Therefore, this event can also be viewed as a form of gender discrimination.
1769
The colonies adopt laws according to which women are not allowed to possess their own property. This privilege was given only to their husbands. These laws should not be disregarded because they virtually deprived women of their self-sufficiency.
The policy of the government contributed to the formation of a patriarchal society in which women could not express their views on any significant issue such as political life of the society or its economic development. Therefore, the importance of this event cannot be underestimated.
1772
Salem College is established. It should be noted that it was the first college established for females. It should be noted that for a long time, this college was the only educational institution that served the needs of women. One should keep in mind that the first co-educational college was founded only in 1833. This lack of attention to the education of women deprived them of many employment opportunities.
1787
The delegates present at the Constitutional Convention decide that voting qualifications should be determined by the legislators of separate states (Vile, 2005). As a result, women are denied the right to vote in every part of the United States, except New Jersey.
This particular event is important because it lead to the exclusion of women from the political life of the society. Moreover, they did not have any direct channels for influencing the development of the society.
1807
Females are deprived of the right to vote in New Jersey. It should be mentioned that at that time, New Jersey was the only state in which females were allowed to take part in the political life of the society. This event demonstrated that the state legislators wanted to exclude females from the political life. This problem was addressed only at the beginning of the twentieth century.
1848
Seneca Falls Convention is organized. During this convention, various female activists discussed the issues related to the problems encountered by women. In particular, they focused on such issues as employment, education, and political representation.
This event attracted the attention of many journalists who discussed the arguments put forward by female activists. This convention was one of the landmarks in the development of the civil rights movement.
1848
The famous Myra Clark case begins. This case was vital for the status of women because it was related to their legal rights to inherit and own property. One should bear in mind that at that time, only several states enabled women to enjoy property rights.
Therefore, the verdict of the court could have profound implications for the economic status of American women. At that time, they were struggling for the right to act as independent economic agents.
1867
American legislators give the right to vote black men. Nevertheless, women are denied the same right. To a great extent, this controversial decision stimulated women’s right movement because at that time, many females understood that American legislators had been unwilling to promote their political empowerment. This is one of the details that be singled out.
1872
The Congress passes legislation according to which the employees of the federal government should be given equal pay regardless of their sex. The main problem is that this right was not given to the female employees of private companies.
As a result, many females could not protect their interests in the court. The problem was resolved only in the second half of the twentieth century when legislators began to eliminate wage discrimination.
1872
Susan Anthony is arrested for trying to vote. This event was important because it indicated that the state could take punitive action against women who were willing to take part in the political life of the country. This decision increased the tensions in the American society. At that time, the struggle for the right to vote was critical for many American women.
1873
It is important to speak about the case which is known as Bradwell v. Illinois. According to the decision of the Supreme Court, state legislators had a right to deny women the right to work as lawyers. This event should not be overlooked because it prevented many women from entering legal profession. As a result, their views on many social problems were often overlooked by the state.
To a great extent, this Supreme Court decision can be viewed as an example of occupational segregation. One should keep in mind that the ability to practice legal profession was critical for the promotion of women’s rights.
1896
The National Association of Colored Women is established. It should be kept in mind that this organization was important for protecting people who could be discriminated on the basis of their gender as well as race. The association was vital for supporting many underprivileged women who faced different forms of discrimination.
1897
The New York State Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage is founded. This organization attempted to show female suffrage could not benefit the society. The formation of the organization intensified the tensions in the American society. The members of this organization were extremely critical of the increased political representation of women.
1920
This year was marked by the adoption of the Nineteenth Amendment according to which the state legislators could not deny citizens the right to vote on the basis of their sex. The change in the U.S. legislation enabled women to influence the internal and external policies of the country. Yet, it is critical to remember that the political participation of women was not welcomed by many governmental officials.
1945
The administrators of Harvard Medical School agree to admit women. Later these restrictions on the admission of women were removed in other educational establishments. This example is important because it shows that for a long time, women were barred from the most prestigious universities such as Harvard.
Therefore, one can say that they were deprived of opportunities for achieving higher social status. It is also important to mentions that these barriers were not required by the state. In many cases, this sexism was imbedded in the policies of separate educational institutions.
1946
It is important to speak about the case which is known as U.S. v. Ballard. This court decision limited the ability of women to act as jurors. In many cases, the lawyers were allowed to exclude female candidates who wanted to become jurors. Therefore, very often women could not express their views on various criminal cases. This is one of the issues that should be considered.
1963
The U.S. Congress adopts Equal Pay Act which explicitly prohibits discrimination against women in the workplace. In particular, this law is related to the compensation provided to male and female workers. The adoption of this law significantly raised the income of women in the United States.
One should keep in mind that this law was supposed to eliminate different forms of discrimination that could be based on race, ethnic origin, religion or race. This legal act enabled women to protect their interests in the court and companies that were biased against female workers could be required to pay fines.
1973
Military academies in the United States are required to admit women. It should be noted that before this event, the United States Army excluded women, even though in many cases, this institution relied on their labor.
In turn, the decision created more opportunities for women who wanted to join military organizations. However, this example also indicates that even after World War II, the American government was unwilling to promote the empowerment of women.
1978
The discrimination against pregnant women is prohibited by the state. It should be noted for a long time, employers could easily fire women who got pregnant. Very often, pregnancy could be one of those factors that slowed down the career growth of many female employees. Moreover, female employees could not protect the position in the court.
2007
It is important to mention the Supreme Court case known as Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire. According to this decision, a worker can sue an employer for gender pay discrimination only during the period which is limited to 180 days (Leavitt, 2013, p. 163). Therefore, this decision enhanced the legal power of companies. Furthermore, many of the discriminatory practices went unpunished.
Thus, it is possible to say that gender discrimination has not been completely discriminated, but in the course of history, the American society has made considerable achievements in the promotion of equality. Additionally, there are many legal provisions that enable women to protect their interests.
Reference List
Leavitt, G. (2013). Class Conflict: The Pursuit and History of American Justice. New York, NY: Transaction Publishers.
Miller, J. (1966). The First Frontier: Life in Colonial America. New York, NY: University Press of America.
Vile, J. (2005). The Constitutional Convention of 1787: A Comprehensive. New York, NY: ABC-CLIO.
Different societies have faced many challenges when addressing various gender-related issues such as gender equality in terms of participation in political processes and the sharing of roles between women and men in their families and society. This problem has plagued even the most developed nations since time immemorial. For instance, women in western nations have had different achievements and losses. Coontz (2010) discusses these issues from the context of the economic status of American women and their limited role in society at the time. In this traditional society, freedom and individualism were reserved for men. Coontz (2010) informs that women were aware of the domineering of men but could not change the normalized perception of gender roles.
Women’s roles in society have been evolving with time. In the late 19th century, many nations had imbalanced demographics concerning social structures. Men dominated most of the social activities. However, in modern society, such dominance has changed. Women are acquiring strategic roles in society. The question of how gender has evolved attracts large scholarly research, which is often open to criticism.
However, literal ideas such as those postulated by Mary Wollstonecraft, John Stuart Mill, and other writers of the Victorian Era to the Early 20th century reveal that apart from being conceived, gender can be performed. Such performance is manifested in societies in the form of gender inequality and gender discrimination. In all nations, including India, gender discrimination is an offense. The purpose of this paper is to define and show gender inequality in India. The paper will also present the initiatives that the country has taken to deal with this issue.
Reasons for Gender Inequality in India
Patriarchal Society
Patriarchal society in India contributes to the witnessed discrimination against women or their inequality. Equality refers to a state of affairs in which people in a society or even isolated groups of people possess a status that is to some certain respects (Thorvaldur & Zoega, 2011). Gender inequality implies a situation where people’s access to the same status is curtailed based on their gender. Hence, gender inequality involves discrimination against women based on their sex.
In India, the root of many of discrimination against women may be traced from the patriarchal system. Strayer (2011) defines a patriarchal arrangement as a “system of social structures and practices in which men dominate, oppress, and exploit women” (p.33). The systems find application in different religious settings such as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Muslim practices in India. For example, irrespective of the gender of the people who subscribe to Hinduism, wholesomeness, openness, openhandedness, and compassion shape the moral and ethical norms advocated by the religion.
The influence of Hinduism on ensuring the success of women requires them to depend on men for guidance. Here, men are superior to them. Thus, the female gender is subservient. It acts under the control of the male gender. Hinduism resulted in a large decline in women’s rights from 1600 to 1800BCE (Strayer, 2011). The Sati ritual explains well the dominance of men over women in the Hinduism religion. Sati entailed a funeral practice that was conducted among Indians. In the ritual, a widow would set herself ablaze to death. In this burning process, she used the husband’s burial pyre. Hinduism advocated that once women fulfilled their duty of death after the death of the husband by burning themselves, they would be reborn in a higher caste level.
The act of a woman killing herself upon the death of her husband reflects gender disparities in the Hindu religion. From a religious perspective, the life of a woman was not important in the absence of the man who was supposed to control her. As the ritual became even more sophisticated, women lost their rights to property ownership (Strayer, 2011). In Hinduism, women also married at a tender age. This case prevented them from completing their education so that they could acquire qualifications for performing various ritual sacrifices. Without men’s control, the religion spread the belief that women would become promiscuous.
Discrimination against Girls
The girl child in India has a lower reputation and consideration among conservative families. Educating girls is considered a bad choice and/or poor investment since she will be married off at someday in the future. Poor education leads to low dominance of women in jobs that require high skills and educational qualifications. In workplaces, the girl child faces discrimination. Although inexplicitly expressed and inconsistent with the law, a working girl child in India may face discrimination due to her caregiving roles (a stereotypically feminine role in society). For instance, supervisors may learn that a woman is taking care of a sick person.
Consequently, he or she may develop the perception that in addition to the work she is employed to perform, such a role diverts some of her attention from work so that she underperforms in her organizational job roles and responsibilities. In some conservative Indian families, men are served with food first. This way, they may end up taking all nutritious foods, leaving behind poor quality food for the girl child. This practice implies increasing cases of anemia among women in addition to difficulties while giving birth. Therefore, discrimination against the girl child occurs at the societal and familial level in India.
Dowry
The Indian dowry system considers women a burden on their families. This perception contributes to discrimination against the girl child. Dowry is the sum paid in kind or even cash by the bride’s family to the bridegroom’s folks. This cultural practice is common among geographically disjointed Indian societies, religions, and people from different social classes (Babu, 2011). This practice only provides a limitation of the expansion of the girl child’s bargaining power. The practice also makes parents consider reducing investments in girls. The Indian Penal Policy (304B and 498a) prohibits the practice of dowry payment. However, despite the changing attitudes concerning dowries in India, dowry payment continues to be practiced as a cultural element.
Marriage Laws
In any society that acknowledges the contribution of its entire people on social, political, and economic development, people have equal accessibility to fundamental rights, including marriage rights. Indian law provides both women and men with equal marital rights. However, Muslims have permission to divorce their wives unilaterally (Mattias, 2011). The law also sets 18 years as the minimum age for marriage in the case of women while that of men is 21. However, among Indians who practice Islam, early child marriage is still legal under personal laws set out by Indian Mohammedan. Such practices constitute a major detriment for women empowerment.
Inequality Factors
Eliminating gender inequalities in India requires an understanding of its causes followed by analyzing its contributing factors. Such factors can be changed through political interventions or a change in social cognition among people. This strategy can decrease inequality levels. In the Indian context, inequality factors include health and survival, education, economic, and political factors.
Health and Survival
The first section on the causes of gender inequality in India revealed a high preference for baby boys than baby girls among Indian societies. This observation perhaps explains why India has high levels of sex-selective abortion. In nations in Europe and North America, for every 100 girls born, about 100 and 110 boys are born. Due to the permanence and biological advantages of women when compared to men, more girls survive than boys.
However, in India and other Asian nations, men exceed women (Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, 2013). For example, in 2011, a census conducted by the Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India (2013) indicated that Punjab had a sex proportion of 117 males to 100 females while Jammu and Kashmir had a proportion of 128 males to 100 females (44) in case of children of ages 0 to 1 year. This high boy: girl sex quotient is attributed to the affordability and misusing fetus devices such as ultrasound that help in determining sex. MacPherson (2007) provides estimates that more than 100,000 girls are not born in India due to female infanticide.
In terms of health, Indian girls have a disadvantage compared to boys. For example, in 2005, only 42% of girls accessed vaccination compared to 45% in the case of boys. Female to male suicidal quotient in India is 1:2 (MacPherson, 2007). Although this proportion compares with other parts of the world such as the US, in 2012, some parts of India such as West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, and Maharashtra recorded higher suicidal rates among women compared to men. This increased rate may be attributed to negative perceptions about girl child empowerment. The situation increases the likelihood of mental disarray, hopelessness, and apprehension. These conditions are a risk factor to suicidal thoughts and actual suicide (Vijaykumar, 2007).
Education
Education inequalities may be measured from schooling, reservations, and literacy levels. In terms of schooling, India is progressing towards attaining its millennium development targets for ensuring gender equity in terms of accessibility to education. However, to achieve this goal, the country needs to increase the empowerment rate for the girl child by 300% to attain 0.95 of its GEEI commitment. GEEI refers to gender parity in schooling index.
Indeed, Vijaykumar (2007) asserts that fewer girls than boys attend schools in the rural areas of India. This challenge is attributed to the biased curriculum that targets the girl child, a low number of role models like female teachers, and the insufficient schooling facilities, including sanitary facilities for girls.
Indian women have lower literacy levels compared to men. Mattias (2011) asserts that the 2011 census in India indicated that women had roughly 65 literacy levels compared to approximately 82 among men. Very few girls enroll and complete the education systems in India compared to boys. This situation is detrimental to the empowerment and growth of women since literacy is an important factor that is responsible for higher economic development.
Although literacy levels for Indian women have been increasing as the nation works towards achieving its 2015 millennium development goals, gaps remain in school enrollment for girls. To increase skills and literacy levels for female students, India has established reservations for them. For example, 40 percent of state centers and 10 percent of the UTs centers admit exclusively female students (Vijaykumar, 2007). The NFE centers have also been increasingly admitting more girls through exclusive reservation for the girl child.
Economic
Economic inequalities occur in the form of labor involvement, salaries and wages, credit convenience, property tenure rights, and professional inequalities. According to Lockwood (2009), since the 1990s, in India, the participation of women in the labor force has been growing with roughly 120 female workers participating in the employment sector of about 240 million. Tea plantation employs about 47% female workers, 46% for cotton, and 39% in the horticultural industry.
While this finding shows a significant ratio of the absorption of women in the agricultural sector labor force, inequalities exist in wages. In the 2009 plaguing operations, men were paid a daily wage of roughly 100 rupees while women received roughly 60 rupees (Ministry of Labor and Employment, 2010). This finding represented a wage ratio of 1.87. Weeding operations had a wage gap of 1.18.
The Indian law supports equal access to credit, despite gender differences among its population. However, women do not have adequate collaterals that are necessary for permitting them to participate ardently in credit programs offered by banks. The only available option is to access credit through microfinance programs. These programs have been instrumental in leading growth of self-help groups in India.
Nevertheless, they have come under intense scrutiny due to the coercive practices that lure women to take an excessive number of loans until they become overwhelmed. Vijaykumar (2007) confirms how this situation implies increasing incidents of suicide among women who fail to repay their loans in time. Property rights law recognizes equality in property ownership for both men and women. However, a large proportion of land within rural areas is owned by men. Women are also not given active combat roles in the military.
Political
Political inequality upholds differences between men and women in terms of their participation in political and decision-making processes. Based on this scale, India takes the 20th position across the globe. Political equality in India is higher than in the United Kingdom, Denmark, or Switzerland. Indian women take many elective posts in all levels of governance. In the 2014 elections, about 70 percent of men turned out to vote while about 66 percent of women turned out to participate in their suffrage rights.
State Initiatives to Reduce Gender Inequality
Programs
The government of India recognizes the need for eroding gender inequalities and discrimination in all Indian territories and states. This awareness has made the central government of India in collaboration with unions in different territories and states initiate various programs to increase equality levels for the girl child. The programs include “Swarna Jayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana, Awareness Generation Projects for Rural and Poor women, Condensed Course of Education for Adult Women, and Kishori Shakti Yojana, Swayamsidha Mahila Mandal Program” (Thorvaldur & Zoega, 2011, p. 571).
A program such as the Integrated Child Development Services aims at increasing school attendance among girls who reside in rural areas. These programs target either creating awareness on the equality of the girl child to the boy child or increasing the results of the girl child in all sectors of the economy and education.
The Constitution of India
The constitution of India provides ventilation for women to ensure they are not discriminated against. It cites goals such as ensuring economic, political social equity, and justice for all Indian citizens. Article 15 prohibits any discrimination based on sex, background, belief, or even race among other diversity differences. For example, religion comprises a set of beliefs, perceptions, and cultural systems that relate to the understanding of society’s existence.
Various signs, consecrated histories, and narratives about the rationale of life, its foundation, and the origin of the universe characterize religion. Religious beliefs shape morality and ethics. They also prescribe a certain lifestyle through a set of codes of acceptable behaviors within the doctrines of a given faith (Strayer, 2011). Based on the belief and lifestyle standards, religions view gender issues differently. The constitution prohibits any religious view that may lead to discrimination of the Indian people based on gender differences.
Section 3 of Article 15 in the Indian constitution permits the state to provide requisite provisions for children and women. However, apart from the constitution, the Indian legislature has developed policies to eliminate gender inequalities and discrimination. For example, the Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961 seeks to eliminate women’s discrimination in terms of dowry payment. The Sati Act of 1987 abolishes and spells punishment for Sati’s inhumane acts.
The parliament of India also introduces various amendments to the constitution to ensure equal participation of women in social, economic, and political processes. For example, Section 304-B of the Constitution expanded the India penal code to ensure that bride burning becomes an offense that attracts harsh punishment, including life imprisonment as the maximum sentence.
The Convention for the Elimination of Gender Inequalities
India is a party to the United Nations (UN). This privilege also makes it a party to organs that are established under the UN umbrella such as the Convention for Elimination of All Forms of Gender Discrimination (CEDAW). The convention describes various rights that apply to women in the preface and 30 clauses. It also establishes an agenda for eliminating discrimination against women. India accepts the convention.
Therefore, it has been committed to putting in place various mechanisms for eliminating inequalities and discrimination of women. Such mechanisms involve eliminating any act of discrimination targeting women from individuals, enterprises, and/or organizations. CEDAW requires nations to set up tribunals and various public institutions for protecting women against any inequality and/or discrimination. This involves eliminating discriminatory legal procedures and laws and adopting new ones that allow the participation of women in the social, economic, cultural, and political arena.
Conclusion
Gender inequality occurs when some people have better accessibility to rewards, capital, and work opportunities than others do due to their gender. It also occurs when gender contributes to determining people’s participation in political processes, accessibility to credit, education, and profiling in terms of their benefits in society. To mitigate the erosion of gender inequalities, women and men must get equal pays for similar job descriptions and roles.
They should have access to equal opportunities for promotion. Dealing with educational inequalities requires equal participation of women and men in schooling, acquiring literacy skills, and reservation in the higher institutions of learning and technical institutions. Even though India suffers from gender inequality in different factors, the state is trying to limit this issue.
Reference List
Babu, B. (2011). Dowry deaths: a neglected public health issue in India. International Health, 3(1), 35-43.
Coontz, S. (2010). Historical Perspectives on Family Studies. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 6(2), 283-297.
Lockwood, N. (2009). Perspectives on women in management in India. New Delhi, India: Society for Human Resource Management.
MacPherson, Y. (2007). Images and Icons: Harnessing the Power of Media to Reduce Sex-Selective Abortion in India. Gender and Development, 15(2), 413–423.
Mattias, L. (2011). Vulnerable Daughters in India: Culture, Development and Changing Contexts. London: Routledge.
Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. (2013). Final Population-2011 Census of India. Mumbai, India: The Government of India.
Ministry of Labor and Employment. (2010). Wage rates in rural India (2008-2009). India: Government of India, Labor Bureau.
Strayer, R. (2011). Ways of the World: A Brief Global History with Sources. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martins.
Thorvaldur, G., & Zoega, J. (2011). Educational. Social Equity and Economic Growth: A View of the Landscape. CESifo Economic Studies, 49(4), 557–579.
Vijaykumar, L. (2007). Suicide and its prevention: The urgent need in India. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 49(3), 81-84.
In a globalized society, the barriers between countries and even nations are expected to decrease to reach a similar level of prosperity. However, women still have fewer opportunities for economic participation compared to men, limited access to both basic and higher education, less political representation, as well as greater risks of health and safety. Gender inequality is a persistent problem that captures a range of areas of human life and requires the attention of the global community. The traditional models of the division of opportunities based on gender should be re-evaluated to offer women a greater range of productive tasks.
Despite the substantial international and national efforts targeted at eliminating gender inequality, such problems as violence against women, sexual harassment, the wage gap, women’s health, and work-life balance are persistent. As mentioned by Kamrany and Robinson (2012) for HuffPost, only four out of a hundred and thirty-five countries have reached the desired level of gender equality and include Cuba, Sweden, Norway, and Costa Rica. Thus, regardless of the misconceptions that women have long been equal to men, the problem of gender inequality needs to be addressed for achieving true social justice for all citizens.
Problem
The reasons for gender inequality are rooted in the history of social development. Women have been considered as less important contributors to social affairs, with their roles diminished to bearing children and caring for their families. Gender inequality is a highly debilitating social stigma that for centuries undermined the female psychology of worth and dignity. Today, gender discrimination has a major influence on economic growth because it prevents nations from reaching the maximum potential of productivity (Kamrany & Robinson, 2012). Economic limitations also lead to societal losses such as the low concentration of women in the workforce of governments. In addition, the lack of attention to public health and child care facilities makes it harder for women to participate in all aspects of social life. This issue has been linked to the unequal representation of women in policy-making and institutions.
Considering perspectives from different disciplines, healthcare, economics, and education come into play. According to O’Dowd (2019), few health organizations around the world are making significant progress in addressing longstanding issues of gender inequality. This leads to substantial disparities in access and quality of care, predominantly in developing countries. The wage gap is a persistent gender inequality problem that has been reported in multiple sources. It is defined as “the difference in the median earnings of men and women relative to the median earnings of men” (OECD, 2018, para. 2). As seen from OECD (2018) data, the highest rates of gender wage gap are in Korea (34.6%) while the lowest is in Romania (1.5%). In the US, the rate of the gender wage gap is 18.2% which suggests that the topmost ‘accomplished’ regions worldwide also experience gender inequality in income. In regards to education, there are still significant disparities, especially among developing countries. According to the Global Partnership for Education (2019), an estimated “131 million girls worldwide remain out of school and face multiple barriers to education” (para. 2). Such limitations include long distances to schools, school-related gender-based violence, cultural norms, and practices, as well as early marriage. Therefore, gender inequality is a multi-faceted problem that affects both developed and developing nations worldwide, which points to the need for developing systematic and impactful solutions.
Solutions
Addressing the overarching impact of gender inequality on global society requires a multi-faceted approach, which means that there is no one solution. Designing programs for improving gender equality should be linked to equality programming across a range of sectors such as education, public health, resource management, and finance. To reduce the gender wage gap, it is imperative to initiate governmental interference in the form of legislation, subsidize childcare, offer mentoring programs for organizations, and establish transparency in salary. These solutions are linked to a complete reconsideration of the systematic approach toward wage distribution.
To reduce the adverse influence of gender inequality in education, several steps are recommended. First, it is important to promote gender-responsive learning environments by raising the awareness of all stakeholders to realize that the educational system does not do enough to address gender disparities (UNESCO, 2019). Second, it is necessary to address unequal power relations, social norms, and gender roles. This solution applies to social standards that require women to get married young, bear children, and abandon their educational opportunities. Supporting girls and young women are possible with the help of international organizations’ inspectors visiting schools in developing countries and monitoring whether their environments allow them to get the desired level of education.
Lastly, when addressing gender inequality in health care, policy-specific measures are needed. According to Payne (2015), measures for addressing gender disparities may include “vertical programs which aim to target specific health risks and deliver services to meet women and girl’s needs, and more cross-cutting approaches which aim at “gender” policymaking” (p. 53). Most of such work can be done through the integration of gender mainstreaming principles across a variety of policy arenas.
Evidence
With the integration of policies for establishing equal access to healthcare for women and girls, significant developments have occurred when stakeholders at intergovernmental, national, and international levels have pioneered the rights of women (Payne, 2015). In regards to education, the establishment of policies for addressing unequal power relations leads to the improvement of gender role socialization (Fleischmann & Kristen, 2014). Girls have more opportunities to get the desired level of education when policymakers unite in the effort to improve the overall learning environment for girls across the world. For eliminating the gender wage gap, nationwide legislation shows to increase the hiring and promotion of women in the workplace (Bishu & Alkadry, 2017). Gender representation is achieved when occupational segregation is eliminated, and women’s participation is distributed across a range of disciplines.
Unfortunately, there is a gap in scholarly research in regards to reflecting the success of solutions for addressing gender inequality. Most of the studies focus on proposing solutions instead of finding evidence for their success. Because of this, there is a need for enhancing the reliability of research articles that focus on discussing issues of gender inequality. In addition to this, there is a significant bias of researchers when discussing gender inequality in education, economics, and healthcare. The majority of them are focused on the Western perspective of addressing these issues instead of considering the range of disparities that girls and women experience in developing or third-world countries.
Ethical Outcomes of the Solution
Equal access to opportunities represents the main ethical outcomes of establishing gender equality in healthcare, education, and economics. Fairness is the fundamental ethical principle that applies to this case as it is concerned with the range of processes, actions, and processes that are seen as morally honorable and equitable. On the downside, in the movement to reduce gender inequality, the rights of boys and men can be diminished due to the focus on women’s issues rather than men’s issues.
In regards to the ethical issues associated with the outcomes, there is a problem of integrating a diverse set of experts and collaborators involved in the solutions. This implies the involvement of women-legislators and women-stakeholders in the process of establishing the environment of gender equality in education, healthcare, and wage distribution. Also, finding ways in which equality of genders can be achieved on a global level relates to equality of opportunity, which is an idea that all individuals regardless of gender, race, status, income levels, and ethnicities are treated equally when presented with employment, healthcare, and other services.
Conclusion
The problem of gender inequality remains to be addressed as the efforts of both national and international organizations are not enough for guaranteeing equal opportunities for men and women. It has been identified that gender inequality exists in multiple areas of social and political life, pointing to the need for developing a cohesive set of solutions to address them. The actions of policymakers worldwide are necessary for ensuring the societies are regulated with the help of laws that prevent any discrimination based on gender. Nevertheless, much more remains to be done to reach the desired level of equality since women around the world are denied opportunities that could help them in leading successful and fulfilling lives.
References
Bishu, S., & Alkadry, M. (2017). A systematic review of the gender pay gap and factors that predict it. Administration & Society, 49(1), 65-104.
Fleischmann, F., & Kristen, C. (2014). Gender inequalities in the education of the second generation in Western countries. Sociology of Education, 87(3), 143-170.
Payne, S. (2015). The health of women and girls: How can we address gender equality and gender equity? Seminars of Reproductive Medicine, 33(1), 53-60.
The recovery from the conflict in South Sudan is associated with considerable issues in many sectors, including education. The major challenges related to the development of the educational system are the ongoing violent attacks and natural disasters (Ministry of General Education and Instruction [MoGEI], 2017). Girls remain the most vulnerable group due to the cultural peculiarities of the country that is characterized by patriarchal traditions and practices. Girls tend to be forced to marry at an early age since this is often a way for families to receive profit (Japan International Cooperation Agency [JICA], 2017).
It has been estimated that 76% of girls in the country fail to gain education because of the food crisis and the lasting military conflict (“Education Cluster assessment,” 2018). The lack of schools and inappropriate staffing, difficulty with accessing educational facilities, as well as financial issues families have to address prevent girls from attending schools and higher educational establishments.
The MoGEI developed a plan to address the challenges the educational system faces. The General Education Strategic Plan, 2017-2022 (hereafter also referred to as GESP) is the government’s response to the most burning issues in the sector. The government, in collaboration with international institutions and non-profit organizations, has achieved certain progress. For instance, the functionality of the existing schools increased since 2017 and reached slightly over 80% (“Education Cluster assessment,” 2018).
However, it is also reported that approximately 6,000 schools should be built to ensure an appropriate educational level of the children of South Sudan. At the same time, only 4% of the budget was allocated to the sector, which makes the implementation of the educational plan problematic. This report includes an assessment of The General Education Strategic Plan, 2017-2022 in terms of gender equity.
Criteria
When evaluating policies, it is necessary to start with the identification of criteria to consider. The aspects to analyze the policy under analysis will include efficiency, equality, fairness, justice, equity, freedom, and legality. The strategy in question is a general plan that covers all people with a focus on children. The government stipulates that primary education should be free and mandatory for all children of the corresponding age (“Education Cluster assessment,” 2018). Moreover, some of the major priorities mentioned in the GESP are the provision of more opportunities to females to obtain education at different levels.
An increased interest to such vulnerable groups as girls does not undermine the government’s effort to ensure equality, justice, and freedom. The established priorities are justified by the challenges related to gender (JICA, 2017). Girls do not attend school due to financial issues (families may have no sufficient funds to ensure their children’s transportation to schools) and safety problems (parents are afraid to let their daughters go to school). The legality of the policy is appropriate as the strategy is based on major international standards and the legislation existing in the country.
As far as the efficiency of the GESP is concerned, the plan has numerous drawbacks. One of the major issues related to the strategy is the allocation of funds that seems ineffective. Although the country has to address various challenges, education is one of the priorities, but 4% of the budget can hardly suffice for achieving the established goals. The implementation of any policy depends on the availability of resources and proper allocation of funds (Unsicker, 2013).
The government heavily relies on international financial aid, which is essential under the current circumstances (MoGEI, 2017). Nevertheless, this support should not be the basis of the planned measures. The policy in question needs considerable funding and substantial public support that cannot be achieved without more focus on collaboration with communities and individuals. These two aspects are not properly addressed in the plan, which undermines the efficiency of the policy in question.
Projected Outcomes
The MoGEI set ambitious goals and developed a plan that covered the vast majority of the identified challenges (see Figure 1). By 2021, the government intends to increase female student enrollment to 79% at the primary level (MoGEI, 2017). It is projected to reach an 8% increase in female student enrollment at the secondary level. The government highlights specific steps to achieve these objects by building new schools and liberating existing ones from military groups. The plan also includes initiatives that imply the provision of some commodities (such as food, sanitary products) or financial support to female students.
The construction of diverse types of educational facilities funded by the government and various donors is regarded as an important facilitator of the development of the system. The lack of female teachers is seen as one of the factors contributing to the existing gender inequality, so the government’s attempts to ensure that 40% of primary teachers and 25% of secondary educators will be females by 2021 (MoGEI, 2017). Additional benefits and financial aid are the primary instruments chosen to reach the set goals.
Outcome
Funding
Benefits
Challenges
Timespan
Increased rate of female students at all educational levels
Budget
International donors
Non-profit organizations
Individual donors
Increased rate of females in the labor market
Higher salaries for females
Improved socioeconomic status of females
Cultural peculiarities
Lack of funds
Lack of resources (schools, materials, and other)
Lack of qualified people
Long-term
Increased rate of female educators
Medium
Increased number of schools
Budget
International donors
Non-profit organization
Individual donors
Communities
Increased rate of female students at all educational levels
Increased rate of female educators
Lack of funds
Lack of resources
Medium
Long-term
Cultural shifts in gender issues
Cultural peculiarities
People’s resistance
Lack of funds
Long-term
Decreased tension in society (improved safety and peacemaking)
Figure 1. Outcome matrix.
Importantly, the strategy is also characterized by a considerable level of collaboration with different stakeholders, including the public, religious institutions and leaders, and organizations. The primary focus is on discussions, radio broadcasts, and the dissemination of information through official channels. The government also intends to transform education into the platform of peacebuilding in the country.
It is planned to ensure the implementation of campaigns promoting schools and creating an image of the school as a peacebuilding space (MoGEI, 2017). Students, their families, and communities will be involved in the process of rebuilding schools, which will be one of the measures to create the ground for uniting people. The use of media is mentioned as an important component of promotional and informational campaigns.
The policy under discussion is associated with several unintended consequences. For instance, it has been acknowledged that female secondary-school students drop out mainly due to the change of their marital status (“Education Cluster assessment,” 2018). It is also reported that once girls enter primary education, the drop-out rate at the secondary level is comparatively low. Therefore, if the campaigns aimed at raising people’s awareness of the benefits of education and the disadvantages of early marriages are successful, the shortage of secondary schools may be substantial. The target increase in the number of secondary schools will not meet the potential needs of the population. In addition, it can be difficult to forecast the rate of returning people, so the problem of the shortage of schools is likely to be the major problem.
Regarding the emergent features of the strategy in question, it is possible to note that the strategy is characterized by a considerable degree of collaboration and involvement of diverse groups. The government plans to involve international donors, international and local non-profit organizations, communities, individuals, specific groups (such as the faculty, students, parents, educators, researchers, among others) (MoGEI, 2017). This feature can have a positive influence on the outcomes of the plan if it is implemented properly.
Tradeoffs
The evaluation of a policy should include an analysis of tradeoffs that highlight the efficiency of the strategy (Unsicker, 2013). The policy under consideration requires the investment of millions of U.S. dollars. The construction of educational facilities, training of personnel, and development of materials, as well as the implementation of promotional and educational campaigns, need substantial funding. Nevertheless, this investment will pay off in a comparatively short period of time since the country will train people who will contribute to the development of its economy.
The country has significant agricultural potential, but the techniques employed in this sector due to the low qualifications of those employed in agriculture are inefficient. Therefore, increased access to education for females (who constitute a significant part of those working in the sector) will boost the development of agriculture.
The mentioned social benefit (strong economy) will come at a certain private cost related to cultural beliefs and norms. People will have to change their attitude towards early marriages and gender roles. Marriage should not remain an important source of income for families as daughters can contribute more to the development of the community and the entire country if they are properly educated. Domestic violence and violence against women should also be stigmatized and tabooed in South Sudan, which will ensure proper enforcement of the existing laws that presuppose adequate punishment for such crimes but are not enforced effectively.
Decision and Telling the Story
The policy is rather inefficient and unlikely to achieve the established goals since it implies limited funding and does not include sufficient details regarding its implementation. Although the GESP includes quite a detailed description of the major priorities and measures to be undertaken, it lacks attention regarding the allocation of funds, initiatives aimed at promoting certain ideas, and collaborating with other stakeholders (see Figure 2). The implementation of the plan can be hindered by environmental issues and factors related to the military conflict.
In a nutshell, the policy in question highlights important problems to address and many steps that can potentially lead to positive outcomes. However, a written plan, even if it seems effective, does not mean that all the problems will be solved within the set timeline. The GESP only outlines that a certain sum will be spent on grants for girls, but further distribution remains unclear, while the initiatives for female teachers are not highlighted in the cost section at all. Although the strategy includes information concerning the people and institutions regarding the implementation of the incentives, the responsibility of these stakeholders is not properly highlighted. In simple terms, no one can guarantee that the funds will reach the target population, and the programs will be implemented properly (see Figure 2).
Figure 2. Triangle analysis.
Policy Implementation as the Major Issue
As mentioned above, the policy in question can hardly be implemented properly due to certain operational and cultural gaps. The responsibilities of the stakeholders, especially when it comes to supervision and control, are not described in detail. The measures to ensure people’s adherence to the plan are not highlighted. The policy is not supported by laws and regulations that would make the implementation of the strategy possible.
The preparation of female teachers completely lacks any operational details (budget, responsibilities, laws, and norms). The educational sector is considerably damaged, and the allocated costs will not suffice to achieve the major goals. The government will have to address donors, which is associated with substantial risks since the amount of provided help is difficult to predict. Moreover, the social tension is still substantial, which may result in a new wave of violence. Finally, existing cultural norms are unlikely to be changed in a short-term perspective with the help of promotional campaigns since laws and their appropriate enforcement could facilitate the process.
Policy Evaluation
Although the program is developed for a period of five years (from 2017 to 2022), some results and outcomes can be evaluated, and operational aspects should be analyzed. The public still sees the gender gap in education as an almost unaddressed issue (Munene & Wambiya, 2019). The economic situation in the country and cultural norms are regarded as the central challenges to solving the issue. People admit that some steps are being made by the government and other stakeholders, but these measures are still insufficient. Girls are forced into early marriages, they have to rear children and focus on households rather than obtain an education, their families do not have resources to access schools (due to food, transportation, and safety issues).
The policy had an impact on the educational system and people’s views on the matter. Female student enrolment is steadily increasing, and such initiatives as food and financial aid to female students and their families have proved to be effective (“Education Cluster assessment,” 2018; Karani, 2019). If the GESP had not been implemented, the rate of females in schools would have been lower. However, some challenges mentioned as emergent issues have occurred as people are witnessing an increased interest in education and the educational system’s inability to cater for the demand (Karani, 2019). Schools cannot provide high-quality services to all students who want to receive these services. Moreover, the program is not implemented in strict accordance with the design, which leads to a lack of resources.
Conclusion
In conclusion, it is necessary to state that The General Education Strategic Plan, 2017-2022 only partially achieved the established goals in terms of the effort aimed at decreasing the gender gap. Although some improvements are obvious, the allocated funds could have been managed more effectively. The lack of attention to its implementation and supervision over outcomes has led to the policy’s results. The lack of laws and their enforcement is one of the most serious issue s to be addressed. These laws should support the changes in the educational structure, and should also lead to the shifts in cultural norms related to gender roles (see Figure 3).
Munene, I. I., & Wambiya, P. (2019). Bridging the gender gap through gender difference: Aiding patriarchy in South Sudan education reconstruction. Africa Education Review, 16(5), 86-101. Web.
Unsicker, J. (2013). Confronting power: The practice of policy advocacy. Sterling, VA: Kumarian Press.
In this post, I consider a particular aspect of gender inequality: the issue of the unbalanced distribution of paid and unpaid work. I examine the idea of work-and-life balance that is proposed as a solution to the problem of having a family and career at the same time and point out the fact that it is typically discussed concerning women. This issue is supported by the statistics, which proves that women are loaded with unpaid work to a greater extent.
I conclude by suggesting that the tipped balance affects the career opportunities of women and also consider the impact that this typical discriminatory practice has on the process of promoting equality in the modern world. I provide examples and references for the facts that are cited in the post.
Women in the Workforce
Nowadays, diversity and tolerance courses are exceptionally popular and even required at schools and universities, but they do not appear to produce the expected effect. Education should form attitudes of generations, and inequality is not supposed to have survived by now, but it persists. An example is the issue of gender inequality; in particular, that related to women in the workforce. Inequality is a very complex issue, and I cannot explain its persistence exhaustively, but here, I will attempt to take a look at some of its reasons by examining the concept of work-and-life balance.
In effect, a lot is being made to close the nearly 20-percent wage gap1 between women and men in Canada (Zamon, 2015), and one of such activities is described in the article by Alonso-Almeida (2014). This activity can be called the maintenance of the work-and-life balance, and this idea keeps receiving praise from researchers.2 However, I believe that this method was planted on the soil of discriminatory, sexist society, and its positive effects are limited.
The balance is most often used concerning women. Consider the words of Jennifer Reynolds, chief executive officer of Women in Capital Markets of Canada: “work-life balance is not specifically a women’s issue, but it is one that needs to be talked about more openly because it does hold women back” (Freeman, 2015, para. 12). There is a very clear explanation for the fact that the family holds women back: family and home-making are still the “prerogatives” of women.
Most of us like children, clean houses, and homemade meals. However, according to statistics, a particular group of particular sex typically exploits the opposite one to attain these goods. Nowadays, there exists a distinction between the paid (profession-related) and unpaid (clean house, fed children) work. The work-and-life balance is the practice that is meant to deal with paid work (Kimura, 2016). To ridicule, no employer will create a schedule of house chores for you; they are a part of the “life” side of the balance. At the same time, according to official statistics, women in Canada spend 1.5 times3 more hours on this unpaid work (Milan, Keown, & Urquijo, 2015, para. 51).
In other words, the work-and-life balance is tipped differently for women: they are loaded with the unpaid work to a greater extent than men, and this issue is connected to the fact that less than 60%4 of the working-age women were employed in 2009 (Ferrao, 2015, para. 1). It is difficult to find a balance when there are some extra weights on the scale, and it is not surprising that many women simply do not try, settling for low-wage jobs or none at all.
I am not implying that everyone must be pursuing career opportunities, but this issue of unbalanced scales does exist. Given this tendency that remains typical in modern society, it is not surprising that diversity courses produce dissatisfactory results, and inequality persists: it simply begins at home.
One of the problems that every woman faces in a family business is that of succession. There are various approaches to succession in the family business. Ward (2016) believes that it depends on the model of the family and singles out eight models. In the model of Royal Families, the right to lead the business belongs to the oldest son. As a rule, he is the first child to enter the business. Besides, in such families, daughters are often excluded from the business and have to make a career elsewhere. This model contradicts the modern tendency for equal opportunities for women. In the model of Anarchical Families, there are no clear rules of succession. All children have equal rights and voices in the business. Moreover, the children are not obliged to join a family business; this model gives freedom for women to decide their destiny. Laissez-Faire Families are similar to anarchical family, but they usually plan to sell the family company because they believe that their children should start a business of their own. In this model children of both sexes will get equal shares. In Social Democratic Families parents provide equal opportunities for all their children. If children enter the business, they share equal titles and are equal partners.
If they choose not to join the business, they get equivalent assets. Democratic Capitalist Families consider that everyone gets what one deserves. Thus, the benefits from the business are shared according to the contribution. Representative Democracy Families prefer appointing a trustee to run the business instead of the family. The equity among the family members is provided through equal shares. In Pure Capitalist or Entrepreneurial Families, the founder of the company believes that no one can follow him. Thus, the owner does not choose a successor and usually sells the business. The Utopian Families consider a business a great resource for building an empire and a strong family. This system benefits all family members. Every family member can enter the business, but it needs hard work.
The report of the Family Business Center of Excellence (2015) suggests then study of female representation in the biggest world family businesses. The report states that 55% of the 525 examined companies have a minimum of one woman on their board (Family Business Center of Excellence, 2015). Besides, 70% of the family businesses are thinking of a woman as a possible next CEO candidate. Moreover, it is reported that the interest of women in joining family businesses increased during the last three years. The figures prove that the involvement of female family members to the leading roles in companies has some economic sense. The examples here are that “companies with more women in leadership increase focus on corporate governance, corporate responsibility, talent dynamics, and market acuity” (Family Business Center of Excellence, 2015, p. 3) and the fact that a gender-balanced board is usually identified with better corporate social performance. Nevertheless, despite some progress in this issue, female participation in a family business is still a challenge all over the world.
Koffi, Guihur, Morris, and Fillion (2014) investigate the peculiarities of bringing the credibility of successors in the family business by male and female predecessors. The research revealed both similarities and differences in this issue. There is only one common behavior observed in how men and women increase the credibility of their successor. It is the accreditation. It is stated that women select the successor basing on “confidence, organized to inspire them, putting an accent on teamwork” (Koffi et al., 2014, p. 73), in other words, it can be called maternal leadership. Male predecessors tend to control the successors, make them prove their worth, and demonstrate “the didactic type of work” (Koffi et al., 2014, p. 73). Considering the information above, male predecessors prefer men as their successors, while women do not demonstrate a distinct preference. This fact can become one more challenge for women who want to enter a family business.
Theoretical Framework
Since the study combines two big issues, those of family business and gender inequality, the theories that will help to examine the problems that women face in the family business have to cover both subjects. The theoretical framework of the study includes a family business theory, theory of justice, and theory of social and gender roles. A family business theory presupposes that the leading positions in the company should be occupied by the family members. It means that there are family representatives both in the Board of Directors and the top management. Thus the issue of succession is important, particularly when there are two and more children in the family. The theory of justice presupposes that every individual is supposed to have equal rights. Concerning a family business, it means that any child, if he or she desires, should have the right to enter a family company. The theory of social and gender roles applies to the family business when a woman wants to join it. Sometimes male family members create barriers appealing to the fact that historically women’s role is to be a wife and a mother while men should make a living. Fortunately, these prejudices become less popular. However, there are still many problems that women face in a family business.
References
Family Business Center of Excellence. (2015). Women in leadership: The family business advantage. Web.
Koffi, V., Guihur, I., Morris, T., & Fillion, G. (2014). Family businesses succession: How men and women predecessors can bring credibility to their successors? Entrepreneurial Executive, 19, 67-85.
Ward, J.L. (2016). Keeping the family business healthy: How to plan for continuing growth, profitability, and family leadership. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
The struggle for female rights has come a long way from the past century. It may be hard to believe now, but before 1919, it was considered a crime for women to wear trousers. Women had no voting rights, little to no property rights, and no protection from physical abuse in their own household. Through those struggles for equality and against abuse, modern women can now enjoy the rights they deserve. However, the struggle is not over yet. Gender inequality still exists in many different shapes and forms, ranging from blatant disregard for basic human rights in some areas of the world to traditionalist enforcement of gender roles and stereotyping and sexualization of females. While progress is being made, we are still a long way away from true equality that many women around the world are struggling for. This paper is dedicated to analyzing modern female disparities in different areas of the world.
Gender Inequality in Europe and the USA
Most countries of the First World, such as European states and the USA, are leading the world’s march towards equality between men and women. The laws of these countries generally do not discriminate between genders, meaning that, on the paper at least, men and women are equal (Fernandez 40). However, problems still exist. Traditionalist views on gender roles still exist and are reinforced by religious beliefs to some degree. The Catholic Church, which is prominent in the USA and has influence in many European countries, has largely formed modern western sexual morality and gender roles. The Church itself remains a domain largely dominated by males, with the head of the Catholic Church, the Pope, always being male (Fernandez 67). Other disparities that females have to face is the alleged wage gap, which remains a controversial subject for many researchers. Some researchers on gender studies affirm the existence of a wage gap between men and women standing at about 20%, while other researchers find that the discrepancy can have numerous economic explanations other than prejudice and gender inequality (Fernandez 43). In western societies, women tend to be underrepresented in such key areas as the police, military, and the government – these areas tend to be male-dominated, despite the fact that the laws technically allow for equal opportunity for both genders to apply for these roles (Fernandez 50).
Gender Inequality in Asia (China, Japan, India)
Many countries in Asia are currently in their economic development stages. They are quickly adopting many western practices, technologies, and laws, which include progressive laws that promote equality between men and women. However, there are many obstacles that stand in the way. Many leading Asian countries, such as China, India, and Japan, have deep-seated and ancient traditions rooted in their culture (Kaufman 586). These traditions reserve the females a role of a housekeeper and place severe restrictions on what a woman should do or aspire to. While these restrictions are not obligatory for every female to follow, the rest of society views independence and personal ambitions negatively. In Japan, for example, it is very hard for unmarried women to find work, and single working women have trouble marrying (Kaufman 590). In addition to that, some countries still promote inequality despite the laws clearly being against it. Proof of that can be found in India, where half of the judges think it is acceptable for a husband to beat up his wife, despite it clearly being against the law. On the other hand, violence against men is treated as assault and battery (Kaufman 601). Females are rarely present in any government structures and occupy the less-paid segments of the labor market.
Gender Inequality in Africa and the Middle East
In Africa and the Middle East, the situation with gender inequality is, perhaps, the worst, and showcases the worst traits of patriarchy that gender equality movements are fighting against. The laws and customs of the countries located in Africa and the Middle East are shaped by many factors. These factors are:
Religion. The dominant religion of the region is Islam. It is a very strict religion with numerous rules and customs that diminish women and rob them of their rights. Women are forced to wear hijabs and can be condemned to being stoned to death for adultery (Tomescu and Trofin 76).
Traditions. Many countries in the Middle East uphold ancient and outdated traditions that diminish women’s rights and spread inequality between women and men. Some of these traditions include marriage. In Saudi Arabia, for example, women are often married to men they do not even know, due to family traditions of choosing husbands for their daughters. Men, on the other hand, retain the right to choose their own spouses (Tomescu and Trofin 125).
Laws. Some of the laws in the Middle East are clearly unfair towards women. Even in relatively secular countries of Saudi Arabia and the UAE, women are not allowed to drive a car, are forced into wearing hijabs, and require permission from their husbands in order to attend any invasive medical procedures such as surgeries. Women are not officially present in any government structure. While some of them, such as Princess Ameerah Al-Taweel, have a modicum of influence due to their position and are actively advocating for equality and women’s rights, the majority of women do not have such possibilities. Until 2015, women in Saudi Arabia were not allowed to vote (Tomescu and Trofin 149).
War. During a war, the laws are silent. Numerous countries in Africa and the Middle East are currently in turmoil, as various dictatorships were toppled as the result of Arab Spring revolts. During a military conflict, inequality and injustices against women are always on the rise, as women are often unable to defend themselves from violence (Tomescu and Trofin 97).
In Africa, the situation is slightly different. The influence of Islam on local traditions and attitudes towards women is obvious, but at the same time, most African states do not have the same amount of resources as countries in the Middle East. Without economic prosperity, many of them degenerated into anarchy and lawlessness, as it could be seen in Somalia, Nigeria, and other African states. Without a stable government to enforce the laws and promote equality, society reverted to patriarchal clan-like structures, where women retain very little in terms of equality and freedom (Tomescu and Trofin 285). In rural parts of the continent, various indigenous people live in tribes, their level of societal development being very low. Talks of women’s rights and gender equality in these tribes are nonexistent.
Conclusions
While the presence and scope of inequality in First World countries are up for debate, the majority of the world still allows for discrepancy towards females to continue. The situation in Asia and the Middle East remains unjust and disadvantageous for more than 1 billion women, who are denied work, marriage, dignity, and even basic human rights. This situation demands greater action towards equality between men and women everywhere. While the first fighters for equality and women’s rights made a great difference in the past century, there is plenty of work cut out for modern equality movements around the world.
Works Cited
Fernandez, Raquel. “Women’s Rights and Development.” Journal of Economic
Growth, vol. 19, no. 1, 2014, pp. 37-80.
Kaufman, Joan. “The Global Women’s Movement and Chinese Women’s Rights.”
Journal of Contemporary China, vol. 21, no. 76, 2012, pp. 585-602.
Tomescu, Madalina and Liliana Trofin. Women’s Rights in the Middle East. Addleton
