Category: Gender

Introduction

Gender analysis assesses the effects of actions on both women and men. Gender analysis tends to focus on women more than men. The institutional structures view women as insubordinate. This could be termed as an aspect of women marginalization. Women are not involved in planning, decision making, policy formulation, training, employment and in projects. Women have been marginalized in politics, schools, economic and family setting.

Consequently, men have emerged as the privileged gender. Men who come from high social status have enjoyed the impacts of development. The economic status of women usually denies them a chance to access and maintain quality healthcare (World Health Organization, 2002, p. 1).

There is a need to examine gender relations in health care. This will enable policy makers to implement policies that benefit the least advantaged gender in the society.

This essay defines gender analysis and discusses the application of gender analysis to the health status of women of different incomes. The paper will also examine the implications of gender analysis to public policy and how research can contribute to gender analysis.

Gender Analysis in health care

Gender analysis in healthcare can be defined as the process of evaluating effects in healthcare provision from a social and economic perspective on both male and female genders.

The aim of gender analysis is to promote sustainability of healthcare provisions, enhance equity and identify areas with challenges. The assessment highlights areas of involvement, achievements and failures associated with either men or women. Gender analysis will provide the information required to plan and implement effective programs (Hunt, 2004, p. 100).

According to Office for Womens Policy (2005, p. 8), gender analysis in health care involves identifying healthcare experiences for both men and women and noting the disparities. The aims and objectives of the policies are analyzed to obtain their impacts on men and women.

Data on different groups including the high, middle and low social class women and men is obtained and analyzed. Investigations on the effects of the policy on different genders are recorded and evaluated. Innovative solutions are obtained to overcome the challenges.

Recommendation of the most appropriate solution that will achieve gender equity is considered. The policy and the program are communicated and the indicators mentioned.

To examine health status of women of different incomes, it is necessary to obtain information concerning sex in the community, households and in the workplaces. Their health care needs, the level of income and access to health care are also important to gender analysis (Women and Healthcare Reform Group, 2009).

Gender analysis involves aspects like convenience and access to health care facilities. It also involves attitudes and perceptions about health for both men and women. Gender analysis will seek to obtain information on health care providers and investigate their attitude towards male and female. The influence of different instructions such as schools and religious institution can be analyzed. The implications of diverse attitudes from policy makers in health matters should be examined.

The equipment, infrastructure, environment, waiting time and access to facilities can be analyzed. The source of motivation for health care providers and the hospital guidelines used can be assessed. The services that are offered, community involvement, education materials and organization structure can contribute to the assessment of gender analysis.

Financing in health care is an aspect of gender analysis. The focus is placed on areas that are given priority in relation to gender analysis. Analyzing the stakeholders and decision making process on their ability to recognize gender issues in health institutions is significant. Obtaining information on service delivery for both genders is essential for gender analysis in healthcare, as Jackson et al (2006, p. 1) mention.

Social indicators of health and illnesses between men and women should be analyzed. Depending on the roles and the economic social status, differences may affect the access and availability of health care resources. Poverty may increase vulnerability.

Women who are left with the responsibility of providing and childcare may lack the resources to access health care. Cultural norms have a great impact on the perception of health by both men and women. Men and women give different levels of attention to illness, preventive measures and treatment. Culture affects the attitudes of both genders.

Quality healthcare is important in healthcare provisions. High social class women have access to quality health care owing to their economic status. The low class struggle to obtain and access healthcare. They are exposed by their environment and sometimes lack information on measures to prevent preventable illnesses. A large number of women belong to the low social class and the middle class. Consequently, they receive low quality health care than men. Poor quality health care may have negative effects on women.

Policies impact the implementation and the outcomes of every program in healthcare. Policies are the foundation for programs undertaken in health care institutions. The assumption is that policies address prevailing health issues. Gender blind policies ignore the differences between male and female and foster widespread gender inequalities. Gender aware policies are neutral, specific or redistributive.

The aim of gender awareness policies is to recognize the differences in men and women and attempt to attain equality between them. They also address specific issues in one gender and transform existing policies in order to accommodate both men and women irrespective of their situation (World Health Organization, 2002, p. 32).

According to Moana (1999, p. 4), policies based on gender analysis avoid discrimination of one gender. Most of the policies eliminate gender discrimination against women, who are often the victims of gender inequality. Basic health care is a human right and should reflect in public policy.

Health care policies that reflect gender analysis overcome unconstructive cultural practices and promote the availability of healthcare at an affordable price for women of all social classes. They also enhance accessibility to health care facilities. The application of gender policies will enable women to have access to reproductive healthcare services. Occupational challenges related to childcare and health care for women in career development will be alleviated if policies that are gender sensitive are implemented.

According to USAID (2012), gender analysis can be achieved if men and women collaborate in the evaluation and implementation of policies. Policies that are implemented should incorporate the community. It should not be viewed as a means of attaining equality but as an avenue for improving the lives of the marginalized. The programs should ensure that both men and women from low to high social class benefit.

Muecke (1996, p. 385) notes that healthcare providers pay little attention to gender when offering services. The value of gender analysis can be recognized if the quality of healthcare given to women is known. Gender analysis will enable healthcare providers improve the quality of healthcare given to women from diverse economic backgrounds.

If gender analysis is implemented, women with low income will access quality health care. Health services will be convenient and accessible. Programs that are implemented in health care will become a success because some of the issues and challenges will be overcome. Policies will be effective in meeting the needs of diverse groups in society. Gender analysis will contribute to the awareness of gender issues while enhancing the capabilities of women in society (Office For Womens Policy, 2005, p. 5).

Research in gender analysis will inform the policy makers to formulate policies that will improve the quality of healthcare for women. Additionally, policies should be communicated to women, to whom the quality of healthcare services is directed (Muecke1996, p. 385).

World Health Organization (2002, p. 10) reveals that research provides a clear understanding of the issues in gender. Moreover, research can be effective in providing a solution for the challenges encountered in the analysis of gender. Research can also be used to set agendas and to determine the measures that are effective for prevailing problems.

Conclusion

Gender analysis mainly focuses on women. In health care, gender analysis eliminates the inequality related to gender, sustenance and meeting the goals of programs, identify issues and enable equal distribution of health resources to both genders of all social classes. Gender analysis informs policy formulation and is based on research.

Women of low income are more vulnerable than men. Gender analysis is a process that recognizes that men and women have different roles and are economically diverse. Women have been marginalized by the social institutions. Change will be realized if men and women collaborate. Gender analysis will improve the health of both genders if gender aware policies are implemented.

Reference List

Hunt, J. (2004). Introduction to gender analysis concepts and steps. Development Bulletin, 64, 100-106. Web.

Jackson, B. E., Pederson, A., & Boscoe, R. N. M. (2006). Gender-based analysis and waits Time. Web.

Moana, E. (1999). Implementing the CEDAW Convention in Hong Kong: Gender Policy Analysis. Web.

Muecke, M. (1996). The gender analysis imperative: introduction to the special issue. Health care for women international, 17 (5): 385-392.

Office For Womens Policy. (2005). Gender analysis. Web.

USAID. (2012). Gender Analysis Example: Health. Web.

Women and Healthcare Reform Group. (2009). Principles of Gender-Based Analysis of Health Care Reform. Web.

World Health Organization. (2002). Gender Analysis in Health. A review of selected tools. Web.

Gender refers to the perceived behavioral and psychological roles that are associated with men and women. Preves describes gender from a different perspective, a childs gender is inferred from his/her sex. As the child ages, her or his sex is inferred from gender (524). This implies that, a childs gender start to be perceived as he/she grows and starts to assume different roles as either a man or a woman.

The study of racism and its various orientations is crucial to ones understanding of gender relations. Racism is a belief based on the assumption that ones race is superior compared to others. This could also emanate from their cultures and on the development status of a given society on which people could base their discrimination.

In the ancient times, trafficking of ladies of South Asian origin to the United Kingdom was rampant, where they could be tested for virginity before they were taken there. In the American societies, Africans and Latinos may be denied access to loans but their white counterparts be allowed just because of the black race that is believed by the whites as that of criminals.

Besides, if a black woman reports of domestic violence, the authorities first question of her immigration status before handling the case. This clearly shows how blacks could be treated if they married the whites or even engaged them in relationships.

People encounter racism, classism and sexuality differently depending on their social location in the structure of race and class. For instance, people of the one race may experience racism differently depending on their class in society (Collins 43).

This could be due to their economic positions that they hold such as being owners of the means of production in the society which places them at a higher class despite their race. Also, they may enroll their children in schools of the racists but still the children feel as being part of the group as they would want to behave as other children from the racist society.

In addition, the study of classism shades light on the understanding of gender relations. Classism may be looked at as the discrimination of one person by another based on his/her socioeconomic class. Classism can be based on the school one studies, his/her society, and where he/she stays, among others.

Class emanates from rules and conventions found in institutions, in unwritten custom and legal practice (Bowles 106). Classism can be considered at institutional, intergroup and individual levels. At institutional level we look at private ownership where one or a few people own the

means of production (land, labor and capital), placing them at a better position to impose their power and control over those who lack such means.

As a result, employees work for long hours, are mistreated, and work in difficult conditions and at the end of the day they share their produce disproportionately (the rich takes the large share). Besides, the legal system seems to favor the rich more and the trend where the rich become richer and the poor become poorer shall continue.

In African culture, women are considered to be inferior in their societies. This is highly supported in their cultures where they believe that women should be under their men and be submissive to them. As a result, issues of gender inequalities are common in the African continent, where many young girls are married off at school age in exchange for dowry.

Besides, the number of boys accessing schools is higher than that of girls. This predisposes the women to an inferior class where men are considered to be more learned and hence make decisions and also hold leadership positions in their communities.

These African cultures relates with the study conducted by Alia in Canada where she talks of the predicament of the Inuit women. Alia argues that once married, the Inuit woman is supposed to change her last name and replace it with that of the husbands father (78). This would then be followed by calling her child by the name of the husbands father because she is not allowed to address her father in-law by his name.

This clearly illustrates the discrimination of women based on their gender roles, something that has spurred concern among the African society that women are now reclaiming their lost position in the society through their campaign for gender equality.

On the other hand, the study of heterosexism exposes us to the understanding of gender relations and how opposite sex couples are favored over lesbians, gay men and bisexuals.

You find that, couples of the same sex are denied promotions at work place, tax benefits and visitation rights that the opposite sex enjoys. Heterosexists consider other sexual orientations as second class citizens, because of their negligence by the legal system.

Heterosexism affects the family where in most legal systems same sex marriage is not allowed (Adams 23). They are denied some rights such as adoption of children, social security benefits and hospital spousal rights. In addition, heterosexism predisposes other sexual orientations to marginalization.

Their acts are seen as those of deviant behaviors that are not acceptable in the society. This has made some of them to hide their sexual orientations from friends for fear of being discriminated.

Both Christians and Muslims recognize heterosexism as the only sexual orientation that is allowed in the society. This is because the sole purpose of two couples uniting is to sire children and bring them up in the family. Christians also believe that as Christ is the head of the church the man should also be the head of the family.

The other sexual orientations are considered to be against the teachings of the Koran and the Bible. It beats logic that lesbians and gay men have to assume both men and women roles in their relationships, but still fail to recognize the importance of heterosexism.

Bem uses the terms lenses of gender to describe the hidden assumptions about gender among the Euro-North American society (65). She argues that we should look through three lenses and they include androcentrism, gender polarization, and biological essentialism. The polarization lens is the one responsible for marginalizing the non heterosexists by seeking to determine the man and the woman in society. People use such lenses to classify others as lesbians, gay men or bisexuals in their societies.

It is worth noting that to understand gender relations, the study of anti-Semitism is important. Anti-Semitism is a form of discrimination that is projected against the Jews due to their relation with the Jewish heritage.

Harap argues that anti-Semitism is based on various orientations including religion where the Jews are seen as the Christ killer, economical where they are viewed as money-obsessed, social where they are seen as socially inferior, ideological where they are regarded as subversive or revolutionary and cultural where they are regarded as undermining the structural fiber of civilization (76). Indeed the study of racism, classism, heterosexism and anti-Semitism shades more light toward understanding of gender relations.

Works Cited

Adams, Jones. Teaching for Diversity and Social Justice. Routledge, 2007. Print.

Alia, Valerie. Inuit Women and the Politics of Naming Nunavut. Halifax: Fernwood, 1994. Print.

Bem, Sandra.The Lenses of Gender: Transforming the Debate on Sexual Inequality. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993. Print.

Bowles, Smith. Understanding Capitalism. New York: Harper-Collins, 1996. Print.

Collins, Henry. Toward a New Vision: Race, Class and Gender as categories of analysis and connection. New York: Harrington Park Press, 1993. Print.

Harap, John. Creative Awakening: the Jewish presence in twentieth century American literature. Greenwood Publishing Group, 1987. Print.

Preves, Sharon. Sexing the Intersexed: An Analysis of Sociocultural responses to Intersexuality. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2002. Print.

Introduction

It is amazing to note that some people spend more time feeding on media content than doing an assignment, exercising or even sleeping. While this may be a leisure activity for some people, the impact of media cannot be underestimated today (Bennett 2005, p. 12). This assessment essay focuses on the issue of gender representation in media, with regard to image, roles and stereotypes.

Media representation

What is media representation? According to media theorists, representation refers to any model in any medium that defines a real aspect, say, people, events, objects, places and cultural identities among countless abstract concepts. Such representation may be written, spoken or expressed in moving pictures.

In defining media representation, the end products are also considered through the construction of ones identity. For instance, an issue like gaze may consider how women look at images of women, men at women or even women at men (Bennett 2005, p. 12).

An important point to note is that all texts are always constructed irrespective of how realistic they may appear. They do not represent mere recordings or reproduction of pre-existing circumstances that are real (Briggs & Cobley 2002, p. 10).

Additionally, representations may become familiar and natural when they are used constantly. As a result, such denotations may become acceptable by the general public because of their recurring nature. Although it is never taken with a lot of emphasis, there is always need to interpret representations in order to appreciate the intended meaning.

Due to this assumption, most people end up making modality judgments towards various representations through the media. Above all, representation is unavoidable; it always exits even when we have no idea about its existence. As a result, its impact in human life is inevitable.

Gender and media representation

Gender is arguably the basic element of identification commonly used to categorize human beings as men or women. Nevertheless, the concept of gender is also sensitive and of immense significance in discussing media representation (Laughey 2009, p. 10).

Based on this element, each group identifies its members through similarities that are either inherent or borrowed from the surrounding in order to find a suitable and definitive description. In other words, human beings tend to obey the acceptable definition of man or woman by identifying themselves with certain elements.

In the understanding of media representation, it is worth noting that there are several objects, which are usually represented even though they may not necessarily be human (Dines & Humez 2010, p. 3). This representation usually aims at giving that item feminine or masculine characteristics.

From a simple understanding, masculinity is associated with hard, tough and sweaty issues while feminine objects appear fragrant, fragile and soft. Common objects represented with either a masculine or feminine-touch include but not limited to, smart phones, running shoes, bottled beer, an airline and a sports car.

Representation of role models

As mentioned above, media plays a significant role in shaping our lives and understanding of what it means to be a man or woman. No one can deny that role models do have impact on millions of people consuming media content (Andrews & Jackson 2001, p. 20).

Role models are supposed to influence the society positively. Is this how they are represented? Whether in a commercial advert or any representation, prominent people are usually used to define men and women in a different way. It is however important to ask how these role models represent variation of men and women.

In other words, representation of men and women through the media may not necessarily reflect the identity of an entire generation or society (Bennett 2005, p. 5). In fact, some theorists argue that gender representation is undoubtedly based on stereotypes among various people.

At this point, it is imperative to affirm that stereotypic representation of men and women using role models usually exerts negative effects on the society. For example, people tend to identify themselves with particular personalities by emulating their lifestyle in terms of dress code, dietary or even the way of talking (Bucy 2002, p. 20).

Media stereotyping

Does media represent the true image of men and women? Stereotyping is not a new term in the media industry especially with regard to how men and women are represented. In fact, stereotyping in media cannot be avoided and it is a common phenomenon in news, advertising and entertainment industries (Carrington 2010, p. 138).

What is not known to many people is the fact that media stereotypes act as hints or codes, which help viewers, listeners or readers to figure out an individual or group of people, with regard to social class, occupation or ethnicity among other aspect of identity.

Notably, media stereotypes have a wide range of negative effects. For example, the manner in which men and women are represented may reduce their inherent differences into classes of people defined by simple traits (Giddings & Lister 2011, p. 10).

Similarly, stereotypes affect the manner in which people perceive life. They change perceptions into realities, such that people may begin to actualize the image represented by the media. In some cases, media stereotypes are used to erroneously justify some positions, say, for leaders in power.

This can be misleading to the public, as they may adopt a misguided meaning of leadership and power (Carrington 2010, p. 138). It has to be mentioned that groups of people who are prone to being stereotyped usually have minimum or no influence in determining their representation. Based, on this argument, media stereotypes have a significant impact on the society.

Women and men representation in media

Under normal circumstance, one would expect the media to represent men and women positively. Is this the case? No! From TV shows to fashion magazines on the streets, women have always been represented negatively. Think of advertising agents and women. Almost every advert, whether for cars or food, carries the image of a woman (Cashmore 2006, p. 98).

Popular female personalities appear to have peculiar features like extreme thinness, bleached skins and always becoming younger in spite of their advanced age. It is very common to find media adverts or articles influencing women to adopt certain beauty standards perceived to be more appealing and acceptable than their natural outlook even though some of the conditions may be unattainable (Hills & Kennedy 2009, p. 13).

It is viewed that economics of beauty play a major role. By insisting on an ideal figure, body size and skin color, cosmetic and diet industries enhance continuity of their business as they have a ready market (Livingstone 2002, p. 77).

Importantly, insecure women are more prone to acquiring these products as compared to those who are comfortable with their body images. In order to achieve these extreme and unattainable standards, most women resort to unhealthy eating habits like induced vomiting, skipping meals or even opting for diet aids (Creeber & Martin 2009, p. 5).

Magazines, movies and television emphasize the need for ladies to have a thin body, associating it with wealth, prosperity, love and a happy life. Besides body image, media represents women as sex objects. TV, movies and magazines carry ads which imply that a womans body is supposed to be sexually active and attractive.

In terms of professionalism, women are underrepresented. Mainstream media concentrates on having men as main news presenters while women are allowed to report on minor issues like domestic violence and accidents (Cashmore 2006, p.188).

Are men exempted from negative representation? The truth is that men are differently represented in the media. In most cases, men are seen to be in control of others, aggressive, physically appealing and financially stable (Dworkin & Heywood 2003, p. 65).

This representation has far-reaching implications on the society, as boys and men assimilate what that they consume from the media into their daily lives. They therefore tend to be in control of every situation in life and may resort to aggression in cases where they find resistance, emulating how male characters carry themselves in media (Wenner 1998, p. 27).

Male stereotypes in media are grouped into five classes as follows. The joker presents men as people who lack seriousness, while the jock fights in life and finds approval in the eyes of men. On the other hand, the strong silent type portrays a decisive man who is always in control (Rowe 2011, p. 20).

The big shot denotes a professionally, socially and economically stable man, in possession of societal dreams like wealth and power. Lastly, the action hero man is angry and violent. All these representations affect the manner in which the society perceives men, how men define their position in the society and how boys define masculinity (Whannel 2001, p. 1).

As a major marketing tool, advertising ought to communicate the intended message in the most appropriate manner. As a result, men and women can be used in wooing customers in the business world, in a positive way. However, researchers affirm that most ads designed for men are common during sports shows.

Accordingly, women are rarely featured, with stereotypes taking center stage among a few that are considered. In extreme cases, women are represented as gifts given to men who have the capability of choosing the best products on the market (Wenner 1998, p. 27).

With regard to beer commercials, most ads carry slim and white men, who attract women. Additionally, adverts present men as powerful and masculine. They therefore dominate, while women are stereotypically portrayed as slender and on special diet. This approach has negative impact on the society through emulation of certain traits by people who feed on media content.

Conclusion

From this assessment, it is clear that media plays an immense role in shaping human life, through information. Nevertheless, representation of gender in media is a debatable issue that continues to affect the society today.

There is no doubt that some of the vices observed like scanty dressing, poor eating disorders and violence are directly or indirectly propagated by the media through stereotyping; both men and women are victims.

Reference List

Andrews, D & Jackson, S 2001, Sport Stars: The Cultural Politics of Sporting Celebrity, Routledge, London.

Bennett, A 2005, Culture and Everyday Life, SAGE, London.

Briggs, A & Cobley, P 2002, The Media: An Introduction, Longman, Harlow.

Bucy, E 2002, Living in the Information Age: A New Media Reader, Wadsworth New York.

Carrington, B 2010, Race, Sport and Politics, Sage, London.

Cashmore, E 2006, Celebrity/Culture, Routledge, London.

Creeber, G & Martin, R 2009, Digital Cultures: Understanding New Media, Open University Press, Michigan.

Dines, G & Humez, R 2010, Gender Race and Class in the Media, Routledge, London.

Dworkin, S & Heywood, L 2003, Built to win: The female athlete as cultural icon, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.

Giddings, S & Lister, M 2011, The New Media and Techno-cultures Reader, Routledge, London.

Hills, L & Kennedy, E 2009, Sport, Media and Society, Berg, Oxford.

Laughey, D 2009, Media Studies: Theories and approaches, Oldcastle Books, Harpenden.

Livingstone, S 2002, Young People and New Media, Sage, London.

Rowe, D 1998, Global Media Sport: Flows, Forms and Futures, Bloomsbury, London.

Wenner, L 1998, Media Sport, Routledge, New York.

Whannel, G 2001, Media Sport Stars: Masculinities and Moralities, Routledge, London.

The article in question dwells upon the issues concerning representation in terms of gender. The author tries to come up with the most appropriate pattern of representation of the woman. Chow concludes that representation as well as self-representation is subjective and interconnected with such notions as ethnicity, race, class, etc. The author starts the article with a strong argument.

He states that human societies often rely on the system of signs which presupposes hierarchization and evaluation (Chow 38). Humans make out specific signs that stand for specific ideas, notions, phenomena, etc. The author proceeds by defining representation in terms of gender.

The researcher notes that women should be seen as equal to men (as both represent human beings), though they are often regarded as inferior to males. Thus, the author comes to a very important conclusion.

He tries to define those who are engaged in development of representation. The author claims that representation of women is worked out by men in terms of imperialistic Western cultures (Chow 42).

The author concludes that if representation is such a subjective phenomenon, people should rely on self-representation. The researcher states that people have already acknowledged benefits of self-representation as such works as diaries, memoirs and auto-biographies have gained popularity.

Chow also argues that self-representation can be regarded as the result of the democratization of Western societies (44). The author also provides Foucaults ideas concerning self-representation. Chow also claims that self-representation has become non-representative as people tend to depict imaginary selves. The author also refers to Spivaks ideas concerning representation of women.

The author provides particular examples which vividly illustrate the researchers ideas. One of the brightest examples is the way pornography is seen by different people. The author argues that this can be regarded as a kind of representation and self-representation. Chow concludes that representation of women is closely connected with such notions as inequality, class, religion, ethnicity, etc.

The article in question touches upon very disputable issues. These issues are also considered in other works. For instance, Brenda J. Allen focuses on issues concerning self-identity and self-representation (228).

The author argues that it can be difficult to find oneself, though it is crucial for self-development and self-realization. Another work also touches upon issues concerning self-identity (Wong(Lau) 267). The author notes that race, class and gender are interconnected.

The author also deals with the importance of self-identity in terms of these notions. One more work focuses on the racial aspect of self-representation (Harris 240). Notably, though the major focus is made on race, the author also pays a lot of attention to gender and class. All these works contribute greatly to the development of the overall discourse concerning gender and self-identity.

Thus, it is possible to claim that researchers have developed a particular vision of self-representation claiming that such notions as class, gender, ethnicity and race are interconnected.

Admittedly, the articles mentioned are important in terms of Communication Studies as they help to focus on really important issues that influence the way people see themselves and others. Of course, representation and self-representation shape communication strategies to great extent.

The article under consideration focuses on the issue concerning womens representation in the human society. Interestingly, Chow mentions various scenarios that depend on ethnicity and cultural peculiarities. Thus, Chow also touches upon issues concerning oriental viewpoints on the matter (47).

However, it is possible to note that Chow is somewhat too theoretical, i.e. the author focuses on trends rather than real life experiences. Other works on the issue can become a good illustration for the ideas revealed by Chow. For instance, Bowen reveals her own experiences which can be illustrative in terms of womens representation and self-representation (41).

The author recounts her upbringing and the way she adopts feminist values. Bowen claims that being a Jewish girl she had to live in the mens world where women were seen as somewhat inferior members of the society. However, she manages to rethink her role in the society. Likewise, Hoda Al-Mutawah considers the role of women in the mens world (36).

The author also focuses on the way women are represented in the Muslim world. The author reveals the way she has changed her perspectives. Al-Mutawah provides her own experience which can be the necessary illustration to such theoretical approaches as Chows perspective. Admittedly, the three works are of exclusive importance for the field of Communication Studies.

These articles provide insights into the development of representation and self-representation of women across the world. The articles reveal experiences of women who develop specific outlooks on the basis of certain cultural peculiarities and contemporary trends.

These articles also help to understand the ways contemporary women see themselves in the society. This understanding can definitely help to work out specific communicative patterns. The articles can help people understand the contemporary values to communicate effectively with people pertaining to other groups (in terms of ethnicity, gender, etc.).

Discussion question: Based on the Chows article, reveal similarities and differences between representation and self-representation of women in the contemporary society.

Works Cited

Allen, Brenda J. Sapphire and Sappho: Allies in Authenticity. Our Voices: Essays in Culture, Ethnicity, and Communication. Eds. Alberto Gonzalez, Marsha Houston, and Victoria Chen. New York, NY: Roxbury Publishing Company, 2011. 228-233. Print.

Al-Mutawah, Hoda. Women and Islam: A Muslim Feminist Perspective. Our Voices: Essays in Culture, Ethnicity, and Communication. Eds. Alberto Gonzalez, Marsha Houston, and Victoria Chen. New York, NY: Roxbury Publishing Company, 2011. 35-41. Print.

Bowen, Sheryl Perlmutter. Jewish and/or Woman: Identity and Communicative Style. Our Voices: Essays in Culture, Ethnicity, and Communication. Eds. Alberto Gonzalez, Marsha Houston, and Victoria Chen. New York, NY: Roxbury Publishing Company, 2011. 41-47. Print.

Chow, Rey. Gender and Representation. Feminist Consequences: Theory for the New Century. Ed. Elisabeth Bronfen and Misha Kavka. New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 2001. 38-57. Print.

Harris, Tina M. I Know It Was Blood: Defining the Biracial Self in a Euro-American Society. Our Voices: Essays in Culture, Ethnicity, and Communication. Eds. Alberto Gonzalez, Marsha Houston, and Victoria Chen. New York, NY: Roxbury Publishing Company, 2011. 239-244. Print.

Wong(Lau), Kathleen. Working Through Identity: Understanding Class in the Context of Race, Ethnicity, and Gender. Our Voices: Essays in Culture, Ethnicity, and Communication. Eds. Alberto Gonzalez, Marsha Houston, and Victoria Chen. New York, NY: Roxbury Publishing Company, 2003. 266-271. Print.

Introduction

Studies conducted in the past have shown that women or even young girls are often likely to show sadness than anger as compared to boys or men who tend to show anger more than sadness. This paper seeks to discuss ways through which gender influences the display rules for expression of emotion.

Parental training for the different sexes

The development of the gender based display rules for the expression of emotions can be partly linked to the way boys and girls are brought up. Parents often tend to bring up their children in a manner that they learn to express emotions that are consistent with gender roles.

Studies conducted indicate that parents nurture this trait by being accommodating to the girl childs sadness and anxiety and accepting the boy childs anger. Reward and punishment is also used to ensure that gender consistent character is taken up by children (Brannon 102).

Gender based socialization pressure

The influence of gender on the display of rules for emotion expression may be due to the gender based socialization pressure. The interaction between children and other members of the society often result into gender oriented roles in life.

For instance, the common say that goes big boys dont cry often hardens boys and at the same time make girls appreciate the fact that they belong to the weaker sex (Brannon 56).

Expressions like this and a lot other g ender aimed actions in the society often encourage the expression of certain emotions in males and females. Submissive emotions by girls can this be developed this way or the disharmonious characters that exhibited by boys.

The biological explanation

Various scientists have tried to link the behavioral differences between males and females to the fact that they are physiologically different. The following points have been put forward to explain how the physiological gender differences affect behaviors and by extension the display rules for expression of emotions.

Its usually observed that males tend to be more aggressive and forceful than females. Studies have linked this observation to the fact that males are more masculine than females and thus will tend to be aggressive when confronted with situations. It is also observed that females are ill prepared for physical extremes by the presence of more sensory nerve endings in their skin.

Sex typing

A common observation that has been made among primates, especially the ground dwelling ones is that males are naturally dominant in order to protect the females and the young ones. Research indicates that even when the young are raised in the absence of adults they differences are clearly observed.

These controversial finding points out that the gender roles are not necessarily learned from society, the society only acts to reinforce them.

Thus the expression of anger or aggression by males can be linked to their role in the protection of the females and the young ones, in that they are ready to fight to defend their families. The anxiety and sadness shown by females may be linked to the fact that they naturally expect to be protected by males.

Conclusion

This paper sought to identify ways through which gender influences the display rules for the expression of emotion. It has been shown that different gender based factors such as biological differences, gender directed social pressure and parental training have a profound impact on the display rule for expression of emotions.

Work Cited

Brannon, Linda. Gender: pyschological persepectives. Lake Charles: McNeese State University, 2007. Print

Gender bias refers to the situation whereby people of one gender are indiscriminately treated differently from the other gender. In the traditional ways of doing research, male respondents were being given more attention compared to their female counterparts.

Feminist research methodologies were however, developed over the years to ensure that even women get the chance to participate in the research activities. One of the factors that promote gender biases in research includes lack of sufficient research on the positions held by men and women in society.

The other factor is the kind of the research whereby the most of these psychological researches are based on stereotypes rather than the real differences between man and women. Finally, is the differences in behaviors between men and women in that women have a lot of strange behaviors brought about by changes in their hormonal balance such as during the PMS and PMT stages.

Gender bias has been a factor in research for many years. The most affected research area by this factor is medicine owing to the stereotype that most of the health disorders affect either males or females and rarely can you find ailments that affect both genders with equal magnitude.

A good example of this is when research is being conducted on cardiac disorders. These are largely believed to be common in men; hence such researches are done on male samples. The assumption made in such cases is that the female population affected by these disorders is trivial hence insignificant in the research (Brannon 231).

The result of this is that cures and control mechanisms are developed for men, and it is assumed that this will work for women too. This however could not be the case because it has been discovered that women react differently to medications compared to men.

In some cases however, gender bias in research is valid, a good example being the case of research on the condition of women during pregnancy. This will never affect men and hence using female samples to collect the data is warranted.

According to Brannon, women had always been excluded from research activities that led to the validation of most clinical drugs owing to what was referred to as safety reasons.

However, this prohibition did not have clear information on the effects of clinical drugs drugs on women (234). This finding sent most of the drugs to the laboratory also owing to the fact that women were being affected adversely by these.

Psychological research was also generally conducted on men as the original respondents then women came in second as secondary respondents. This changed after it was discovered that most people with psychological problems can be traced with a problem that affected the mothers either during pregnancy or when bringing up the child.

This perspective changed, and a conclusion was made that men may be the prototype of modern psychologys picture of the typical person, but mothers remain the typical kind of parent (Brannon 233).

From these illustrations, it is clear that gender bias is a major factor in research especially of a psychological nature. The researchers should be very sensitive to the needs of both groups before coming up with any conclusions.

They also need to come up with ways of determining with accuracy the gender that is affected by that research mostly before coming up with conclusions of the research. This will ensure that the findings are more accurate and avoid the cases where over time most psychological research findings are being considered void.

An example of this is like the one stated above which involves medication. Most of the drugs that had been produced were banned from the market when it was realized that they had adverse effects on the health of women. This could have been avoided initially by equally selecting population samples containing a mixture of men and women.

Works Cited

Brannon, Linda. Psychological Perspective 5^th ed. Louisiana: McNeese State University, 1996.

Introduction

For a long time, nursing has been associated with the female gender. The first nurses were women, and the trend has continued for years without substantial change.

The profession grew from a point of care provision to a recognized profession and the roles changed. Though it has been proved that the satisfaction of the patient is not related to the gender of the nurse, still there are findings that illustrate support the argument¹.

This paper seeks to show why the profession has been dominated by women and why there are low men recording especially in the US and Canada.

Gender differences in nursing

The issue of gender in the nursing profession within Canada and the US needs to be examined. Some studies have suggested that the patient satisfaction in some instances has a very slight link with the nurses gender.

The career patterns between male and female nurses have been very distinct before, but the two have a shared link now. Women in their career patterns are said to take up lateral moves.

On the contrary, men make linear career moves. This means that a woman is likely to spend much time in one career compared to a man.

For instance, a female nurse will spend much time in the nursing before training for another post. This is commonly known as the certificate gathered syndrome which mostly affects women².

On the contrary, men are taking up the linear career whereby they consider a career in which flexibility is fostered. Men are not grossly affected by the certificate gathered syndrome like women³.

In the nursing context, the option for nurses to stick to the nursing career is based on many factors. The dominance of females has not been willful, but inevitable. There are findings which suggest that female nurses have certificate gatherer syndrome.

This is because the dynamics of the labor markets affect women and men differently. The study of both literal and linear career paths show that the issue of minority men in nursing is due to the structural labor markets that favor men than women.

The most stated reason for the differences in the population of men and women in nursing career is the children career breaks that are experienced by both men and women. The period taken by women and men to attain nursing status is distinct⁴.

The labor markets in the United States and Canada present a dilemma to men in relation to choosing nursing profession as a career.

The nursing labor division is characterized by unqualified persons, and the payment for the unskilled has been exceedingly low. Nursing in the United States has been considered a career for the less skilled individuals.

Therefore, many men than women find it hard to advance in nursing. With the minimal hopes of advancement, few men have reluctantly joined nursing. The under-representation of men in the nursing career within the US and Canada illustrates an imbalance that should be addressed.

There are prevailing stereotypes about nursing. This cannot be ruled out since it has an influence on the Canadian and United States men on their choice of career. The nursing career has continuously been associated with caring and submission.

Large numbers of men think that these traits are for women. In addition, the notion that joining the profession will make them look unmanly has made it hard for men to take up the nursing career⁵.

There are notions in the United States and Canadian societys that perceive men as strong and aggressive. The foregoing statement shows that nursing is not in conformity with the societys expectations.

In a society whereby people are used to nursing being a womans job, it increasingly becomes hard for a man to get the societys approval after becoming a nurse.

The said stereotypes may appear trivial, but they have played an influencing effect on the choices that men make regarding their careers.

In the reasoning of many men, it is unwise to choose a career with negative perceptions whereas there are other options. Approximately, over 94 per cent of nurses in the US, as well as Canada are female⁶.

The overwhelming perception that nurses are poorly paid has not helped in making nursing profession attractive to men. The notion is also evident in childrens understanding of the term.

They believe that a man cannot be a nurse. This is passed from one generation to another hence making men shun nursing completely.

Conclusion

The foregoing literature shows that the nursing profession has been widely considered as a women career. There are stereotypes that have made it hard to have men joining this profession.

The stereotypes evident have continuously reduced the number of men joining the career. The Canadian and American nursing field is highly dominated by women due to the factors discussed above.

The negative stereotypes need to be address if the number of men joining the career is expected to go high.

Bibliography

Andrews, Margaret M., and Joyceen S. Boyle.Transcultural Concepts in Nursing Care. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2008.

Mackay, Lesley.Nursing a Problem Open. Milton Keynes: University Press, 1989.

Radcliffe, Phillip. Gender differences in career progress in nursing: towards a non essentialist theory. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 30, no. 3 (1996): 758-768.

Spillerman, Seymour. Careers, labor market structure, and socioeconomic Achievement.American Journal of Sociology 83: (1977): 551-593.

Footnotes

¹Lesley Mackay,Nursing a Problem Open. (Milton Keynes: University Press, 1989), p. 15

² Phillip Radcliffe, Gender differences in career progress in nursing: towards a non essentialist theory. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 30, 3 (1996), p. 762.

³Ibid, p 765.

⁴Lesley Mackay,Nursing a Problem Open. (Milton Keynes: University Press, 1989), p.19

⁵SeymourSpillerman, Careers, labor market structure, and socioeconomicAchievement.American Journal of Sociology 83: (1977), p. 572.

⁶Margaret M, Andrews and Joyceen S. Boyle,Transcultural Concepts in Nursing Care. (Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2008), p. 315.

It is evident that numerous people perceive the term regulation as an institutionalized framework or a process meant to streamline various provisions in people. Nonetheless, the term acknowledges the laws, rules, and policies constituting the legal instruments meant to render people regular in this context. Critically, the regulation of gender has assumed critical provisions than expected. There are norms through which such regulations are embodied.

Nonetheless, it is critical that the phenomenon becomes problematic at some instances. Discussing the aspects of gender on empirical grounds is important compared to putting it on abstractions as evident in the article. On a broader context, it is agreeable that actual gender regulations have concentrated on the works regarding feminists and lesbians/gays since these parties resonates various aspects of gender thus ruling the phenomenon (Butler, 2004).

Agreeably, it is important to understand (as posed by numerous question regarding this topic) how gender is regulated, the imposition of such regulations, incorporation of such provisions, and how the victimized parties cope up with such regulations. This is an important consideration in various contexts.

There are numerous contemplations and questions that can be subjected to the provisions of gender regulations in order to unveil their deeper meaning. Nonetheless, this is subjective to various factors that tend to regulate the phenomenon. Additionally, it is imperative to remember at least two stipulations regarding the subjection and regulation of gender as derived from the Foucaultian scholarships.

These are the reasoning provisions meant to insinuate the aspects of gender regulations. For example, regulatory powers act upon, shape, and reform their preexisting subjects. This is quite considerable in the context of gender regulation. The second stipulation is that when one becomes a subject to the concerned regulations, then, he/she is being regulated by that phenomenon. Precisely, the regulatory discourses that form the gender subjects similarly require/induce the concerned subject.

It is agreeable with the article that the suggestions claiming that gender is a norm necessitate extensive elaborations on the matter. It is evident that a norm does not equate to rules or laws; nonetheless, it operates with social practices in its entire implications. Additionally, it is agreeable that a norm might be analytically separable from the practices associated with it.

Contextually, norms might either be explicit or not; however, they regularly remain implicit and incomprehensible when they operate as normalizing principles in the social contexts (Butler, 2004). Thus, gender can be associated to norm under given circumstances despite the alleged regulation.

Agreeably, norms administer the aspects of social intelligibility of action; nonetheless, it is hardly similar to the actions it governs. Its status and effects are independent from the actions it governs. This relates to the aspects of gender regulation mentioned earlier. Claiming that gender is a norm hardly translates to the normative views of femininity and masculinity as claimed by the provided article.

It is important to note that gender is the apparatus through which production and regulation of males and females occur. This exists concurrently with hormonal, chromosomal, and other viable provisions. It also considers the psychic, normative, and formative roles that gender assumes. Precisely, gender might refer to the mechanism through which notions of masculine and feminine emerge and ultimately get neutralized.

Concurrently, there are symbolic tendencies and social norms worth considering in this context. This occurs with regard to the mentioned aspects of gender regulation, which is still controversial when scrutinized critically. It is crucial to understand this provision in various contexts. According to Levi-Strauss, the rules governing sexual exchanges elicit viable subject positions in its entire contexts.

This is a critical provision when considered and scrutinized elaborately. There are also other personalities who have contributed considerable to this pertinent topic. Ewald denotes that norms can alter constraints into mechanisms thus affecting and shifting thoughts in numerous aspects.

It is imperative to understand the provisions of norms and the problems of abstractions as noted in the article. These are helpful in providing avenues through which one can argue over the matter. Thus, it is debatable that discourse can be used to produce individuals of varying calibers.

It is important to concur with Foucault that discipline is capable of producing individuals while referring that discourse can manage, utilize, and constitute individuals who embrace it provisions. Norms help in producing common standards on which other regulatory aspects can emerge. Accordingly, norms are capable of regulating social phenomena and other internal limits in this context.

Additionally, normative individualization tends to possess no exterior in the gender regulatory contexts. There are other counter arguments regarding the aspects of the norms (Butler, 2004). For example, all oppositions in the norm are advertently contained in the very norms. The phenomenon equally relate to the aspects of normative factors.

Norms can hardly be lessened to its instances and neither can it be extracted from its instantiations. Gender norms require the aspects of reality in order to unveil their appearances and idealized dimensions. Hence, it is inferable that individuals are governed by gender, which is also a subject of norms and other related stipulations. Conclusively, it is important to do justice to people with respect to sex and trans-sexuality.

Reference

Butler, J. (2004). Gender regulations, Undoing gender. New York, NY: Routledge

Introduction

Asia is known for its rich cultural and national identities. Asians derive their sense of nationality and identity from their daily lives. Gender and sexuality are some of the areas where Asians find their identity and citizenship. This essay discusses how gender and sexuality are implicated in the construction of identity, citizenship, or community in an Asian perspective.

Body

Gender is a term that is used to refer to roles performed by men and women. The roles are learnt by young people as they grow, and are often prescribed by culture. There are roles for men and other roles for women. Sexuality refers to individual sexual tendencies, beliefs, experiences, and advocacy.

Sexuality denotes experiences and is revealed in thoughts, attitudes, values, desires, and beliefs which can be expressed. Sexuality is developed when people interact with one another socially, politically, religiously or culturally. Sexuality is influenced by ethics, spirituality, and culture (Toffler 1980).

Peletz (2011) mentions that cultural practices in Asia that go hand in hand with genders are still being practiced. There are a few changes that have emerged with modernization. Womens role as care givers is still being practiced, although women have joined men in providing for their families. Women now get educated and work with men.

According to Misra and Chandiramani (2005, p. 17), Asian states gain their identities by exercising the rights of all groups in the society. Women have their rights to make choices on matters of their sexuality. This extends to their healthcare needs and reproduction.

They exercise their freedom from being discriminated or coerced to do something because of their gender. National laws that protect women are stipulated. International laws that protect women rights are recognized and safeguarded in Asian countries.

Men and women in marital union have the right to space and get the number of children they desire. Moreover, they are free to choose the family planning practices that are suitable for them. The decision to attain the highest standards of reproductive and sexual health is on their hands (Misra and Chandiramani 2005, p. 18). Access to healthcare should not be discriminatory.

There are cases of people being discriminated because of their gender, sexual health (in the case HIV positive), political view, social status, disability, and sexual orientation. The vice is strongly discouraged by the government and stakeholders fighting for human rights. When the government encourages equality, it creates a sense of identity and citizenship among the citizens.

Thornburgh and Lin (2002) mention that there are initiatives by the government to create opportunities for all. The initiatives also encourage people to work without discrimination. Institutions are encouraged to employ both genders and give equal opportunities at work. Unfairness against pregnant women seeking opportunities or those dismissed from work because of their maternal roles is condemned by the law in different states.

Slocum (2009) argues that there are incidents where women have been shown favoritism and denied opportunities, while men have been granted opportunities. The favoritism makes women feel that they do not enjoy their citizenship and that they deserve an equal opportunity.

In an age with digital information technology, the performance of gender or sexuality is different from the previous ages. In the past, traditional values had rules. The agricultural revolution and the industrialization that followed gave way to modern technology. Using the technology as a means of communication has affected the way Asian communities identify perceptions and social structures in the world.

What people experience and interact with shapes their attitudes about the world. The media have been used to shape Asians awareness, which is a major influence on gender and sexuality. The emerging technologies have, therefore, played a major role in setting the standards for the Asians attitudes and identities (Jensen 2002).

The availability of materials on the region in print, on television, on the internet, or even on the radio made people begin questioning the translation and the origin of the information. The modern society began making its own judgment and created an opinion of gender and sexuality. A sense of nationalism or communalism is facilitated by the presence of the Asian materials in the media.

According to Levinson (1999), the media provides information that is used by the community to form discussions and reactions to various issues. The content also gives information on the reality that is often used in conversations with others. Examples of the content include music, creative arts, drama, musical and verbal expressions, dance, and paintings.

The content makes Asians develop an identity and a sense of belonging to the community. The media content carries attitudes towards gender and sexuality. The content gives opinion on specific or general understanding of sexuality. The development of drama with Asian background, for instance, gives a sense of communalism and opens an avenue for discussion of a certain gender and sexuality ideas amongst Asians.

Views on gender and sexuality have been present as the developments in technologies grew. The use of mobile phone has rapidly increased in Asia, allowing interactions between the genders to be increased. The use of the internet has also played a part in creating different perspectives about gender and sexuality. Education is accessible to both genders. Therefore, both genders have access to internet knowledge when granted the opportunity.

Information technology has allowed access to libraries and sites that have information on all aspects of life, including sexuality. All genders have access to information without discrimination. Asians choose what information to access, depending on their educational, sexual, or reproductive health needs. The information provided gives content on biomedical information, contraceptives, homosexuality, abortion, and sexual workers with an explanation on what they entail.

The information provided then indicates the kind of issues that surround each of the concepts and their benefits. Materials concerning sexuality have also been categorized as private by some of the information technology users. It is no wonder that some people secretly keep folders of porn, sex, and nude photos on their electronic gadgets (Peletz 2011). All these materials can be accessed on different electronic devices including mobile phones, television, and computers (McLuhan 1994).

The entertainment features of information technology have more competing needs for recreation than for academic motives. The recreational features have clear themes concerning sex and gender perceptions. The available contents of media entertainment being offered without any charges are very high. The content is available for free. This makes a large number of people to access this content. Many people, therefore, get influenced by this content, especially in the area of sexuality (Slocum 2009).

Communication via electronic devices has revolutionized interactions and means of passing on messages. The physical boundaries that existed amongst opposite sexes are slowly fading away. Information technology helps in communication and also in overcoming inhibitions (McLuhan and Fiore 1967).

Social structures that would allow a certain level of interaction have now been overtaken by expansion of communication channels. The internet allows people to begin relationships that are no-sexual and online dating. This has been enabled by mobile, email, Skype, and Voice over Internet Protocol (VOIP).

Social networks have become common. Social networks entail grouping of people with similar interests on the internet. People with similar social interest, as well as sexual interests, organize themselves in groups. Through the use of social networks, people are able to interact and share experiences they face in life. Social networks have been successful in organizing groups of sexual minorities such as lesbians, transsexuals, heterosexuals, and unlawful sexual relations among others.

These sexual networks can enable people to select the genders of people to interact with and select people with specific interests. The groups are highly segmented such that people can select people with specific sexuality, as well as those who believe in a specific religion. New contacts are obtained from the social networks. Social networks are used to pass on information on certain issues and conduct discussions. The social networks go beyond physical borders and can be very powerful.

Electronic commerce (e-commerce) has set a new platform for exposing sexual content. The content is both academic and pornographic. The Information on how to increase performance in bed, selling of test tube babies and sex toys is now easily available. E-commerce is considered by some economist as rapidly growing. The growth of e-commerce implies that materials are easy to access via the internet. This overcomes the previous restrictions that had been implemented on availability of sex related material.

Internet shopping and research on sexuality are different from physical shopping because they have an element of privacy. People can access books, sex toys, videos, and pharmacy products that would be embarrassing to be seen purchasing. There are increasing opportunities for people interested in sex work compared to the previous practice of anonymous agents and secret booking. Sex workers can now advertise their businesses effectively.

Technology allows one to configure the device to what he/she desires. One can configure the settings of a device to match their desirable selves to their imagined world. For example, homosexuals may give themselves masculine traits or reveal selves as bisexuals. This is because outright proclamation of their homosexuality may attract discrimination.

Electronic gadgets such as mobile phones and the internet have been used to conceal dishonesty in relationships. This includes the use of a phone to give false information. People are also able to have access things they only fantasize about over the internet. Examples of these fantasies are strip tease and people impersonating to be the opposite gender.

People have used new technology to give their views on sexuality. The views are political and have increased awareness about policies and actions of the state on certain matters concerning gender and sexuality. Expression forums have been created by different groups to deal with gender and sexuality-related issues. Discussions on sexuality and gender roles are conducted via the internet.

Blogging is also common and useful in discussions regarding sexuality and gender issues. Such discussions and forums of expressions enable people within Asia to have a sense of identity and exercise their rights as citizens. Prohibition and laws concerning sexuality is discussed in the forum or blog. National issues concerning sexuality are also discussed.

These include: prohibition of pornographic sites and sites that are subversive. Once in a while, the sites are also used to pass on political expression, gather support for specific candidates who advocate for their interests, give an avenue for interaction, and recreation at the same time.

Sexual ideologies and gender have distinct perspectives. Some ideas support adherence of cultural norms according to the Asian culture, while others have different ideas that other sexualities should be recognized in society. Asians use sites to represent their personal ideas about sexuality and gender. Experiences regarding discrimination are shared, and advice is given on how to have it mitigated. The ideas are challenged by people who hold cultural norms and explain why they support the ideas.

When a lot is happening on the internet, young people get exposed to the material that is shared. They get deeply involved in sexuality and gender issues when they read materials provided via the internet. The challenge is that they grow up perceiving the gender and sexuality perspectives they are exposed to and how to assimilate them.

Getting the internet to accept the perceived cultural norms in line with Asian culture is another challenge. Getting the internet audience to reject discrimination on the basis of gender and sexuality is a major challenge.

There is fragmentation of the society, religion, culture, and science, which have had an influence on gender and sexuality in Asia. People take refuge, growth, diversity and identity in the ideas that are generated in the internet. Some of the supporters of the internet believe that sexual minorities should be considered and allowed to practice their ideologies.

There are those who strongly believe that some laws and policies that outlaw sex, pornography, and sexuality material should not be embraced. Strong believers of tradition and culture would view that as moral decay. Given an opportunity, they would impose strict laws that would ensure that people are faithful to Asian norms.

There is moral panic among people who support cultural norms. Young people are involved in the exchange and activities on sexuality. The challenge is that the sexuality materials are also related to violence, murder, drugs, gambling, and obscene materials. Young children have access to internet and mobile phones.

Religious institutions have strongly increased their campaigns on morality. Some have suggested filtration of unlawful and immoral sites. These actions are to prevent materials on sexuality that may not be appropriate from being accessed on ones computer internet admittance. It is made possible if a card is used, where internet access blocks specific sites from being accessed.

There is a dilemma on the morality of the internet. The internet provides access to material that could destroy morality, while at the same time providing information on heath that could be helpful in dealing with medical issues on sexuality. The material is not categorized and there is no distinct way of excluding a particular area completely.

As religious institutions, governments, and other stakeholders promote the development of information technology in the modern world, fears emerge because there is no clear way of regulating the effect of dealing with sexuality and gender issues that raise moral concerns.

Developing individual ways of safeguarding oneself from inappropriate content and unsafe networking is the main challenge. It is no wonder that there are gendered sites. For instance, some gendered sites dedicate sites with cars to men and sites with households to women.

Content for the young people could be emphasized to allow the young people take control of their sexuality and learn about gender as Asian culture has dictated. The internet sites and cafes are known to have more male clients than female clients. Sexual material showing explicit content tends to give titles that relate the material to women than to men.

Like in many parts of the world, homosexuality is not acceptable in Asia (Tan 2009). Homosexual and transgender people have who have been disproportionately affected by sexually transmitted infections are treated with hostility by members of the Asian community. Those seeking treatment face discrimination when accessing healthcare.

Sex workers face similar challenges as homosexuals. The Asian culture discourages promiscuity and prostitution. Those who do not conform to the laid down rules on sexuality and gender are not identified as true followers of the Asian culture. They are considered to have deviated from the teachings of the culture.

Religious institutions fear that people are strongly getting entangled with the fast growing technology that provides materials on sexuality and gender. It is no wonder that those who purchase, participate, and visit the sites are people belonging to specific religions. Churches, mosques, and other religious institutions fear that some believers are strongly trapped by their sexuality.

The other alternative would be to withdraw access to those sites, which may not be applicable or may work for a short time. There is more knowledge about sex and gender than there was before. People are able to express themselves more openly through the internet than was the case before. However, the developments challenge the existing traditions and norms.

Norms and culture that held people together and gave understanding of sexuality and gender could be eroded. People identify with one another to find identity and feel a sense of citizenship when discussing matters of gender and sexuality.

Conclusion

Asian gender and sexuality has contributed to identity and citizenship in the community. Gender roles are well defined and are known by the citizens. The law recognizes the norms and culture. Policies that foster and support the norms together with culture are enacted. These policies promote equality and good relations among the Asians. Discrimination on the basis of sexuality or gender in all aspects is discouraged.

Technology has played a major part in defining todays gender and sexuality perspectives. The emerging technologies have increasingly created and distributed content that raise concerns. The norms and culture that are used as a foundation for the Asians state that all people are entitled to their rights irrespective of their gender and sexuality.

There are specific laws and policies that take care of special groups such as women, homosexuals, and transsexuals who have faced discrimination because of gender or sexuality. The challenge is that the government may not be able to control access to explicit material, leaving the task of selecting appropriate sites to individuals.

The internet has been used to organize people with similar interests together, where they have shared concerns and experiences. Social networks have been used for supporting sexual and gender minorities. Some sites are configured to suit either men or women. Technology allows people to make choices concerning their reproductive health and sexuality. Access to the material makes the Asian community develop identities and exercise their rights as citizens.

Reference List

Jensen, B 2002, A Handbook of Media and Communication Research, Routledge, New York.

Levinson, P 1999, Digital McLuhan: A Guide to the Information Millennium, Routledge, London.

McLuhan, M 1994, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man, Routledge, London.

McLuhan, M. and Fiore, Q 1967, The Medium is the Messagem, Penguin, Harmondsworth.

Misra, G & Chandiramani, R 2005, Sexuality, Gender and Rights: Exploring Theory and Practice in South and Southeast Asia, SAGE, India.

Peletz, G 2011, Gender, Sexuality and Body politics in Modern Asia. Web.

Slocum, H 2009, Six-Word Memoirs on Love and Heartbreak, Harper Perennial, New York.

Tan, L 2009, Reflections on Digital ICTs, Gender and Sexuality in Asia. Web.

Thornburgh, D and Lin, S 2002, Youth, Pornography and the Internet, National Academies Press, Washington, DC.

Toffler, A 1980, The Third Wave, Collins, London.

Introduction

The modern American society is consumption-oriented, a case that is essentially fostered by the Media. Therefore, much of what comes to pass as important is based often on the stories produced and disseminated by media institutions (Brooks and Lisa Gender, Race and media representation 297).

This implies that many of the things that people construct within their minds are articulated to symbols, images, and narratives that are filmed, televised, or even broadcasted in other forms of media. The mediated symbols, images, and even texts create awareness among people of what it infers by being black, Latino, Native American, female, male, white, or even a resident of the urban or rural area.

Media has also the capacity to segment many of these societal differences across gender and race. In simplistic terms, as evidenced by media genres, some movies like Bamboozled that is written and directed by Spike Lee present media as critical in the determination of what shapes social realities of people. In the context of the movie Bamboozled, the paper argues that African-American identity, race, gender, and class are enormously stereotyped.

Stereotype Presentation of African-American Identity, Race, Gender, and Class

Stereotyping of African Americans in the movie Bamboozled is evident even on the casing of the DVD containing it. Right from the beginning, Bamboozled is a satirical movie depicting the modern minstrel show. It features characters that are black. They also wear black faces.

The highlights create and construct the meaning of being black both internally and externally in the mindset of the audience. Though educated at the Harvard University, Delacroix has to undergo myriads of torments acerbated by his white boss (Thomas Dunwitty). As if endeavoring to satirically criticize and make fun out of Delacroixs identity as an African- American, Dunwitty talks similarly to the male blacks living in the urban areas.

He also consistently makes use of the word nigger in his conversations coupled with proclaiming that he is essentially more black than Delacroix by virtue of the fact that he has married a black American woman and that they both have two children who are of mixed races. While Delacroix creates a TV script portraying black Americans positively, he demises it as cosby clones (Lee Bamboozled min.32).

Hence, he rejects it. Angered by this decision and with the aid of Sloane Hopkins, Delacroix decides to create a minstrel show in which he portrays the blacks in the extreme way. The picture shown below is an extract of the scanned promotional posters on the Bamboozled DVD.

Source (Brooks and Lisa Lessons learned or bamboozled? 289).

From the promotional poster, African Americans are presented as cannibals as evidenced by the red color. Therefore, the poster implies that African-Americans are merely half human beings and half-animals. In the film, cannibalism motif is implied by the depiction of blacks as having abnormally big teeth that have abnormal gaps in between (Piehowski 14).

When black characters wear black faces, an impression is created to reinforce the stereotypical association of Africa with awful things because black is superimposed with additional blackness. The question that arises here is whether the identity of black people is housed by their pigmentation, or it is expressed through particular mannerisms.

Arguably, if the identity of being black is contained in the skin color, those who perform the minstrel exaggeration of stereotypical traits become part of black life (Black 19). Lee may have intended to provide a tool for addressing the abuse and misuse of the African American skin color black, which is also the identity of this human race particularly through TV depictions.

However, the movie may be argued as having not delivered the satires intended because people would tend to interpret the film as a true depiction of the identity of the African-Americans. Delacroix himself perhaps evidences this fact. He had created the film originally as a means of inciting his boss to fire him over extreme expression of racism.

Unfortunately, he ended up changing his mind to embrace the film as a source of fame and recognition while claiming that it was a satirical piece of work while fully aware of its capacity to profile the identity of the African-Americans in a negative way. Consequently, as Black argues, the film turned out as a reflection of the intense contempt that Delacroix had inside himself pertaining to the black identity (19).

Moreover, Bamboozled characterization raises questions on the African-Americans understanding of their race and gender issues. Arguably, although the movie opens by warning the audience to shun from taking things the manner they appear at facial value through Delacroixs explanation of the meaning of satire, Womack raises questions of the blacks capacity to recognize their racial identity. Mantan: The New Millennium Minstrel Show is full of black actors who wear black faces.

They also make incredibly funny and racist jokes about the African Americans. With regard to Piehowski, Mantan: The New Millennium Minstrel Show also deploys offensively stereotyped CGI-animated cartoons that caricature the leading stars of the new show (13). In the making of the show, the main aim of Delacroix was to make his boss fire him on grounds of extreme racism.

This would make him get an opportunity to look out for employment in another company. Unfortunately, this is not the case. Even the black street performer seems also satisfied with the profiling. Manray exemplifies this case. Precisely, while Womack becomes horrified immediately when Dealcroix opens the reality about the films contents, Manray considers it as an opportunity for gaining fame and wealth through his dancing skills.

To Delacroixs surprise, instead of being fired as he had anticipated, Dunwitty endorses the show. It also becomes incredibly successful. When the show gains popularity in the TV, Womack and Manray become mega stars. On the other hand, Delacroix alters his mind and defends the show claiming that it is only a satire. While Delacroix is proud of the awards and fame that he receives, Hopkins is on the other hand intensively worried about her contributions in the development of a racism-oriented show.

Later in the Bamboozled, the Mau Maus engineer plans for bringing the show down by deploying violence due to the anger he has about the shows content. Womack gets tired of the show and quits. This creates a room for Hopkins and Manray to come close to one another. Delacroix attempts to break this relationship by claiming that Hopkins had slept with Manray to earn her position. However, this plan fails to yield fruits.

For instance, Womack says, I dont know who I am (Lee Bamboozled min. 52). Interpreted beyond the facials value, Womack is a characterization name reflecting destabilized racial and gender identities that are captured in the movie. It probes issues of sexuality, what it means by a woman, race, or what it means to be black (Brooks and Lisa Lessons learned or bamboozled 291).

The paradox and confusion are further amplified through the characters actions of rejecting, realigning, relinquishing, and confirming the racial stereotypes associated with the African-Americans. For instance, the movie reminds the audience to keep it real (Lee Bamboozled min. 71).

However, Dunwitty claims that he is blacker in relation to some of the blacks including Delacroix since he is married to a black woman. This exemplifies the hatred that Dunwitty has by being associated with blacks. His association with the black people creates more hatred for himself in relation to the way blacks hate themselves.

The presentation of African-Americans gender, class, and how the two relate cannot escape criticism. The movie, presents a sexualized anxiety of coming into terms with physical prowess of the African-American people. In this context, Bowdre argues, nodding to history, Lee shows how the public fascination with other black males bodies continues today (128).

In the context of class, the film highlights the top dancers (Manray) original status before he was empowered by a show that only helps to highlight how his racial backgrounds denied him an opportunity to rise up economically. The film portrays Hanray as a poor street dancer who embraces the dancing role in the show as a tool for getting wealthy tantamount to the white community.

Through the songs in which Hanray and Womack take proactive roles, the stereotypic association of African American with low social class life often involving slavery is brought into the lime light. To evidence this argument in the film, the sonorous voices of both Manray and Womack bring up lively tones that are characteristic of historical slave songs. In the film, the audience is made by hilarious presentation to become blackface performers (Lee Bamboozled min. 87).

This way, the audience acquires sexual license. For instance, a Sicilian member of the audience posits that he has become blacker than a nigger (Lee Bamboozled min. 101) by showing his penis to the rest of the audience. Arguably, this implies that blacks are defined by nakedness, a trait attributed to the stereotype that they belong to a low class society, which was often tagged as poor in the racist historic America.

On a different perspective, Tondeur and Tyrone argue, Bamboozled emphasizes performing black masculinity in an effort to recreate white femininity (10). This implies that race and gender are vastly interrelated in films that stereotype African-Americans like Bamboozled.

Through the stereotyped African-American identity, race, gender, and class, Bamboozled sends a clear message to the audiences minds that black entertainment is principally designed to ensure that curiosities of the majority white Americans are fulfilled. To fulfill this curiosity, African-Americans are depicted as lesser human beings as evidenced in the movie in the movie when Dunwitty accepts the show created by Delacroix reflecting the African-American people in an incredibly negative way.

In fact, Hopkins becomes cognizant of the fact that she is being exploited in the show to make fantasy out of her identity. This prompts her to seek mechanisms of defending her identity as an African-American. For this reason, she compiles racism footages from various TV shows, cartoons, and even movies with the intent of making Delacroix realize the harm the show had. Unfortunately, Delacroix turns back from viewing them.

However, learning from this case amid the recognition of the exploitative nature of the show, Manray declares that he will no longer put on black faces. The executives in charge of production of the show are angered by this move. Arguably, this shows that the executives take advantage of the ignorance of the African-American on their identity to help acerbate their negative stereotyping.

In Bamboozled, coming into terms with the negative presentation of the African- American racial identity attracts serious consequences. For instance, Dunwitty fires Manray right on stage besides ordering him to get out of the production studio. This act clearly shows and confirms the stereotype perception spread by the Bamboozled by portraying African-Americans as having lesser human rights since it is evident that Manray was given neither a warning nor a notice for his firing.

Unfortunately, the Mau Maus who are predominantly composed African- Americans fail to embrace the fight that was staged by Manray aimed at seeking appreciation of the identities of the African-Americans. This presents them as ignorant. In fact, Mau Maus who make a public statement that they would murder Manray live on webcast kidnap him.

The authorities are unable to trace the internets feed source while Manray is assassinated. Later, the police track down Mau Maus whom they spray with bullets leaving only one person (Mc Serch) who also declares his willingness to die rather than facing an arrest. Arguably, these senseless killings of Mau Maus confirm that human rights are less significant when acts of extra judicial killings involve African- Americans.

This argument is significant because people are not told in the movie that the Mau Maus were armed or whether they actually threatened the lives of the police so that a decision would be reached to shoot them senselessly. Worse of all, the person who survived the spray of bullets (Mc Serch) had an originality of the white race. Does Bamboozled then clearly show that the applicability of human rights is dependent on the race of the people engaged in criminal activities such as murder?

The struggle to fight for negative stereotyping of the African-American is eminent in Bamboozled. Hopkins is immensely enraged by the ignorance that Delacroix has towards people of his race: the African-Americans. Therefore, she confronts Delacroix demanding him to watch under a gunpoint the movie she had previously prepared.

On watching the movie, Delacroix attempts to seize the gun from her. This results to his shooting. Hopkins flees from the scene leaving him watching the movie wounded and lying down. As Tondeur and Tyrone assert, the film concludes with long racially insensitive and demeaning clips of black characters from Hollywood films of the first half of the 20th century (11).

Cameras are then tilted towards the lifeless body of Delacroix with the last images shown depicting Manray performing his last Mantan: The New Millennium Minstrel Show episode live on stage. The situation in which Delacroix comes into terms with his identity makes it clear that, no matter how ignorant one may be towards his/her race, gender, and class, the fact remains that such identities do not cease to exist simply because they are ignored.

Consequently, Delacroix evidences how accepting negative profiling for individualistic reasons such as gaining fame and wealth only leads to further acerbating of the associated stereotyping. Bowdre contends with this argument by further asserting, the movie directly implies that the White executives who control the entertainment channels support black entertainment mostly in a condescending manner, one that is not that much different from slave-era treatment of blacks (127).

The preciseness of Bamboozled to possess this motif is arguably contained in the vivid intermingling of class, race, gender, and economic perceptions held by the traditional white community against the African-Americans. The reinforcement of the stereotypic perception encounters an immense support in the film.

In fact, instead of black characters aiming to disapprove these perceptions, they give them deeper roots to be anchored in the minds of the audience. For instance, with regard to Black, Lee shows how Delacroix satirically uses the images and mannerisms of blacks from blackface minstrel showing how he seeks to escape his blackness, symbolized by being trapped in his job(19).

Therefore, instead of depicting satire through the films themes, Delacroix appears to be the object of the satire. Since he is black, being the object of the satire makes the interpretation of his mannerism better comprehended at facial value. The case is in contrast with his earlier warning at the beginning of the movie.

Conclusion

Through the movie Bamboozled, the African-American identity, race, gender, and class are presented as inferior in relation to those of the white people. The paper has argued that, through the presentation, the traditional stereotypes associated with African Americans are confirmed. This implies that, through Bamboozled, Lee succeeds in creating the impression that the modern black entertainment is designed such that it satisfies the white peoples curiosity about the blacks identity, class, gender differences, and racial stereotyping.

Works Cited

Black, Ray. Satires Cruelest Cut: Exorcising Blackness in Spike Lees Bamboozled. The Black Scholar 33.1(2003): 19-24. Print.

Bowdre, Karen. A Black Camera Book Review: The Spike Lee Reader. Black Camera 22.2(2008):127-128. Print.

Brooks, Dwight, and Hebert Lisa. Lessons learned or bamboozled? Gender in a Spike Lee film. Communication Studies 47.5(2004): 289302. Print.

Brooks, Dwight, and Hebert Lisa. Gender, Race and media representation. Gender and communication in mediated contexts 3.2(2003): 297-318. Print.

Lee, Spike, dir. Bamboozled. Twentieth Century, 2000. Film.

Piehowski, Victoria. Business as Usual: Sex, Race, and Work in Spike Lees Bamboozled. Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies 33.1 (2012):1-23. Print.

Tondeur, Cristy, and Simpson Tyrone. Bamboozled by Blackness: Movie Review: Bamboozled. Black Camera 16.1(2001): 4-11. Print.