Category: French and Indian War

During the French and Indian war there was a commanding general of the British forces who resided in North America from 1754 through 1763. His name was Jeffery Amherst. Jeffery Amherst was one of the first examples of biological warfare. During the French and Indian war, he sent blankets infected with smallpox to the Indians as a way to beat the Indians in the war. The smallpox disease was new to the Indians and they had never dealt with an illness this severe before and did not know what was going on.

Jeffery Amherst was born on January 29th in 1717. He was the son of Jeffery Amherst and Elizabeth Kirill. At age 12 he became a page of the household the duke of Dorset. Later on Major General John Ligonier made him a cornet. Ligonier then recommended he get a promotion to lieutenant. Ligonier referred to Amherst as his “dear pupil”. Because of this, he served in the war of the Austrian succession. This then led to Amherst going to more wars and receiving higher ranks as time went on. By the time he was preparing for a coming campaign, he was recalled to Britain.

Ligonier was made commander-in-chief of the British forces and he chose his former “dearest pupil” to oversee the operation. Because Ligonier chose him it made Amherst a temporary “major general in America”. He then planned many attacks for many different wars and battles all the way up until Pontiac’s Rebellion. This was a riot led by the native American Indians living in pays d’en haut. The leader of the Pontiac was able to convince many of his members to follow him to capture Fort Detroit. Though the Pontiac had wanted to take the fort by surprise the British had already prepared for their coming. Forced to retreat, they came back on May 9th and killed many settlers and soldiers. This made the British make their own attack and sieged the Pontiacs’ camp. As fighting became more intense many settlers fled to fort Pitt. But under siege, fort Pitt was cut off.

Amherst was very concerned about that situation; his solution was to kill off the native American Indians. He used blankets infected with the disease and gave them to the Indians. Smallpox comes from the virus variola, it is usually contracted through inhaling the virus. An infected person is only contagious after the skin eruptions have begun. The disease takes about two weeks before it takes another life. Mortality of smallpox can be anywhere from 10 to 30 percent, depending on the age and habitat of the victim. These are some of the symptoms of smallpox: high fever, chills, headache, severe back pain, abdominal pain, and vomiting.

Though the Indians had not known what the illness was, they had already been put through a smallpox epidemic before in the Ohio Valley. This made it easier for most of them not to die off quickly. William Trent, who was with Jeffery Amherst during the French and Indian war wrote: “out of regard for them, we gave them two blankets and a handkerchief out of smallpox. Hope to have the desired effect.” This was very unethical because it would not only target the warriors/ or soldiers, but it would also target women, children, and elders.

Jeffery Amherst overall was a very good lieutenant in the beginning. With all the battles he was in and how fast he would get promoted. He did in fact make history, not for all his battles though, or how much he was admired but because of biological germ warfare. A smart tactic but very brutal for the natives and there could have been other ways to drive out the Indians.

1. Eden, Dan. Smallpox the Weapon. http://viewzone.com/smallpox.html.
2. Ahmerst Jeffery 1st Baron Ahmerst. http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/amherst_jeffery_4E.html.
3. Kiger, Patrick J. Did Colonists Give Infected Blankets to Native Americans as Biological Warfare? https://www.google.com/amp/s/www.history.com/.amp/news/colonists-native-americans-smallpox-blankets.
4. Amherst, Anthrax And Remembering The Past. http://dickshovel.com/op/10301.html.
5. Gill, Harold B. Colonial Germ Warfare. https://www.history.org/foundation/journal/spring04/warfare.cfm.

Interactions among Europeans and Native Americans assorted from location to place, and individuals of every state forged relationships with Indians in very special ways, depending on a variety of economic, social and political factors. While we ought to be conscious of this diversity, we can nevertheless make certain generalizations. Few Europeans regarded Native Americans their equals, due to the fact of differences in religion, agricultural practice, housing, dress, and other traits that—to Europeans—indicated Native American inferiority. However, the French, Spanish, and Dutch sought income thru trade and exploitation of New World resources, and they knew that the native humans would be important to their success. Europeans also desired to convert Native Americans to Christianity. Therefore, financial obtain and religion have been the two factors that most affected the dynamics of European and indigenous American relationships. en were generally accountable for hunting, warfare, and interacting with outsiders, therefore they had extra visible, public roles. Women, on the other hand, managed the inner operations of the community. They normally owned the family’s housing and family goods, engaged in agricultural meals production and gathering of foodstuffs, and reared the children.

Because women’s activities have been central to the community’s welfare, they additionally held vital political, social, and financial power. In historical times, faith was indistinguishable from what is regarded as ‘mythology’ in the current day and consisted of ordinary rituals based totally on a belief in higher supernatural entities who created and persisted to keep the world and surrounding cosmos. Two results of the French and Indian War grew to become evident as war escalated. First, American officers and soldiers had received army experience and know-how all through the war. George Washington had definitely discovered many important training and developed navy management skills. The American colonists now knew that the British army used to be no longer invincible. Second, France was once very upset about dropping the French and Indian War. Their wish for revenge influenced France’s decision to ally with the Americans all through the American Revolution; French aid used to be instrumental in the American defeat of the British. Religious and cultural difference was once section of the landscape of America long earlier than the period of European arrival and settlement. The indigenous peoples of this land Europeans called the “new world” had been separated through language, landscape, cultural myths, and ritual practices. Some neighboring groups, such as the Hurons and the Iroquois, were entrenched in rivalry. Others, such as the international locations that later shaped the Iroquois League, developed state-of-the-art forms of government that enabled them to stay harmoniously notwithstanding tribal differences. Some had been nomads; others settled into distinctly developed agricultural civilizations. Essentially, it commenced as a disagreement over the way Great Britain ruled the colonies and the way the colonies idea they ought to be treated. Americans felt they deserved all the rights of Englishmen. The British, on the other hand, idea that the colonies were created to be used in methods that high-quality appropriate the Crown and Parliament. This hostilities is embodied in one of the rallying cries of the American Revolution: ‘No Taxation Without Representation.’ The reasons of the War of 1812 are still hotly debated to this day however it is believed to have been caused by a sequence of incidents in the early nineteenth century involving British interference in American trade, mainly the impressment of American sailors into the British navy and the meddling of the British authorities in American trade with European nations.

In 1776, the thirteen colonies decided to separate from the British Empire. The Declaration begins by explaining why this document is being created. “When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that should declare the causes which impel them to the separation”[footnoteRef:1]. The Declaration goes on to explain why they no longer are a part of Britain. There is a list of grievances and abuses towards King George III which can support their reasonings. By stating these abuses, they are also telling the people what will not happen. The men who signed the Declaration are promising a life of freedom and independence. This document is starting a new life for the people living in the thirteen colonies. Before these promises could be made, there had to be reasons to find independence. “When a Nation, led to greatness by the hand of Liberty, and possessed of all the glory that heroism, munificence, and humanity can bestow, descends to the ungrateful task of forging chains for her Friends and Children, and instead of giving support to Freedom turns advocate for Slavery and Oppression, there is a reason to suspect she has either ceased to be virtuous, or been extremely negligent in the appointment of her rulers”[footnoteRef:2]. This paper argues that American leaders issued the Declaration of Independence because of trade, land expansion, no representation, and taxes. [1: “Declaration of Independence – Milestone Documents,” accessed October 27, 2019, https://www.milestonedocuments.com/documents/view/declaration-of-independence/text.] [2: Barry Alan Shain, ed., The Declaration of Independence in Historical Context: American State Papers, Petitions, Proclamations, and Letters of the Delegates to the First National Congresses (New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 2014).]

Great Britain believed that controlling trade in America would be beneficial because the colonists would have to rely on Great Britain for goods and supplies. There were no banks and very little money, so colonists used barter and credit to get the things they needed. The Navigation Acts, in 1651, stated that English ships only could bring goods into England. This act declared that the colonists in America were allowed only to export its supplies to England such as tobacco and sugar. The Navigation Acts overall prohibited the colonists from trading with other countries beside Europe. Following this act would be others that put a hinder on trade and increased payment towards Great Britain. These acts would eventually lead to rebellion especially from those who were affected the most. Colonial manufacturers and merchants who were growing tobacco, rice, sugar and along with artisans and mechanics were being negatively affects by the Navigation Acts. Merchants, who were heavily part of politics in the colonies, reacted in anger to the acts that Great Britain was passing. The acts put on trading were not just hurting the colonists but also Great Britain. The American colonists started to travel and trade illegally because it was hurting the colonists too much. The distance between America and Great Britain gave America an advantage.[footnoteRef:3] Before 1763, Britain incorporated a strategy called Salutary Neglect. The regulation on trade were going to be difficult for Britain to enforce them because of how much effort and money was being put into controlling trade. Great Britain was spending four times as much to use the navy to collect America’s duties then their own in Britain. Ships coming from America usually were filled with illegal goods from the French, Dutch, and Spanish West Indies.[footnoteRef:4] Smuggling became a regular action for the colonists. Through the American Revolution smuggling became a significant cause. As smuggling became popular, it also pushed American colonists to ignore Great Britain’s laws. Those who were shipping goods and supplies eventually became experts at getting around the British navy which would prove to be useful during the American Revolution. Any efforts that Britain made to hold back the colonists only encouraged them to rebel. In the 1760s, America would decide to start nonimportation which would greatly affect the merchants and traders in Great Britain.[footnoteRef:5] [3: “The Navigation Acts,” Khan Academy, accessed October 19, 2019, https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/us-history/colonial-america/colonial-north-america/a/the-navigation-acts.] [4: Volker Janssen, “Tax Acts, Declaring Independence, and the American Revolution (1763–1783) – Milestone Documents,” accessed October 31, 2019, https://www.milestonedocuments.com/textbook_articles/view/tax-acts-declaring-independence-and-the-american-revolution-1763ndash1783/text.] [5: Ray Raphael, A People’s History of the American Revolution: How Common People Shaped the Fight for Independence, Reprint edition (The New Press, 2016).]

Land Expansion also started to be done illegally because of the restrictions put on land and moving towards the west. In 1763, the Proclamation Line was created to control the land between the Native Americans. Colonists were aggravated with this line and refused to stay put. Instead, they passed the line illegally and went further into Native American territory. The put more tension between the Indians and colonists. For many colonists, they saw this as a cutoff. They could no longer expand their land for themselves or their children. Indentured servants were also promised land and once their contracts were finished, they moved west. This caused them to move past the Proclamation Line of 1763 and moved into the Native American’s territory. This ended with more conflict between the colonists and Native Americans. The Proclamation Line of 1763 can also be related to knowing what the colonists can handle through their representation. “That the Taxation of the People by Themselves, or by Persons Chosen by Themselves to Represent them, who can only know what Taxes the People are able to bear, or the easiest Method of Raising them, and must themselves be affected by every Tax laid upon the People, is the only Security against a Burthensome Taxation”[footnoteRef:6]. Patrick Henry was pointing out the fact that the people had the right to give input about the taxes and acts being created. Through representation this could be possible but instead the American colonists were given virtual representation. The colonists did not see any reason to travel across the ocean on a long voyage that may not even sit in an assembly. The fact Britain believed that only one man was capable of representing such a varied group of people was outlandish. When representation in the American colonies gained attention, the Magna Carta became a symbol. The Magna Carta would be kept in mind when colonial charters were being made and would look back at this document as they wrote their Constitution and Bill of Rights. They believed the Magna Carta entitled them to their rights as those in Great Britain and would it as they argued against taxation.[footnoteRef:7] [6: “Patrick Henry: Resolutions in Opposition to the Stamp Act – Milestone Documents,” accessed October 31, 2019, https://www.milestonedocuments.com/documents/view/patrick-henrys-resolutions-in-opposition-to-the-stamp-act/text.] [7: Mary Duprey Hoehling, For Life and Liberty The Story of the Declaration of Independence, 1St Edition (New York: J. Messner, 1969).]

Britain began to tax the colonists of America after the French and Indian War because they believed it was their debt to pay. Although there may have been a point to this, Britain had been taxing the colonists long before the war. The Molasses Act of 1733 put a six pence tax on molasses, sugar, and rum on imported non-British countries into North America colonies. (primary source-molasses act) Along with being taxed before the French and Indian War, the colonists also gave their men and supplies to fight alongside of Great Britain. Most of the men fighting in the war were common people and the poor took the place of the rich. They were already giving much to protect America and dropped their work to support the colonies. This was especially harmful to the poor and others who were not able to pay the taxes that would later come after the French and Indian War.[footnoteRef:8] For Life and Liberty: The Story of the Declaration of Independence about consent from the people. In 1764, the British Parliament approved the Sugar Act. This act put a tax on sugar, coffee, some wines, and other goods that are imported to America.[footnoteRef:9] This legislature increased the taxes on European products sent to the colonies through Britain. Soon after Britain began taking action that would urge all trade laws. Then Great Britain chose to control the amount of paper money being made in America. As the past has showed, the colonist chose to oppose these laws as well. The taxes and laws that have been initiated in America did put more tension between Great Britain, but it wasn’t until the Stamp Act when a true impact occurred.[footnoteRef:10] When Britain imposed the Stamp Act, in 1765, the colonists were required to buy a British stamp for the printed paper they used. This act would be used to tax for every newspaper, every document, and even a deck of cards. The colonists believed that the British Parliament had no rights to tax them and so assemblies made resolutions to support their rights. America showed their anger through attacks, rebellions, and boycotts. “No taxation without representation” would be major point that would be used to back up the colonist rights to representation. While refusing to obey the Stamp Act, the colonist began to reject the buying of British goods. Bring in more information about nonimportation from the books. This was possible through non-importation and with signed agreements by more than one thousand storeowners. The main object of non-importation was to turn around the idea of taxes. Instead of America hurting, the merchants and manufactures in Britain would suffer from the loss. The results affected the British businessmen so much that they insisted that the British government repealed the Stamp Act.[footnoteRef:11] In 1766, the Stamp Act was finally repealed, and the colonists discontinued their ban on British goods. In the same day the Stamp Act was cancelled, British Parliament ratified the Declaratory Act. This policy was presenting that the colonies were obligated to serve Great Britain. Therefore, Britain was able to ratify any law they thought necessary. The colonists deemed this acted to be illegal. The Declaratory Act implied that Great Britain believed the colonist had no rights.[footnoteRef:12] Then In 1767, the Townshend Acts were made by the British Parliament and approved. These acts put taxes on glass, tea, land, paints, and paper imported into the American colonies. Once again, colonist rejected these and began a new boycott on British goods.[footnoteRef:13] Instead of relying on others, the colonist took the initiative to expand manufacturing in America. Increasing their manufacturing they were able to reduce half the amount of goods imported from Britain by the end of 1769.[footnoteRef:14] In 1765 Parliament passed the Quartering Act that said the colonists needed to find or pay for lodging for British soldiers stationed in America. With the French and Indian War over, many colonists saw no need for soldiers to be stationed in the colonies.[footnoteRef:15] “But the injuries and disadvantages which we sustain by that connection, are without number; and our duty to mankind at large, as well as to ourselves, instruct us to renounce the alliance: because, any submission to, or dependance on, Great Britain, tends directly to involve this Continent in European wars and quarrels, and set us at variance with nations who would otherwise seek our friendship, and against whom we have neither anger nor complaint. As Europe is our market for trade, we ought to form no partial connection with any part of it. It is the true interest of America to steer clear of European contentions, which she never can do, while, by her dependance on Britain, she is made the makeweight in the scale of British politics.”[footnoteRef:16] If American colonist would stay with Britain then they would have to watch out for the countries that are against Great Britain. [8: Raphael, A People’s History of the American Revolution, 304.] [9: William Hogeland, Declaration: The Nine Tumultuous Weeks When America Became Independent, May 1-July 4, 1776, Reprint edition (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2011).] [10: One of the books with the stamp act ] [11: Terrence H. Witkowski, “Colonial Consumers in Revolt: Buyer Values and Behavior during the Nonimportation Movement, 1764-1776,” Journal of Consumer Research 16, no. 2 (September 1989): 216, https://doi.org/10.1086/209210.] [12: Hoehling, For Life and Liberty The Story of the Declaration of Independence.] [13: One of the books about non-importation or Townshend act ] [14: Witkowski, “Colonial Consumers in Revolt.”] [15: Hoehling, For Life and Liberty The Story of the Declaration of Independence.] [16: “Thomas Paine: Common Sense – Analysis | Milestone Documents – Milestone Documents,” accessed October 26, 2019, https://www.milestonedocuments.com/documents/view/common-sense/text.]

In 1776, Independence was declared, and the Declaration of Independence was created. They began the document explaining why they decided to separate from Britain, and it ended very similarly. “Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends.”[footnoteRef:17] The colonists had finally made it to freedom but only through the hardships and trials. The American leaders issued the Declaration of Independence because of trade, land expansion, no representation, and taxes. These reasons are not hard to understand and can be put very simply. At the time Patrick Henry gave the colonists some hope and support through writing Common Sense.[footnoteRef:18] The document was nothing of great knowledge or facts but was created with such simplicity. He says, ‘I offer nothing more than simple facts, plain arguments and Common Sense. The sun never shone on a cause of greater worth … ’tis not the affair of a city or a county, but of a continent … ’tis not the concern of a day, but of all posterity … now is the seed time of Continental Honor … we have it in our power to begin the world all over again … a situation like this hasn’t happened since the days of Noah.'[footnoteRef:19] This simple statement was not made possible without the decisions of the founding fathers and colonists. They risked their lives and freedom so that the colonist of the United States could be free. [17: “Declaration of Independence – Milestone Documents.”] [18: Isadore Warshaw, “MERICA’S FREEDOM INSPIRED – Post-Standard, The (Syracuse, NY) – July 4, 2000 – Page A7,” n.d., 4.] [19: “Thomas Paine: Common Sense – Analysis | Milestone Documents – Milestone Documents.”]

Bibliography

1. Hoehling, Mary Duprey, For Life and Liberty The Story of the Declaration of Independence. 1st Edition. New York: J. Messner, 1969. Book 1. Annotation:
2. Hogeland, William. Declaration: The Nine Tumultuous Weeks When America Became Independent, May 1-July4 1776. Reprint edition. New York: Simon &Schuster, 2011. Book 2. Annotation:
3. Milestone Documents. ‘Declaration of Independence.’ Accessed October 31, 2019. https://www.milestonedocuments.com/documents/view/declaration-of-independence/text. Primary Source 1. Annotation:
4. Milestone Documents. ‘Thomas Paine: Common Sense.’ Accessed October 31, 2019. https://www.milestonedocuments.com/documents/view/common-sense/text. Primary Source 2. Annotation:
5. Milestone Documents. ‘Patrick Henry: Resolutions in Opposition to the Stamp Act.’ Accessed October 31, 2019. https://www.milestonedocuments.com/documents/view/patrick-henrys-resolutions-in-opposition-to-the-stamp-act/text. Primary Source 3. Annotation:
6. Raphael, Ray. A People’s History of the American Revolution: How Common People Shaped the Fight for Independence. Reprint edition. The New Press, 2016. Book 3. Annotation:
7. The Declaration of Independence in Historical Context. American State Papers, Petitions, Proclamations, and Letters of the Delegates to the First National Congresses. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2014. Primary Source 4. Annotation:
8. “The Navigation Acts.” Khan Academy. Khan Academy. Accessed November 1, 2019. https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/us-history/colonial-america/colonial-north-america/a/the-navigation-acts. Scholarly Article 1. Annotation:
9. Warshaw, Isadore. 2000. AMERICA’S FREEDOM INSPIRED BY THREE FANATICAL REBELS: FINAL EDITION]. The Post – Standard, Jul 04, 2000. Scholarly Article 2. Annotation:
10. Witkowski, Terrence H. “Colonial Consumers in Revolt: Buyer Value and Behavior during the Nonimporation Movement, 1764-1776.” Journal of Consumer Research 16, no. 2 (September 1989): 216. https://doi.org/10.1086/209210. Scholarly Article 3. Annotation:

George Washington was an American political leader, military general, statesman, and Founding Father who served as the first president of the United States from 1789 to 1797. Previously, he led Patriot forces to victory in the nation’s War for Independence. He presided at the Constitutional Convention of 1787 which established the U.S. Constitution and a federal government. Washington has been called the ‘Father of His Country’ for his manifold leadership in the formative days of the new nation.

Washington received his initial military training and command with the Virginia Regiment during the French and Indian War. He was later elected to the Virginia House of Burgesses and was named a delegate to the Continental Congress, where he was appointed Commanding General of the Continental Army. He commanded American forces, allied with France, in the defeat and surrender of the British during the Siege of Yorktown, and resigned his commission in 1783 after the signing of the Treaty of Paris.

Washington played a key role in the adoption and ratification of the Constitution and was then elected president by the Electoral College in the first two elections. He implemented a strong, well-financed national government while remaining impartial in a fierce rivalry between cabinet members Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton. During the French Revolution, he proclaimed a policy of neutrality while sanctioning the Jay Treaty. He set enduring precedents for the office of president, including the title ‘President of the United States’, and his Farewell Address is widely regarded as a pre-eminent statement on republicanism.

Washington owned slaves for labor and trading and supported measures passed by Congress protecting slavery, to preserve national unity. He later became troubled with the institution of slavery and freed his slaves in a 1799 will. He endeavored to assimilate Native Americans into the Western culture but responded to their hostility in times of war. He was a member of the Anglican Church and the Freemasons, and he urged broad religious freedom in his roles as general and president. Upon his death, he was eulogized as ‘first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen.’ He has been memorialized by monuments, art, geographical locations, stamps, and currency, and many scholars and polls rank him among the greatest American presidents.

Early life

Washington’s great-grandfather John Washington immigrated in 1656 from Sulgrave, England to the British Colony of Virginia where he accumulated of land, including Little Hunting Creek on the Potomac River. George Washington was born February 22, 1732, at Popes Creek in Westmoreland County, Virginia, and was the first of six children of Augustine and Mary Ball Washington. By English common law, Washington was a naturalized subject of the King, as were all others born in the English colonies. His father was a justice of the peace and a prominent public figure who had three additional children from his first marriage to Jane Butler. The family moved to Little Hunting Creek, in 1735, then to Ferry Farm near Fredericksburg, Virginia in 1738. When Augustine died in 1743, Washington inherited Ferry Farm and ten slaves; his older half-brother Lawrence inherited Little Hunting Creek and renamed it, Mount Vernon.

Washington did not have the formal education that his elder brothers received at Appleby Grammar School in England, but he did learn mathematics, trigonometry, and surveying, and he was talented in draftsmanship and map-making. By early adulthood, he was writing with ‘considerable force’ and ‘precision.’ However, his writing displayed little wit or humor. As a young man in pursuit of admiration, status, and power, he tended to attribute his shortcomings and failures on someone else’s ineffectuality.

Washington often visited Mount Vernon and Belvoir, the plantation that belonged to Lawrence’s father-in-law William Fairfax. Fairfax became Washington’s patron and surrogate father, and Washington spent a month in 1748 with a team surveying Fairfax’s Shenandoah Valley property. He received a surveyor’s license the following year from the College of William & Mary; Fairfax appointed him surveyor of Culpeper County, Virginia, and he thus familiarized himself with the frontier region. He resigned from the job in 1750 and had bought almost in the Valley, and he owned by 1752.

In 1751, Washington made his only trip abroad when he accompanied Lawrence to Barbados, hoping that the climate would cure his brother’s tuberculosis. Washington contracted smallpox during that trip, which immunized him but left his face slightly scarred. Lawrence died in 1752, and Washington leased Mount Vernon from his widow; he inherited it outright after her death in 1761.

Colonial military career

Lawrence’s service as adjutant general of the Virginia militia inspired Washington to seek a commission, and Virginia’s Lieutenant Governor Robert Dinwiddie appointed him as a major in December 1752 and as commander of one of the four militia districts. The British and French were competing for control of the Ohio Valley at the time, the British building forts along the Ohio River and the French doing likewise, between Lake Erie and the Ohio River.

In October 1753, Dinwiddie appointed Washington as a special envoy to demand that the French vacate territory which the British had claimed. Dinwiddie also appointed him to make peace with the Iroquois Confederacy and to gather intelligence about the French forces. Washington met with Half-King Tanacharison and other Iroquois chiefs at Logstown to secure their promise of support against the French, and his party reached the Ohio River in November. They were intercepted by a French patrol and escorted to Fort Le Boeuf where Washington was received in a friendly manner. He delivered the British demand to vacate to French commander Saint-Pierre, but the French refused to leave. Saint-Pierre gave Washington his official answer in a sealed envelope after a few days’ delays, and he gave Washington’s party food and extra winter clothing for the trip back to Virginia. Washington completed the precarious mission in 77 days in difficult winter conditions and achieved a measure of distinction when his report was published in Virginia and London.

French and Indian War

In February 1754, Dinwiddie promoted Washington to lieutenant colonel and second-in-command of the 300-strong Virginia Regiment, with orders to confront French forces at the Forks of Ohio. Washington set out for the Forks with half of the regiment in April but soon learned that a French force of 1,000 had begun construction of Fort Duquesne there. In May, Washington had set up a defensive position at Great Meadows when he learned that the French had made camp away. Washington decided to take the offensive in pursuit of the French contingent.

The French detachment proved to be only about 50 men, so Washington advanced on May 28 with a small force of Virginians and Indian allies to ambush them. What took place was disputed, but French forces were killed outright with muskets and hatchets. French commander Joseph Coulon de Jumonville, who carried a diplomatic message for the British to evacuate, was mortally wounded in the battle. French forces found Jumonville and some of his men dead and scalped and assumed that Washington was responsible. Washington placed blame on his translator for not communicating the French intentions. Dinwiddie congratulated Washington for his victory over the French. This incident ignited the French and Indian War, which later became part of the larger Seven Years’ War.

The full Virginia Regiment joined Washington at Fort Necessity the following month with news that he had been promoted to command of the regiment and colonel upon the death of the regimental commander. The regiment was reinforced by an independent company of 100 South Carolinians, led by Captain James Mackay, whose royal commission outranked Washington, and conflict of command ensued. On July 3, a French force attacked with 900 men, and the ensuing battle ended in Washington’s surrender. In the aftermath, Colonel James Innes took command of intercolonial forces, the Virginia Regiment was divided, and Washington was offered a captaincy which he refused, with resignation of his commission.

In 1755, Washington served voluntarily as an aide to General Edward Braddock, who led a British expedition to expel the French from Fort Duquesne and the Ohio Country. On Washington’s recommendation, Braddock split the army into one main column and a lightly equipped ‘flying column’. Suffering from a severe case of dysentery, Washington was left behind, and when he rejoined Braddock at Monongahela, the French and their Indian allies ambushed the divided army. The British suffered two-thirds casualties, including the mortally wounded Braddock. Under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Gage, Washington, still very ill, rallied the survivors and formed a rear guard, which allowed the remnants of the force to disengage and retreat. During the engagement he had two horses shot from under him, and his hat and coat were bullet-pierced. His conduct under fire redeemed his reputation among critics of his command in the Battle of Fort Necessity, but he was not included by the succeeding commander Colonel Thomas Dunbar in planning subsequent operations.

The Virginia Regiment was reconstituted in August 1755, and Dinwiddie appointed Washington its commander, again with the colonial rank of colonel. Washington clashed over seniority almost immediately, this time with John Dagworthy, another captain of the superior royal rank, who commanded a detachment of Marylanders at the regiment’s headquarters in Fort Cumberland. Washington, impatient for an offensive against Fort Duquesne, was convinced Braddock would have granted him a royal commission and pressed his case in February 1756 with Braddock’s successor, William Shirley, and again in January 1757 with Shirley’s successor, Lord Loudoun. Shirley ruled in Washington’s favor only in the matter of Dagworthy; Loudoun humiliated Washington, refused him a royal commission and agreed only to relieve him of the responsibility of manning Fort Cumberland.

In 1758, the Virginia Regiment was assigned to Britain’s Forbes Expedition to take Fort Duquesne. Washington disagreed with General John Forbes’ tactics and chosen route. Forbes nevertheless made Washington a brevet brigadier general and gave him command of one of the three brigades that would assault the fort. The French abandoned the fort and the valley before the assault was launched, with Washington seeing only a friendly-fire incident that left 14 dead and 26 injured. The war lasted another four years, but Washington resigned his commission and returned to Mount Vernon.

Jack Wilson is a young catholic Scott Irish boy who lost his mother at age 5 due to the persecution in his motherland. He was born on September 13,1742 in Ulster Ireland. He and his father migrated to America because of the persecution, unemployment, poverty and fear their homeland was offering .In addition because of the 1641 rebellion they had to sold their estates due to poor management and the debts they experience. The 1641 rebellion was an attempted seizure of power by Irish Catholic upper classes, who tried to annex the English ministry in Ireland to force modifications for Catholics. Jack and his father arrived in Boston, later moved to Pennsylvania seeing that it offered accessible ports and religious tolerance. Perceiving that Pennsylvania land space had reduced Jack Wilson and his father next moved south into Virginia. Jacks father Mr. Wilson had told him many stories of all of his mother’s unaccomplished dreams and goals. Mr. Wilson still experienced the feeling of depression and guilt because he knew the desire of coming to a new freedom land his wife possessed.

It was April 1764 an early calm normal morning. Jack and his father where opening their store as usual when one of their close friends came early with the unexpected news. He told them that the British parliament has pass a modified law that will require merchants like them to pay a tax of six copper pennies per gallon for the admission of imported molasses. This law was pass because Britain needed to pay the debt they had after the French and Indian War. When they received this notice, they knew how much this would affect their economy. Jack knew that there needed to be something done as soon as possible.“ But what could we do?” He asks his father. Mr. Wilson could feel his sons’ pressure because he knew they did have the enough funds to pay for this tax. Mr. Wilson told jack that they were going to accept this taxation due to the fact that they needed sugar to make rum. Mr. Wilson declared that they would need to work as twice as hard and just hope that there is no more of this unchivalrous and dishonorable obligatory assessments. As Jacks father had predicted they worked even harder to pay the imposition of this tariff by working in the field, selling newspapers and working with different merchants on the production of iron ore. The situation was rough for many colonists who thought that this situation was unfair. But what could they do if they didn’t have no power in creating a law because they were lacking representatives in the House of Parliament? To pursue with this situation, it was a tough year for jack and his father but what they didn’t know is that there was another bombshell waiting not only for them but for American colonists in the new year of 1765. It was another beautiful afternoon in March, everything seemed to look as usual for Jack and his father since last year’s Sugar Act. They were sitting in their house porch when Rose one of Jacks friends came running as fast as a storm could streak. She was frantic to tell jack and his father something. When she arrived Mr. Wilson told her to take a break and calm down while jack offered her some water. When she was better Jack ask Rose “so what’s the reason for your unspecified visit”. Then she answered with a crucial face “Well my father sends me here to notify you and Mr. Wilson that the British parliament has once more determined to tax the American colonists. The king George has determined that the only way to pay for debt is to tax us with this new tax called the Stamp Act”. Jack and his father’s face turned pale. “So, what exactly is the Stamp Act? Jack asked. “Well” said Rose “From what I have heard from my dad and other people is that we will have to pay for every paper that we buy for example newspapers, letters, playing cards and various forms of documents”. “What in the world do they think we are to make us pay for this!” said Jack.“Mr. Wilson what’s your opinion” said Rose . Mr. Wilson just sat down in a chair and gave a very deep sight. He said the following “You know Jack before your mother died me and her had a lovely acceptable conversation. She told me that in every situation no matter if it’s difficult we should always accept our Gods will. When she was dying, she told me to not feel bad, that there should always be faith on us and that if that’s what needed to happen then we will joyfully accept because at the end there will always be justice.” Jack didn’t quite well agree with what his father said but he accepted this taxation because he respected God and his mom’s wise words. “So, if we proceed from one, we can continue through all the obstacles together and accept what God has send us.” Jack hug his father and Rose and said “Aren’t you guys hungry cause I am.” Everyone started laughing and Rose said, “I invite”.

Many things happen thorough out the years 1700s and 1800s one of the most impacting events were the imposition of taxes by the British parliament on the American colonies. Britain needed to pay for its war overdue payments that were caused by the French and Indian war. The French and Indian war was a major historical event in America’s history. It was a war between Britain and France for the control of the eastern North American. Britain and the colonies were allied while France and the Indian joined forces. Even though Britain was victorious, the war put them in a difficult debt. In this article it describes the major causes of Britain debt, and how it affected the colonists. The primary tax that was imposed in the colonies was the Sugar Act which forced all the colonists to pay a tariff for sugar and molasses like sugars, coffee, and some types of wines. Furthermore, another tariff that was put on the colonists was the stamp act. This tax would require for the colonists to pay a stamp for any legal documents and other possessions. As a result of this act many colonists decided to boycott the parliaments guidelines therefore the British decided to revoke it rather than reinforce it. Innumerable of things happened after this act for example the Townshend Act, The Boston Tea Party, etc. The outcome of this is one of the most remarkable wars in U.S. history “The American Revolution”.

Time has pass since the last British taxation. Now there was a more important problem Jack was going through and it was his father terminal illness. Since his father told him this horrific news, he hasn’t been able to put work in the store. He has been more focus taking care of his father that hasn’t worried about the issues going on around him. One afternoon Rose and and Jack were talking over all of the unexpected things that happen throughout this years. He could feel that Rose was nervous and that she was hiding something from him “but what could it be” Jack though to himself . With determination he ask Rose “So what’s your worry?”, then Rose responded “I didn’t want to worry you more because I know what you are going through with your father. But there has been another tax imposed to us . This taxation is requiring ous to pay a tariff for paint, paper,glass, and tea.” Jack started crying he was devastated because he knew that the store in honor of his mom will undoubtedly had to close . There were no more savings all of the money had been going into his father health. Jack knew his father will be very disappointed with this news due to the fact that Mr. Wilson was the one who proposed the opening of this building in memory of his wife. There was no turning back he went into his father room and told him the told him the condition. His father just smile and told him “You know son, I decided to open the store just so that I could feel your mother always close to me. Now that I know I am leaving with her soon, I will not needed”. Jack started crying again. “Don’t cry my boy , It was God’s will that this would happen. You are a strong person who will go through every obstacle victorious, and plus you have many people who support you specially Rose. I want you to be happy and to always remember that justice will soon take place.” Jack hug his father and stayed with him the rest of the night.

Eight years have pass since Mr. Wilson’s death. Many things happen during this time period for example Jack and Rose got married and had a little boy who they named Wilson after Jacks Father, and also Jack joined the continental army and now works together with George Washington. These past days there has been rumors of war between people from different colonies. The colonists are tired of having to pay for British taxation .The only final solution for the colonists to save their independence was fighting for it. Jack and Rose had already converse on the this topic. Rose was aware of the consequences this could bring to Jack. She knew that no matter what happen to Jack, she had to defend his son from the world. It was late at night when they knocked on the front door of Jack’s house. He was an army companion who came to let Jack know that tomorrow they would be heading towards Massachusetts. Jack knew that the war was about to happen and that it was Gods will. Jack dismissed his friend and entered his house with his wife and son. He hugged them both and said ‘Finally justice.’ Rose was a very strong woman who supported her husband. With a tear falling from her eye s he said resignedly “Do what you have to do that me and your son will always be here waiting for you with the victory. As predicted Jack left early in the morning with a confident soul.

It’s been days since Jack left his family to join the Continental Army. Rose and her son lead a normal life with the hope of knowing what happened to their relative. One day the most famous news of the moment surrounded the colonists ‘Shot Heard Round the World.’ This famous phrase represented the first shot in Concord that determined the beginning of the American Revolution. Years later an unfortunate news reached Rose’s ears. Jack was wounded in the last battle of Yorktown by a bullet and nothing could be done for him. He died within a few minutes but left a message to his wife and son that reminded them that it is always God who decides what happens to us and that justice will come sooner or later. This time justice favored the American colonists who not only won the Revolution against the British but also won the independence of their nation. Now it was time for Jack to meet his parents. And it was his son’s duty to secure his legend. His son Wilson and his wife Rose decided to honor Jack’s memory and opened a store that they named after his favorite and last phrase ‘finally justice’.

During Britain’s victory in the French & Indian War, the nation had collected a national debt that reached £130,000,000. The citizens discontent was revived during this period of time due to unfair treatment from British Parliament. Although The Stamp Act allowed England to fund recovery after the French and Indian war, it had also at the same time taken away from the citizens themselves. Outrage was immediate. Political organizations such as the secret Sons of Liberty, the Virginia legislature and other colonial assemblies had passed resolutions opposing The Stamp Act. When nine colonies had sent their representatives to New York to attend a Stamp Act Congress, regardless of their opposition, the Stamp Act was still put into place on November 1st of 1765. With the arrival of the stamp’s colonists began their pursuit of violence and economic retaliation. The Stamp Act pushed the American Revolution by allowing the colonists to see how British government was abusing its’ power. The stamp act allowed the colonies to unite over one common goal and ultimately over rule British government. When Bernard’s letters were found it increased the colonists belief that Britain had been abusing its power in order to benefit the crown as opposed to the colonists themselves.

“Francis Bernard, governor of colonial Massachusetts from 1760 to 1771, was a principal actor in the advent of the American Revolution.” Through the influence of his connections in the Colonial Office, Bernard was given the title governor of Massachusetts in late 1759. ”he undoubtedly owed his advancements in the colonies less to demonstrated merit than to the influence of his wife’s cousin, the second Viscount Barrington, who then served as Britain’s secretary at war,” Bernard proved himself to be a controversial figure. Those who challenged him in government accused him of´ aggressively pursuing customs violations to add to his own income. “ The letters dated from November 1 to December 5, 1768, severely censured the town of Boston and the Council for refusing to cooperate with Governor Bernard and General Gage in quartering the two regiments that had arrived. Bernard also strongly urged that the Massachusetts charter be altered to make the Council more dependent on the crown. People also believed that Bernard had purposefully misrepresented the political conditions to convince the authorities in England to send troops to the U.S. to support the way he was governing. At the end of his governorship, the Massachusetts House of Representatives signed for his recall. Bernard’s letters and other incidental papers provide insight into the personalities and controversies causing Boston to become hostile in the pre-Revolutionary period. “Francis Bernard, governor of Massachusetts from 1760 to 1769, was one of the most unpopular royal servants in America.” Bernard’s adversaries included some of the Revolution’s most venerated leaders, such as Otis’s friend Samuel Adams, the most influential of Boston’s popular politicians, and Samuel’s cousin John, a promising lawyer and future U.S. president. They and other patriots believed that the movement for American self-determination originated during Bernard’s administration of 1760-1771, when the colonists first campaigned against the reform of the trade laws and the introduction of parliamentary taxation.

Essentially, it began as a disagreement over the way Great Britain governed the colonies and the way the colonies thought they should be treated. Americans felt they deserved all the rights of Englishmen. The British, on the other hand, thought that the colonies were created to be used in ways that best suited the Crown and Parliament. This conflict is embodied in one of the rallying cries of the American Revolution: ‘No Taxation Without Representation.’ The geography of the colonies also contributed to the revolution. Their distance from Great Britain naturally created a sense of independence that was hard to overcome. Those willing to colonize the new world generally had a strong independent streak with a profound desire for new opportunities and more freedom. The existence of colonial legislatures meant that the colonies were in many ways independent of the crown. The legislatures were allowed to levy taxes, muster troops, and pass laws. Over time, these powers became rights in the eyes of many colonists. The British government had different ideas and attempted to curtail the powers of these newly elected bodies. There were numerous measures designed to ensure the colonial legislatures did not achieve autonomy, although many had nothing to do with the larger British Empire. In the minds of colonists, they were a matter of local concern. From these small, rebellious legislative bodies that represented the colonists, the future leaders of the United States were born. The French and Indian War led to considerable economic trouble for the British government. Its cost was significant, and the British were determined to make up for the lack of funds. They levied new taxes on the colonists and increased trade regulations. These actions were not well received by the colonists. New taxes were enforced, including the Sugar Act and the Currency Act, both in 1764. The Sugar Act increased already considerable taxes on molasses and restricted certain export goods to Britain alone. The Currency Act prohibited the printing of money in the colonies, making businesses rely more on the crippled British economy. Feeling underrepresented, overtaxed, and unable to engage in free trade, the colonists rallied to the slogan, ‘No Taxation Without Representation.’ This discontent became very apparent in 1773 with the events that later became known as the Boston Tea Party. The British government’s presence became increasingly more visible in the years leading to the revolution. British officials and soldiers were given more control over the colonists and this led to widespread corruption. Among the most glaring of these issues were the ‘Writs of Assistance.’ These were general search warrants that gave British soldiers the right to search and seize any property they deemed to be smuggled or illegal goods. Designed to assist the British in enforcing trade laws, these documents allowed British soldiers to enter, search, and seize warehouses, private homes, and ships whenever necessary. However, many abused this power. In 1761, Boston lawyer James Otis fought for the constitutional rights of the colonists in this matter but lost. The defeat only inflamed the level of defiance and ultimately led to the Fourth Amendment in the U.S. Constitution. The Third Amendment was also inspired by the overreach of the British government. Forcing colonists to house British soldiers in their homes infuriated the population. It was inconvenient and costly to the colonists, and many also found it a traumatic experience after events like the Boston Massacre in 1770. Trade and commerce were overly controlled, the British Army made its presence known, and the local colonial government was limited by a power far across the Atlantic Ocean. If these affronts to the colonists’ dignity were not enough to ignite the fires of rebellion, American colonists also had to endure a corrupt justice system. Political protests became a regular occurrence as these realities set in. In 1769, Alexander McDougall was imprisoned for libel when his work ‘To the Betrayed Inhabitants of the City and Colony of New York’ was published. His imprisonment and the Boston Massacre were just two infamous examples of the measures the British took to crack down on protesters. After six British soldiers were acquitted and two dishonorably discharged for the Boston Massacre—ironically enough, they were defended by John Adams—the British government changed the rules. From then on, officers accused of any offense in the colonies would be sent to England for trial. This meant that fewer witnesses would be on hand to give their accounts of events and it led to even fewer convictions. To make matters even worse, jury trials were replaced with verdicts and punishments handed down directly by colonial judges. Over time, the colonial authorities lost power over this as well because the judges were known to be chosen, paid, and supervised by the British government. The right to a fair trial by a jury of their peers was no longer possible for many colonists.

All of these grievances that colonists had with the British government led to the events of the American Revolution. And many of these grievances directly affected what the founding fathers wrote into the U.S. Constitution. These constitutional rights and principles reflect the hopes of the framers that the new American government would not subject their citizens to the same loss of freedoms that the colonists had experienced under Britain’s rule.

Compare and contrast the government, religion, geography, and economy of the three English colonial regions (the Chesapeake area, New England, and Pennsylvania). Be sure to consider the role of race, gender, and ethnicity.

The geography of New England was primarily rocky terrain making farming difficult. New England relied on alternative methods and practices for income such as whaling, fishing, hunting, trading animal skins(with Native Americans), and raising cattle. The New England area suffered from a lack of diversity with a very low population of slaves or immigrants. While in the Chesapeake area, the fertile lands required slaves and indentured servants for the labor-intensive duties of harvesting cotton and tobacco. New England’s limited diversity can be attributed to a dominant Purtain population and religious influence. The Puritans sought to keep diversity at a minimum and put the community as a whole over an individual regardless of class. Similarly, in Pennsylvania, the Quakers practiced a self-regulating government consisting of town meetings, unity, etc. However the religion that the Quakers practiced differed from Puritanism in New England, Quakers believed equality for both men and women. They also believed in religiously integrating the natives and creating a free and liberal society. Out of all of these various societies, the Virginian’s society in the Chesapeake area was the most different and unique. The society had a rather diverse English population, slaves, and immigrants ruled under the House of Burgesses(the royal government). The House of Burgesses was tasked with strictly maintaining English law, religion. They regarded the Native Americans as savages intruding on their land. The economic structure in the Chesapeake was similar to Pennsylvania and the Quakers in some aspects with the crops and fertile land along with their regulation of trade. The Quaker government would eventually be taken over by the Chesapeake people due to lack of strong leadership.

In what significant ways did the Great Awakening transform American life and thought?

The Great Awakening transformed American life and thought in many different ways but perhaps the most significant is the notion and concept that God created everyone equal and everyone deserves an opportunity. Various enlightenment leaders including John Locke helped instill a sense of self-worth and freedom which would eventually lead to revolution.The first step in this revolution would be the challenging of the church.The social structure at the time would be dramatically impacted and affected after the separation of church and state in the 1740s. Americans gradually began to oppose the authority and laws of the king. Americans rather created their own unique government with representatives to voice their thoughts and beliefs. Americans were able to gain a slight sense of independence and pride during this period of enlightenment.

What trends, events and beliefs allowed the English colonies to believe they should control their own economic, political and religious destiny?

The French and Indian War proved to be one of the first important events that allowed the English colonies to believe they should control themselves. The colonists believed that a king should not have strict order and rule over colonies thousands of miles away. The $145 million debt from the war, which would allow for more acts of taxation to be placed on the colonists, outraged them who fought on behalf of the British. In defiance of these outrageous taxes, the colonists began protesting and these protests were rather violent. These acts of rebellion and lack of cooperation with British rule allowed the Colonists to have a sense of strength, unity, and defense as they were already able to protect themselves during the absence of the British. Many of the colonists were now convinced that they could function independently without British rule if they could properly defend themselves. The path to revolution and freedom would soon become more clear than ever before.

In what ways was the French and Indian War (Seven Years War) a turning point for England and the colonists?

The French and Indian war was a turning point as it had soured relations between the Colonists and the British. The colonists had suffered thousands of casualties at the hands of a war they did not wish to fight. The hefty taxes also further escalated tensions and relations between the two, with the colonial economy in shambles and ruin. The colonial economy had begun to experience and suffer an economic depression which had severely impacted the coastal towns making items difficult to purchase. The taxes also took a toll on the poor and low-income workers who were unable to pay these taxes and were not able to financially support themselves. The treaty of Paris pushed back the natives beyond the Mississippi river making trading between colonies and natives impossible, trade was a fundamental part of the New England territories economies. While suffering through this economic depression the colonists why were they being punished for a war they won with their militia. The British, however, saw it another way they believed that the colonists desperately need their help to have a fighting chance of winning. The colonists after the war wanted to be independent of British rule so they could no longer suffer from the outrageous taxes and policies that had no relevance to the colonists.

Analyze how the American people made the shift from separating from an imperial system to creation of a republican form of government.

The colonists had been fed up and wanted nothing to do with the British monarchy and their imperial system which had inhibited their freedoms and liberty. They wanted a self regulating government that would govern on behalf of the people. The system of government revolved around serving on behalf of the people and voicing their opinions. The colonists attempted to limit government power through the articles of confederation which made those in office liable for their actions.This concept was rather risky because giving the people too much power would prevent the government from imposing taxes and other laws which would keep the government functioning. The colonists decided on a middle ground between an imperial system so that government could regularly function and a republic which would give a voice and liberty to the people.

Assess the effect of the American Revolution on slaves, Native Americans, and women.

Some slaves during the revolutionary war had escaped the hands of their abusive owners to have a chance at freedom and fight for the British. However this was not the case many slaves would end up just being transported to the even harsher sugar plantations in the West Indies and slaves who rebelled against the colonies were severely punished. However, by the end of the war thousands of slaves were able to escape the hands of slavery and create various free black settlements along Nova Scotia. As for the effect on Native Americans,the Iroquis,Oneida,and Tuscarora had suffered tremendous casualties and lost land after leading multiple offensives against the Colonists.The Native American tribes had been significantly weakened after these failed military campaigns,the colonists had not only treated them poorly but the British to.The war also had an impact on the attitudes of women who were no longer content with being shunned and excluded from politics. Women brought into question why their gender should have anything to do with limiting their freedoms or ability to participate in political affairs and were inspired to no longer sit back but take action. By the end of the war, some women were able to make public ties and fund soldiers by raising money. Women held an important role in society as they would be the ones raising the next generation and instructing html in the value of the republic pushing for a brighter future.

Explain why the Articles of Confederation were considered too weak for the fledgling republic. Be sure to explain specific events that exemplified these weaknesses.

There were multiple instances where the articles of confederation had shown their weakness the first sign was their inability to expand to new territories beyond the Mississippi River. The Natives after their multiple losses from fought from previous wars had now hated the colonists and would constantly be attacking the white settlers looking to settle on these new lands. The articles had also failed to properly defend the Colonists’ land an example would be in 1784 when Spain had closed part of the Mississippi which led into New Orleans and this cut of a vital route of transportation which devastated the colonial economy. Congress took no action and had to settle for a treaty that would give free passage to the Mississippi River and the Spanish would be allowed to trade with the colonists. Congress itself was rather weak and unstable being unable to pay off a $35 million debt they had to look abroad to borrow money. Congress also had a lack of power and authority, they were unable to tax the people and had to rely on the states’ verdict to collect or impose taxes. In 1781, Robert Morris had attempted to use paper money to gain off taxes, he requested $8 million from the states only $6.5 million came in. The federal government had annually collected $370k which was not substantial to maintain a fully functioning government. The war debt had led to inflation with many states not being able to pay off the taxes. The failures with the articles revolve around its inability to protect or expand territory while not giving enough power to congress.

Describe how the roots of the main provisions of the Constitution and the Bill of Rights are in the colonial experience under English rule as well as in the Articles of Confederation period.

Most colonists had already experienced and feared how Britain had absolute power over the colonies. The constitution had outlined in giving the central government, power over the states. Bloodworth was one of those individuals who showed heavy signs of concern for a central government because the states’ power would vanish along with the articles of confederation. Luther Martin during the constitutional convention showed strong support for the concept of state sovereignty and believed if anything threatened the power it would lead to another British monarchy. Federalists believed in a strong central government because under the articles of confederation congress was unable to handle the national debt and struggled with a weak military. The constitution outlines two houses where one for the people elected representatives and the other for those representatives suggested nominees that were voted on. This would create a system of checks and balances so that one branch of government could not abuse power. The Virginia plan established by congress was a form of representation and preferred a strong central government over the loosely sovereign state governments. Rough representation was needed from all states to provide an equal opportunity for states with less population to have an equal say in government. This lead to the ⅗ compromise which gave southern states representation based on the white population and ⅗ of the black population. These seemed to serve as the main concern during the drafting of the constitution.

French and Indian War 1754-1761

The French and Indian War was due to the long lasting conflict between France and Britain for power and territory. In 1755, general Edward Braddock led 1,400 British soldiers to Virginia to move the French from the Ohio Valley. The march ended up as being a disaster for the British soldiers because of the troops’ intensely colored red uniforms, which resulted in easy to spot and vulnerable to the Frenth and Indian allies. Washington, who had fought with the Britsih and nearly escaped death himself, led the people who survived back to Virginia and was praised as a hero. The French and Indian War lasted seven gruesome years. With a surprising twist, when British took over Canada. This led to Britain and France agreeing to sign a peace treaty in 1763, which meant France would give Canada to Great Britain. Americans enjoyed this success, with Britain now gaining an immense portion to be apart of the American empire.

Proclamation of 1763

After the French and Indian War, the British government endured many issues. The main issue was that Native Americans and colonists were killing each other due to settlers pushing upward to the west. The king made an order in his Proclamation of 1763 to fix this problem by drawing a line across the center of the Appalachian Mountains. This meant settlers had to stay on the east of the line while the Indian’s had to stay on the west side. American’s plead tyranny because farmers had trouble finding new land to settle on west of the mountains. The British government placed 7,500 men from the British Army on the frontier to keep the frontier safe from Native Americans and colonists crossing it.

Stamp Act

The British government suffered separate issues, including how to pay off the debt from the French and Indian War. So in 1765, Prime Minister George Grenville suggested the Stamp Act. The Stamp Act forced all colonists to buy a stamp with every piece of paper they bought. Colonists thought this was tyranny because the colonists had no representatives in Parliament. To them they thought they shouldn’t be taxed for that reason. Colonists protested the Stamp Act by deciding not to buy stamps. Patriots, on the other hand, terrorized tax collectors homes and even once began to bury one tax collector alive. Soon Enough the Parliament stopped the Stamps Act after months of protest.

Quartering Act

In 1765, the Parliament passed a new law called the Quartering Act . This law made colonial assemblies give British troops a place to live. Likewise, it is very expensive to provide for troops in your home. So, New Jersey protested saying that this law cost just as much as the Stamp Act. Of course, the soldiers stood there place and did nothing. This lead to, in 1767, The New York assembly deciding to not vote for any funds for salt, vinegar, and liquor. The British government did not let the assembly meet up until they decided to obey the Quartering Act.

Townshend Acts

Charles Townshend was the next leader to do the tough job of enforcing taxes. He believed he had to keep british troops in America due to colonists’ acting out. This of course angered the colonists because it meant they might have to face paying more taxes. And in 1767, Townshend got the Parliament to allow the Townshend Act, which put taxes on items including glass, paint, paper, and tea. The colonists’ anger increased after this Act had passed. Samule Adams, a Patriot who was also very upset about the Act as well, decided to write a letter to every single colony. The letter claimed that the duty breached the rights of colonists’ as British citizens. Colonists all decided to boycott these goods, which would hopefully help defend their rights. For the boycott, people avoided buying those items and made them themselves instead. Eventually in 1770, the Parliament dropped the taxes on all items except for tea. King George believed he still needed to place duties on the colonists.

The Boston Massacre

In Boston, an uproar occurred between the soldiers and colonists on the same day the Parliament was revoked. Five people were from Boston were dead and ten were hurt. Due to the incident, Britain sent four units of troops to keep Boston under control. The troops apparently did not stop the colonists from acting out one bit. Things greatly escalated when on March 5, 1770 a pack of colonists irked a troop of soldiers who were supervising the Boston Customs House. As a colonists attacked a guard, shots were fired by soldiers, killing colonists. Colonists thought that the British troops should be tried for murder. They also thought this incident should say that soldiers should be sent back to Britain. Adams said that the soldiers acted in self-defense. He defended the soldiers, even though he was most likely going to hurt his reputation.